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Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, GPS collars have emerged as powerful tools for the study of nonhuman primate (hereafter, "primate") movement ecology. As the size and cost of GPS collars have decreased and performance has improved, it is timely to review the use and success of GPS collar deployments on primates to date. Here we compile data on deployments and performance of GPS collars by brand and examine how these relate to characteristics of the primate species and field contexts in which they were deployed. The compiled results of 179 GPS collar deployments across 17 species by 16 research teams show these technologies can provide advantages, particularly in adding to the quality, quantity, and temporal span of data collection. However, aspects of this technology still require substantial improvement in order to make deployment on many primate species pragmatic economically. In particular, current limitations regarding battery lifespan relative to collar weight, the efficacy of remote drop-off mechanisms, and the ability to remotely retrieve data need to be addressed before the technology is likely to be widely adopted. Moreover, despite the increasing utility of GPS collars in the field, they remain substantially more expensive than VHF collars and tracking via handheld GPS units, and cost considerations of GPS collars may limit sample sizes and thereby the strength of inferences. Still, the overall high quality and quantity of data obtained, combined with the reduced need for on-the-ground tracking by field personnel, may help defray the high equipment cost. We argue that primatologists armed with the information in this review have much to gain from the recent, substantial improvements in GPS collar technology.
Supplementary resource (1)
... Since the 1990s, there has been increasing use of Global Position System (GPS) devices to quantify animal movement, which provide greater accuracy than older Very High Frequency (VHF) technology (Bunnefeld et al. 2011;Recio et al. 2011;Lanzone et al. 2012). However, even within advances in technology, some researchers have experienced difficulties with GPS collars (Matthews et al. 2013;Dore et al. 2020). ...
... Over the years, tracking collars have become more reasonably priced, lighter, and have better performance (Kays et al. 2015;Portugal et al. 2018;Batsleer et al. 2020;Dore et al. 2020; Katzner and Arlettaz 2020). Collection of higher-resolution data and advances in processing of big data (Hooten 2017;McMahon et al. 2017;Browning et al. 2018) have improved our ability to retrieve and analyse large and complex data (Kays et al. 2015;Foley et al. 2020;Katzner and Arlettaz 2020). ...
... Few studies have provided adequate details about the mechanism function, retention and release time of breakaway mechanisms (Evans 1996;Kochanny et al. 2009;Collins et al. 2014;Dore et al. 2020). The paucity of such knowledge makes it difficult to make an informed decision about the selection of break-away type for a given species. ...
Context One of the welfare and ethical challenges with tracking animals is ensuring that the tracking device is removed from the animal at the conclusion of the study. However, for animals that are not readily re-trapped, the impact of devices and alternatives for their retrieval are rarely examined. Aims We compared the retention time of two types of break-away mechanisms for tracking collars deployed on mainland quokkas (Setonix brachyurus). Methods We tested a cotton thread (CT) weak-link, where the collar was cut and then a looping stitch was made to link the cut ends of the collar. We compared collar retention time of this simple mechanism with a lightweight automatic micro timed-release device (mTRD, Sirtrack). Key results Of the 17 radio collars with CT, the fates of 15 collars contributed to retention time data. Seven collars released: six fell off and were recovered 148 ± 64 (s.d.) days after deployment and another collar fell off 136 days after deployment but could not be recovered. Eight quokkas were recaptured (161 ± 109 days after deployment) and collars removed. Two quokkas were each tracked for over a year but then disappeared. Of the 11 GPS collars fitted with a mTRD, the fates of nine collars contributed to retention time data. Two released early at 16 and 29 days and were recovered. Seven fell off around the scheduled release date. There were two unknown fates. Re-trapped collared quokkas did not show evidence of injuries from wearing collars or any significant change in body mass (P = 0.442). Conclusions The timing of release for the CT weak-link was unpredictable, with a third of the collars releasing within 1 year and 7/15 lasting only about 6 months. Over two-thirds (7/9) of the GPS collars fitted with timed-release device released on schedule while 2/9 released early. Implications Tracking devices equipped with break-away mechanisms are essential for safeguarding animal welfare outcomes for species where the chance of recapture is not certain. For both break-away types examined in this study, the release timing was unpredictable and poor collar recovery rates show the importance of adding camera traps to monitor the outcomes for collared animals.
... Methods should be given in detail and issues with technology or analysis outlined, rather than a cursory mention of the model used (Catalano et al., 2019;Trayford & Farmer, 2012). For example, it has been highlighted how little focus there is on the functionality of commonly used technology and approaches in primate conservation papers, despite frequent issues with these methods (Dore et al., 2020). Reviews do happen (Cunningham et al., 2015;Dore et al., 2020;Trayford & Farmer, 2012) but rely on full disclosure by researchers and practitioners. ...
... For example, it has been highlighted how little focus there is on the functionality of commonly used technology and approaches in primate conservation papers, despite frequent issues with these methods (Dore et al., 2020). Reviews do happen (Cunningham et al., 2015;Dore et al., 2020;Trayford & Farmer, 2012) but rely on full disclosure by researchers and practitioners. For example, the discussion of the failure of GPS collars to drop off in a study on the impact of tourist provisioning of long-tailed macaques (Hansen, 2019) contributed to a review of the efficacy of the use of these collars in primatology and the recommendation to use biodegradable weak links when using this technology (Dore et al., 2020). ...
... Reviews do happen (Cunningham et al., 2015;Dore et al., 2020;Trayford & Farmer, 2012) but rely on full disclosure by researchers and practitioners. For example, the discussion of the failure of GPS collars to drop off in a study on the impact of tourist provisioning of long-tailed macaques (Hansen, 2019) contributed to a review of the efficacy of the use of these collars in primatology and the recommendation to use biodegradable weak links when using this technology (Dore et al., 2020). This information is useful to researchers and practitioners, because it can form the basis of best-practice guidelines and improve outcomes for primate conservation more generally. ...
“Failure” is recognised as being vital for success in many fields but is seldom embraced in primate conservation or conservation more generally. In this paper, we use examples from the literature, particularly around reintroduction, to reflect on failure and consider the contribution it can make to primate conservation success. Barriers to acknowledging failure are highlighted and include concerns regarding reputational damage that impact on communication with funders, publishing, and discussing our projects more widely. We also discuss the need for a broader and adaptive approach to include multiple steps of experimentation, reflection, and subsequent learning. This process, which necessarily includes failures and the results of unintended consequences, will require primatologists to use a collaborative, interdisciplinary, and reflective approach to effectively address factors that contribute to failure, including those external to the traditional focus of primatologists. The paper concludes with specific recommendations for progressing in this area, including (i) Funding—funders to incorporate greater flexibility in response to project change and to specifically ask grantees to consider risk, failure, and lessons learnt, and funders and grantees to improve dialogue; (ii) Publishing—journals to have a section that considers failure and lessons learnt and, along with societies, to further engage with researchers from the Global South about the best ways to support with publishing; and (iii) Communication—primate conservationists to lead by example and reflect/discuss failure openly and to create spaces that encourage sharing of these topics. Whilst not exhaustive, we hope that these recommendations will contribute to developing a culture of constructive discussion around failure in primate conservation.
... Capturing and handling of wildlife is frequently needed for management and wildlife studies, and increasingly so as telemetry has become common, allowing long-term monitoring of individuals (Cagnacci et al. 2010;Dore et al. 2020). Live capture of wildlife involves inherent risk to the individual being captured including physical injury, stress responses, or mortality, which can affect research interpretation (Clinchy et al. 2001;McNew et al. 2007). ...
... The rise of telemetry for use in wildlife management and research has grown with the decline in cost and the increased ease of application (Dore et al. 2020). Our study provides insight on how telemetry data after immobilization can be interpreted and the reliability of the data provided immediately after capture in cougars. ...
Capturing and handling wildlife is a common practice for both management and research. As telemetry use has become common, the need to capture and chemically immobilize wildlife has increased. Understanding how long the effects of immobilizing agents last after releasing the animal is often poorly understood but needed to ensure that analyses use data that reflect natural behavior. Between 2016 and 2021, 87 cougars (Puma concolor) were chemically immobilized with medetomidine, zolazepam, and tiletamine (MZT) and collared across west-central Alberta, Canada, 27 of which were individuals being recollared. We examined the distance an individual traveled per day and compared equivalent periods before and after the recollaring event to determine whether postcapture movement rates were significantly different from precapture rates. Within 1 d of the recollaring, daily movement rates had returned to precapture rates (t20=2.09, P=0.18). Our results provide insight on how MZT used in cougars affects their postcapture movement and thus may be helpful in interpreting movement data after release.
... As a result, researchers can only obtain a limited number of fixes, from a few groups, thus limiting the strength of statistical analysis (Laver & Kelly, 2008). Advanced satellite tracking technology has revolutionized animal movement research (Dore et al., 2020;Kays et al., 2015). GPS collars enable automatic sampling of animal locations over extended periods, allowing for long-term simultaneous tracking. ...
... Fixes with a horizontal dilution of precision greater than 4 were excluded as they may not represent accurate location (Dore et al., 2020). Additionally, it is crucial to consider the impact of insufficient valid fixes, as they can lead to imprecise estimations of DPLs. ...
As a central topic in Behavioral Ecology, animal space use involves dynamic responses to social and ecological factors. We collared 22 rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta ) from six groups on Neilingding Island, China, and collected 80,625 hourly fixes over a year. Using this high‐resolution location data set, we quantified the macaques' space use at the individual level and tested the ecological constraints model while considering various environmental and human interfering factors. As predicted by the ecological constraints model, macaques in larger groups had longer daily path lengths (DPLs) and larger home ranges. We found an inverted U‐shape relationship between mean daily temperatures and DPLs, indicating that macaques traveled farther on mild temperature days, while they decreased DPLs when temperatures were too high or too low. Anthropogenic food subsidies were positively correlated to DPLs, while the effect of rainfall was negative. Macaques decreased their DPLs and core areas when more flowers and less leaves were available, suggesting that macaques shifted their space use patterns to adapt to the seasonal differences in food resources. By applying GPS collars on a large number of individuals living on a small island, we gained valuable insights into within‐group exploitation competition in wild rhesus macaques.
... Benjamini-Hochberg adjusted p value (i.e., false discovery rate): †p < 0.10; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. Effect size calculated using Cohen's d (shown in parentheses): +, small to middle effect (0.2-0.5); ++, middle to large effect (0.5-0.8); +++, extremely large effect (>0.8).Recent remote sensing techniques that use GPS collars can be powerful tools for collecting objective and accurate behavioral data(Dore et al., 2020) that can potentially apply to addiction-level assessments. However, there are some practical difficulties of in situ use for continuous monitoring, such as the high cost of introducing GPS collars (not only the device cost, but also the routine cost of capturing and handling animals;Hebblewhite & Haydon, 2010) and the limited battery lifespan of devices (average deployment length of related works targeted at primates is 26 weeks;Dore et al., 2020). ...
... Effect size calculated using Cohen's d (shown in parentheses): +, small to middle effect (0.2-0.5); ++, middle to large effect (0.5-0.8); +++, extremely large effect (>0.8).Recent remote sensing techniques that use GPS collars can be powerful tools for collecting objective and accurate behavioral data(Dore et al., 2020) that can potentially apply to addiction-level assessments. However, there are some practical difficulties of in situ use for continuous monitoring, such as the high cost of introducing GPS collars (not only the device cost, but also the routine cost of capturing and handling animals;Hebblewhite & Haydon, 2010) and the limited battery lifespan of devices (average deployment length of related works targeted at primates is 26 weeks;Dore et al., 2020). ...
Some nonhuman primate species, whose original habitats have been reclaimed by artificial activities, have acquired boldness toward humans which is evident based on the diminished frequency of escape behaviors. Eventually, such species have become regular users of human settlements, and are referred to as “urban primates.” Considering this, we developed a noninvasive technique based on bioacoustics to provide a transparent assessment of troop addiction levels in anthropogenic environments, which are determined by the dependence on agricultural crops and human living sphere for their diets and daily ranging, respectively. We attempted to quantify the addiction levels based on the boldness of troops when raiding settlements, characterized by a “landscape of fear” because of the presence of humans as predators. We hypothesized that the boldness of troops could be measured using two indices: the frequency of raiding events on settlements and the amount of time spent there. For hypothesis testing, we devised an efficient method to measure these two indices using sound cues (i.e., spontaneous calls) for tracing troop movements that are obtainable throughout the day from most primate species (e.g., contact calls). We conducted a feasibility study of this assessment procedure, targeting troops of Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata ). For this study, we collected 346 recording weeks of data using autonomous recorders from 24 troops with different addiction levels during the nonsnowy seasons. The results demonstrated that troops that reached the threshold level, at which radical interventions including mass culling of troop members is officially permitted, could be readily identified based on the following behavioral characteristics: troop members raiding settlements two or three times per week and mean time spent in settlements per raiding event exceeding 0.4 h. Thus, bioacoustic monitoring could become a valid option to ensure the objectivity of policy judgment in urban primate management.
... Home range and habitat use are important aspects of species ecology to understand species' behavioural modifications in changing urban mosaic landscapes. Radiotelemetry has dramatically improved, facilitating the detailed study of the behaviour and ecology of wild animals such as primates (Cagnacci et al. 2010;Dore et al. 2020). ...
... Our study used geospatial data and analysis tools to understand spatial-ecological factors of vervets to address human-wildlife interactions that influence the species across the urban forest mosaic landscape. Our study documented the home range and habitat use of vervet monkeys using Global Positioning System (GPS)-Ultra High Frequency (UHF) telemetry transmitters (Dore et al. 2020) in areas with varying degrees of human disturbance across the urban forest mosaic landscape. We also compared the habitat use of vervet monkey troops occurring in the north and south of the eThekwini Municipality. ...
Generally, urbanisation affects biodiversity negatively; however, some species thrive in urban areas. One mammalian species thriving in the urban forest mosaic landscape is the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), particularly in Durban, eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Vervet monkeys’ spatial use can provide important ecological information to understand their behavioural plasticity in an urban forest mosaic landscape. We, therefore, captured and collared vervet monkeys with Global Positioning System (GPS)-Ultra High Frequency (UHF) transmitters in two sites of varying degrees of urban and natural land-use types within eThekwini. Three home range methods Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP), Kernel Density Estimator (KDE), and Local Convex Hull (LoCoH) were used to determine individual home range size and core area use. Home range (30.7 ha 95% KDE) and core area (6.5 ha 50% KDE) estimates were relatively small for these vervet monkeys. Forest and thicket, and built-up habitat types were most used by vervet monkeys across the urban forest mosaic landscape. Overall, individuals in this study showed that the vervet monkeys, regardless of the environment, can successfully exist across the urban forest mosaic landscape. The spatial ecology of urban vervet monkeys provides valuable information for future education and management interventions, especially where there are negative human-monkey interactions amongst urban communities.
... A popular method to determine terrestrial animal movement uses global positioning system (GPS) technology, which enables long-term continuous spatial monitoring of wild animals without disturbing them (for reviews see [1,[2][3][4][5]). This approach has led to broad applications, including examination of home ranges [6,7], migratory routes [8][9][10], habitat use [11,12], resource allocation [13,14], activity budgets [15][16][17] as well as social interactions [18]. ...
... This approach has led to broad applications, including examination of home ranges [6,7], migratory routes [8][9][10], habitat use [11,12], resource allocation [13,14], activity budgets [15][16][17] as well as social interactions [18]. Since their inception, animalborne GPSs have reduced considerably in mass and size, while data storage capacity, battery longevity and affordability have improved [5,19,20]. Consequently, scientists can now track animals as small as ca 20 g songbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla) [21] at frequencies as high as 10 Hz (e.g. [22]), providing so much detail of animal movement that even animal behaviour can often be inferred [23][24][25]. ...
The combined use of global positioning system (GPS) technology and motion sensors within the discipline of movement ecology has increased over recent years. This is particularly the case for instrumented wildlife, with many studies now opting to record parameters at high (infra-second) sampling frequencies. However, the detail with which GPS loggers can elucidate fine-scale movement depends on the precision and accuracy of fixes, with accuracy being affected by signal reception. We hypothesized that animal behaviour was the main factor affecting fix inaccuracy, with inherent GPS positional noise (jitter) being most apparent during GPS fixes for non-moving locations, thereby producing disproportionate error during rest periods. A movement-verified filtering (MVF) protocol was constructed to compare GPS-derived speed data with dynamic body acceleration, to provide a computationally quick method for identifying genuine travelling movement. This method was tested on 11 free-ranging lions ( Panthera leo ) fitted with collar-mounted GPS units and tri-axial motion sensors recording at 1 and 40 Hz, respectively. The findings support the hypothesis and show that distance moved estimates were, on average, overestimated by greater than 80% prior to GPS screening. We present the conceptual and mathematical protocols for screening fix inaccuracy within high-resolution GPS datasets and demonstrate the importance that MVF has for avoiding inaccurate and biased estimates of movement.
... Many researchers have implemented GPS sensors for wildlife and livestock studies (Putfarken et al., 2008;Bailey et al., 2018;Rivero et al., 2021;Augustine et al., 2023). However, it has been observed that many projects that implemented GPS sensors for animal research were conducted without validating the accuracy of GPS positioning prior to the research (Dore et al., 2020;Brennan et al., 2021;McIntosh et al., 2022). Without testing the GPS in a specific environment, this brings valid concerns to GPS functions and data quality without knowing if the positioning accuracy is appropriate for certain applications. ...
The technical aspects of GPS sensors have been improved substantially over the years, making them valuable and popular tools for livestock tracking. Using GPS sensors allows producers and researchers to locate grazing livestock, monitor their behavior and distribution, and gather referencing information about the health status of the animals and pastures. However, interpreting the behavior of grazing livestock, such as cattle, from GPS data can be difficult due to positioning inaccuracies. Without knowing the positioning accuracy range of GPS sensors, achieving high-level confidence in determining grazing densities and identifying abnormal livestock movement patterns is challenging. In this study, the positioning accuracy of three different types of commercial GPS sensors was assessed using a survey-grade real-time kinematics (RTK) device. We outlined the procedures, essential equations and compared the recorded locations from the GPS sensors with reference locations collected from the RTK device. The results demonstrated statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in positioning accuracy between different types of GPS sensors. The circular error probable (CEP) at 95% probability levels (CEP95) of the three sensors ranged from 2.46 m to 11.06 m. This accuracy varied among individual sensors within the same brand and across different brands, which underscores the importance of evaluating positioning accuracy of GPS sensors in livestock tracking. This study provides significant insights for animal scientists, ecologists, and livestock producers engaged in GPS sensor-related research and practices.
... Nous avons testé quatre méthodes d'élimination des points aberrants, ou pics, sur l'ensemble des données de suivi. La première méthode, basée sur la définition de seuils biométriques, est une des plus couramment utilisées dans la littérature (Lewis et al., 2007 ;Dore et al., 2020 ;Fleming et al., 2021 ;Lombardi et al., 2022). La seconde, nommée dans ce document « Méthode du filtrage médian », a été développée par Bjørneraas et al. (2010). ...
The Raccoon, listed as an Invasive Alien Species, is expanding in France and represents a threat to native biodiversity. The aim of this thesis was to acquire the first knowledge of its spatial ecology and diet in France, in order to assess the potential impact of its presence on indigenous species. This work, carried out on the Northeast (Marne and Ardennes) and Gironde raccoon populations, highlighted the ecological flexibility of the species. GPS tracking of 14 individuals showed that raccoons from the Marne population had home ranges two to three times larger than those from Gironde population. Both populations exhibited an preference for woodlands, although the Marne individuals regularly visited anthropized areas, while those from Gironde preferred aquatic environments. Metabarcoding analysis of 200 faecal samples revealed that raccoons consumed a wide variety of foods. Plants were the most frequently eaten, followed by invertebrates and then vertebrates. The diet of the Gironde raccoons was dominated by crayfish, while those of the North-East consumed more earthworms and insects. Our results show that raccoons can have an impact on native species through spatial competition or predation. This work represents a preliminary scientific approach to guiding management strategies for this species in France, in order to minimize the negative impacts of the species on its new environment.
... Higher HDOP values can be translated as less positioning accuracy. Following previous studies we removed fixes with a HDOP value above five 27,31,32 . Third, the speed between each consecutive GPS fixes was calculated and in case speed was higher than 5.7 km/h, the corresponding fixes (the second fix of each pair) were removed. ...
Free-roaming domestic dogs (FRDD), as vectors of zoonotic diseases, are of high relevance for public health. Understanding roaming patterns of dogs can help to design disease control programs and disease transmission simulation models. Studies on GPS tracking of dogs report stark differences in recording periods. So far, there is no accepted number of days required to capture a representative home range (HR) of FRDD. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in HR size and shape over time of FRDD living in Chad, Guatemala, Indonesia and Uganda and identify the period required to capture stable HR values. Dogs were collared with GPS units, leading to a total of 46 datasets with, at least, 19 recorded days. For each animal and recorded day, HR sizes were estimated using the Biased Random Bridge method and percentages of daily change in size and shape calculated and taken as metrics. The analysis revealed that the required number of days differed substantially between individuals, isopleths, and countries, with the extended HR (95% isopleth value) requiring a longer recording period. To reach a stable HR size and shape values for 75% of the dogs, 26 and 21 days, respectively, were sufficient. However, certain dogs required more extended observational periods.
... To estimate the home ranges of habituated groups or individuals, primatologists often gather location data via handheld GPS devices (e.g., ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), Axel & Maurer, 2011; white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus imitator), Campos et al., 2014; Bornean southern gibbons (Hylobates albibarbis), Cheyne et al., 2019; Phayre's leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus phayrei), Gibson & Koenig, 2012; brown capuchins (Cebus apella), Hirsch et al., 2013;bonobos (Pan paniscus), McLester & Fruth, 2023;capuchins (Cebus sp.) and bearded sakis (Chiropotes satanas), Phillips et al., 1998;chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Potts et al., 2011; blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis), Roberts & Cords, 2015; mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), Seiler & Robbins, 2020). These devices can be integrated easily into established data collection protocols (Brown & Crofoot, 2013) and provide a noninvasive means of tracking habituated animals in contrast to animalborne tracking devices that require capture (e.g., VHF and GPS collars; Dore et al., 2020). The longitudinal datasets generated by using handheld GPS devices hold significant potential, as they may span multiple decades and have corresponding data on demography, behavior, and environmental variables (Campos et al., 2014;Gibson & Koenig, 2012;Irwin & Raharison, 2021;Seiler & Robbins, 2020). ...
Understanding the amount of space required by animals to fulfill their biological needs is essential for comprehending their behavior, their ecological role within their community, and for effective conservation planning and resource management. The space-use patterns of habituated primates often are studied by using handheld GPS devices, which provide detailed movement information that can link patterns of ranging and space-use to the behavioral decisions that generate these patterns. However, these data may not accurately represent an animal’s total movements, posing challenges when the desired inference is at the home range scale. To address this problem, we used a 13-year dataset from 11 groups of white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus imitator) to examine the impact of sampling elements, such as sample size, regularity, and temporal coverage, on home range estimation accuracy. We found that accurate home range estimation is feasible with relatively small absolute sample sizes and irregular sampling, as long as the data are collected over extended time periods. Also, concentrated sampling can lead to bias and overconfidence due to uncaptured variations in space use and underlying movement behaviors. Sampling protocols relying on handheld GPS for home range estimation are improved by maximizing independent location data distributed across time periods much longer than the target species’ home range crossing timescale.
... Higher HDOP values can be translated as less positioning accuracy. Following previous studies we removed xes with a HDOP value above ve 27,31,32 . Third, the speed between each consecutive GPS xes was calculated and in case speed was higher than 5.7 km/h, the corresponding xes (the second x of each pair) were removed. ...
Free-roaming domestic dogs (FRDD), as vectors of zoonotic diseases, are of high relevance for public health. Understanding roaming patterns of dogs can help to design disease control programs and disease transmission simulation models. Studies on GPS tracking of dogs report starkly differences in recording periods. So far, there is no accepted number of days required to capture a representative home range (HR) of FRDD. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in HR size and shape over time of FRDD living in Chad, Guatemala, Indonesia and Uganda and identify the period required to capture stable HR values. Dogs were collared with GPS units, leading to a total of 46 datasets with a minimum of 19 recorded days. For each animal and recorded day, HR sizes were estimated and percentages of daily change in size and shape calculated and taken as metrics.
The analysis revealed that the required number of days differed substantially between individuals, isopleths and countries, with the extended HR requiring a longer recording period. To reach stable HR size and shape values for 75% of the dogs 26 and 21 days, respectively, seemed to be enough. However, certain dogs required more extended observational periods.
... Individual detection, tracking and recognition using deep learning can be used to measure patterns of association and social networks at high frame rates . Automated micro-sensing technologies such as animal-borne radio frequency identification tags (Firth & Sheldon, 2016;Gelardi et al., 2020), proximity loggers (St Clair et al., 2015) and GPS trackers (Strandburg-Peshkin et al., 2015) can track animal behaviour at high resolution and accuracy, but require individual animals to be fitted with devices, which introduces logistical and ethical challenges that can be prohibitively invasive for some species such as chimpanzees (Dore et al., 2020). The use of deep learning for individual identification (Chen et al., 2020; can efficiently generate sociality information for a wider array of species that are difficult to observe in situ or cannot be tagged or tracked using biologgers. ...
Longitudinal video archives of behaviour are crucial for examining how sociality shifts over the lifespan in wild animals. New approaches adopting computer vision technology hold serious potential to capture interactions and associations between individuals in video at large scale; however, such approaches need a priori validation, as methods of sampling and defining edges for social networks can substantially impact results.
Here, we apply a deep learning face recognition model to generate association networks of wild chimpanzees using 17 years of a video archive from Bossou, Guinea. Using 7 million detections from 100 h of video footage, we examined how varying the size of fixed temporal windows (i.e. aggregation rates) for defining edges impact individual‐level gregariousness scores.
The highest and lowest aggregation rates produced divergent values, indicating that different rates of aggregation capture different association patterns. To avoid any potential bias from false positives and negatives from automated detection, an intermediate aggregation rate should be used to reduce error across multiple variables. Individual‐level network‐derived traits were highly repeatable, indicating strong inter‐individual variation in association patterns across years and highlighting the reliability of the method to capture consistent individual‐level patterns of sociality over time. We found no reliable effects of age and sex on social behaviour and despite a significant drop in population size over the study period, individual estimates of gregariousness remained stable over time.
We believe that our automated framework will be of broad utility to ethology and conservation, enabling the investigation of animal social behaviour from video footage at large scale, low cost and high reproducibility. We explore the implications of our findings for understanding variation in sociality patterns in wild ape populations. Furthermore, we examine the trade‐offs involved in using face recognition technology to generate social networks and sociality measures. Finally, we outline the steps for the broader deployment of this technology for analysis of large‐scale datasets in ecology and evolution.
... Deploying collars requires ethical [128], logistical (e.g. deployment, collar failure) and financial considerations [129], whereas traditional observations can be conducted with minimal interference and at low cost. Moreover, depending on the objectives of the study, direct observations may be preferable if the aim is to reconstruct entire social networks, as collar data is limited to the number of collared individuals. ...
Quantification of activity budgets is pivotal for understanding how animals respond to changes in their environment. Social grooming is a key activity that underpins various social processes with consequences for health and fitness. Traditional methods use direct (focal) observations to calculate grooming rates, providing systematic but sparse data. Accelerometers, in contrast, can quantify activity budgets continuously but have not been used to quantify social grooming. We test whether grooming can be accurately identified using machine learning (random forest model) trained on labelled acceleration data from wild chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). We successfully identified giving and receiving grooming with high precision (81% and 91%) and recall (87% and 79%). Giving grooming was associated with a distinct rhythmical signal along the surge axis. Receiving grooming had similar acceleration signals to resting, and thus was more difficult to assign. We applied our machine learning model to n = 680 collar data days from n = 12 baboons and found that grooming rates obtained from accelerometers were significantly and positively correlated with direct observation rates for giving but not receiving grooming. The ability to collect continuous grooming data in wild populations will allow researchers to re-examine and expand upon long-standing questions regarding the formation and function of grooming bonds.
... Such observations on free-ranging groups may therefore need to be preceded by individual habituation and identification (Kappeler and Watts 2012). Although modern tracking methods using high-precision Global Positioning System (Dore et al. 2020;Strandburg-Peshkin et al. 2015) or Bluetooth beacons (Morita et al. 2021) may be helpful, these methods are costly and difficult to implement in newly established field sites. It is usually difficult to quickly identify the social structure of newly observed populations in the field. ...
Inferring the latent structures of social organisations is a central theme in animal ecology. Sophisticated theoretical frameworks underpin the study of various primate social systems. Single-file movements, defined as serially ordered patterns of animals, reflect intra-group social relationships and provide a key to understanding social structures. Here, we analysed automated camera-trapping data on the order of progression of single-file movements in a free-ranging group of stump-tailed macaques to estimate the social structure of the group. The sequence of single file movements showed some regularities, particularly for adult males. Social network analysis identified four community clusters (subgroups) corresponding to the social structures reported for these stumptailed macaques, i.e. males that had copulated more frequently with females were spatially clustered with females, but males that had copulated less frequently were spatially isolated from females. Our results suggest that stumptailed macaques move in regular, socially determined patterns that reflect the spatial positions of adult males and are related to the social organisation of the species.
... While there is a long history of telemetry in primatology (e.g. Bearder and Martin 1980;Campbell and Sussman 1994;Honess and Macdonald 2011), these recent advances mean that the technology is no longer restricted to larger species living in open savannahs like baboons (Markham et al. 2016) and can be used on small-bodied, arboreal, cryptic, or nocturnal species (Blackie 2010;Recio et al. 2011;Forin-Wiart et al. 2015;Dore et al. 2020). ...
Green monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus) have been a “pest” species on the Caribbean island of St. Kitts for hundreds of years, and data on their abundance are crucial to inform effective management strategies. To estimate population size, we present the first use of radio telemetry tracking technology combined with home range estimation and habitat analysis. We use detailed tracking information collected from 10 monkeys from nine different troops in four different biotic areas. For each tracked animal, bootstrapped Brownian bridge home range estimates were calculated from GPS positional data (90% with replacement) to quantify space use by troops. The home range area estimates for the different biotic areas were used to estimate the total troop number across the whole island based on land use cover. We modelled an estimate of population size accounting for variation in space use by troops, variation in troop number by biotic area, and uncertainty around number of individuals in a troop. Our results, which we will continue to refine with additional data, show that the 174 km² island is home to between 690 and 929 monkey troops, or between 22,000 and 37,000 green monkeys.
... So far, most studies have only confirmed that human disturbance has a significant impact on wildlife movement [3], but have not pointed out how human disturbance affects it. In addition, previous studies on wildlife movement behaviors have generally focused on mammals [2,3,[16][17][18], and fewer studies have paid attention to birds such as galliforms [19]. As a component of the ecosystem, galliforms play an important role in maintaining ecosystem stability, and can be regarded as an effective indicator of local forest quality and conservation status [20]. ...
Human disturbance has a strong impact on the movement of wild animals. However, it remains unclear how the movement patterns of the Reeves's Pheasant (Syrmaticus reevesii) respond to human disturbance in human-dominated landscapes. We tracked the movement of 40 adult individual Reeves's Pheasants during the breeding season, and used the dynamic Brownian bridge motion model and kernel density estimation to analyze the diurnal movement patterns of Reeves's Pheasants and their response to human presence. We analyzed the paths of Reeves's Pheasants based on a partial least squares path model, considering habitat conditions, body characteristics, and reproductive behaviors. We found that males had two clear diurnal movement peaks, whereas reproductive and non-reproductive females did not show such movement peaks. Males shifted their movement peaks to earlier times in the day to avoid the presence peaks of humans. The correlation between human-modified habitat and the movement intensity of Reeves's Pheasant differed between sexes. For males, the distance to forest paths had a positive correlation with their movement intensity through affecting body conditions. For females, the distance to forest paths and farmland had a negative correlation with their movement intensity through affecting habitat conditions and reproductive behaviors. Our study provides a scientific basis for the protection of the Reeves's Pheasant and other related terrestrial forest-dwelling birds.
... Researchers who observe primate behavior in the wild investigate what strategies primates use to exploit the spatial and temporal variation in the availability, distribution, and productivity of resources in their environment in an efficient, reliable, and safe way. There have been substantial advances in recent years, enabled by new technology used for recording primate movement data, such as drones, thermal cameras, and GPS tracking (19)(20)(21), as well as the development of statistical and modeling tools for analyzing movement data to reveal signatures of cognitive processes (13,(22)(23)(24)(25). Questions concern how and why travel paths become "routes" (26)(27)(28) and what travel efficiency reveals about an individual's motivations, their memory, and the nature of their cognitive map (7,10,29,30). Other questions concern how travel decisions are formed and specifically how ecological variables such as annual and seasonal patterns of resource availability (31), clustering of resources (9,13), and inter-and intraspecies competition over the same resources (32,33) influence these decisions. ...
Almost all animals navigate their environment to find food, shelter, and mates. Spatial cognition of nonhuman primates in large-scale environments is notoriously difficult to study. Field research is ecologically valid, but controlling confounding variables can be difficult. Captive research enables experimental control, but space restrictions can limit generalizability. Virtual reality technology combines the best of both worlds by creating large-scale, controllable environments. We presented six chimpanzees with a seminaturalistic virtual environment, using a custom touch screen application. The chimpanzees exhibited signature behaviors reminiscent of real-life navigation: They learned to approach a landmark associated with the presence of fruit, improving efficiency over time; they located this landmark from novel starting locations and approached a different landmark when necessary. We conclude that virtual environments can allow for standardized testing with higher ecological validity than traditional tests in captivity and harbor great potential to contribute to longstanding questions in primate navigation, e.g., the use of landmarks, Euclidean maps, or spatial frames of reference.
... The application of telemetry in animals presents difficulties, mainly related to (i) weight distribution; (ii) autonomy; (iii) flexibility in design; and (iv) cost of the devices. These problems have become apparent from the analysis of three types of sources: scientific publications referring to the physical design of animal telemetry devices [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]; scientific publications referring to the evaluation of animal telemetry [13,[25][26][27] as well as commercial solutions currently available [28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]. ...
Animal telemetry is a subject of great potential and scientific interest, but it shows design-dependent problems related to price, flexibility and customization, autonomy, integration of elements, and structural design. The objective of this paper is to provide solutions, from the application of design, to cover the niches that we discovered by reviewing the scientific literature and studying the market. The design process followed to achieve the objective involved a development based on methodologies and basic design approaches focused on the human experience and also that of the animal. We present a modular collar that distributes electronic components in several compartments, connected, and powered by batteries that are wirelessly recharged. Its manufacture is based on 3D printing, something that facilitates immediacy in adaptation and economic affordability. The modularity presented by the proposal allows for adapting the size of the modules to the components they house as well as selecting which specific modules are needed in a project. The homogeneous weight distribution is transferred to the comfort of the animal and allows for a better integration of the elements of the collar. This device substantially improves the current offer of telemetry devices for farming animals, thanks to an animal-centered design process.
... For an instance, we can track movements of individual free-ranging animals using high-resolution global positioning satelites (GPS). The collected data can be used to study patterns in group movement, decision making, and ecological mechanisms behind them (Dore et al., 2020;Fehlmann and King, 2016;Nagy et al., 2010;Nagy et al., 2013;Spiegel et al., 2017;Strandburg-Peshkin et al., 2015). Biologging data are systematic, fine-grained, and large-scale as compared to traditional ecological observations. ...
One of the goals in animal socioecology is to understand the functions and dynamics of group living. While observations of free-ranging animals are a crucial source of information, an experimental investigation that manipulates the size or composition, or both, of animal groups in captivity can also bring complementary contributions to the research inquiry. When paired with an automatic data collection by biologging technology, experimental studies on captive animals also allow for big data analyses based on recent machine learning techniques. As an initial exploration of this research paradigm, the present study inquired to what extent isolation of captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) changed their movement patterns. Using three-dimensional location trajectories of the macaques that were systematically collected via Bluetooth Low Energy beacons and a deep neural network, we estimated the identifiability of whether a macaque was behaving in isolation or in group. We found that the neural network identified the isolation vs. in-group conditions with more than 90% accuracy from a five-minute location trajectory, suggesting that the isolation caused notable changes from the canonical group-living behaviors. In addition, the isolation made each individual more identifiable from one another based on their location trajectories.
... However, most studies would benefit from estimators that reasonably fit and are suitable for their data (Cumming and Cornélis 2012;Walter et al. 2015). Researchers investigating nonhuman primates often have access to large datasets of highly autocorrelated GPS data (Pebsworth et al. 2012;Cheyne et al. 2019;Albani et al. 2020;Dore et al. 2020). Using such a dataset, we showed that KDE and BRB produced estimates similar to each other in terms of isopleth area and shape (see Fig. 2, Table 1, and Figs. ...
Ranging behavior has been studied extensively in eastern (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) and western (P. t. verus) chimpanzees, but relatively little is known regarding home ranges of the other two subspecies (P. t. ellioti; P. t. troglodytes). In this study, we determined the home range size and space use of a habituated community (Rekambo) of central chimpanzees living in a habitat mosaic in Loango National Park, Gabon. Data on travel routes were collected during follows between January 2017 and April 2019 (N = 670,616 relocations, collected over 640 days and 5690 h of observation). We used three methods for calculating home range size (minimum convex polygon, kernel density estimation, and biased random bridges). We compare our estimates to those obtained from prior genetic and camera trap studies of the Rekambo community and contrast them with estimates from other chimpanzee communities of the four chimpanzee subspecies. Depending on the methodology used, the home range size of the Rekambo community ranged between 27.64 and 59.03 km2. The location of the center of the home range remained relatively stable over the last decade, while the overall size decreased. The Rekambo home range is, therefore, one of the largest documented so far for chimpanzees outside savannah-woodland habitats. We discuss several explanations, including the presence of savannah, interspecies competition, and intercommunity interactions.
... Radio or satellite collars can be used to document survival and space use, and technology also allows for collars to provide data on behavior and environmental conditions. Data collection via collars, however, is limited for fine-scale local conditions (Schauber et al. 2007, Dore et al. 2020. Previous studies have monitored early life survival by attaching radio collars to neonates (Valkenburg et al. 2004); however, capture and collaring of newborn ungulates can have negative impacts on their survival (Swenson et al. 1999, Venturato et al. 2009, Rasiulis et al. 2014). ...
Monitoring survival of juveniles in wild populations of vertebrates is challenging because capture and marking of neonates may influence survival and induce biases. Camera collars have proven effective in resource and habitat selection studies, but their effectiveness to assess offspring survival is unknown. Our objective was to monitor the survival of neonates using camera collars installed on 24 preparturient female migratory caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) of the Rivière‐aux‐Feuilles herd, from 2016 to 2018, in Nunavik, Canada. Females were captured with a net gun fired from a helicopter and pregnancy was confirmed by ultrasound. Cameras recorded a 10‐second video every 20 min from 1 June until 1 September 2017, when the collar detached automatically. We used Cormack‐Jolly‐Seber models to assess survival and resighting probabilities of calves based on their observation in the videos. Three collars failed, recording less than 30% of the expected videos, including one on a female that did not give birth. Among the 21 females wearing a functional collar, one gave birth to a stillborn calf. We analyzed 25,820 videos recorded from 20 collars. Calf sightings in videos were less frequent as the monitoring period advanced, but we estimated the probability of observing a live calf at 0.77 (SE = 0.42) over the sampling period. Videos indicated a survival rate of 0.67 (SE = 0.11) from birth to 1 September. Our results suggest that camera collars installed on adult females can be used to reliably assess offspring survival, and thus improve our understanding of caribou population dynamics. The application of camera collars should be useful for other large vertebrate species for which the assessment of neonate survival is lacking or difficult to obtain. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.
... This includes species whose social activities are not yet well known. Location information has become more reliable and scalable thanks to recent developments in biologging technology, such as GPS (Dore et al., 2020;Fehlmann & King, 2016;Gelardi et al., 2020;Heupel et al., 2006;King et al., 2018;Rutz et al., 2012;Rutz & Hays, 2009). However, naively measuring the Euclidean distance between individuals and treating pairs with a smaller distance as socially related is not necessarily reasonable. ...
Social network analysis, which has been widely adopted in animal studies over the past decade, enables the revelation of global characteristic patterns of animal social systems from pairwise inter‐individual relations. Animal social networks are typically drawn based on the geometric proximity and/or frequency of social behaviours (e.g. grooming), but the appropriate metric for inter‐individual relationship is not clear, especially when prior knowledge on the species/data is limited.
In this study, researchers explored a nonparametric analysis of inter‐individual relations using a neural network with the attention mechanism, which plays a central role in natural language processing. The high interpretability of the attention mechanism and flexibility of the entire neural network allow for automatic detection of inter‐individual relations included in the raw data, without requiring prior knowledge/assumptions about what modes/types of relations are included in the data. For these case studies, three‐dimensional location data collected from simulated agents and real Japanese macaques were analysed.
The proposed method successfully recovered the latent relations behind the simulated data and discovered female‐oriented relations in the real data, which are in accordance with the previous generalizations about the macaque social structure.
The proposed method does not exploit any behavioural patterns that are particular to Japanese macaques, and researchers can use it for location data of other animals. The flexibility of the neural network would also allow for its application to a wide variety of data with interacting components, such as vocal communication.
... Biolog data are systematic, fine-grained, and large-scale compared to traditional ecological observations. Therefore, they are ideal for machine learning-based and other data-scientific analyses [9][10][11]. Besides measuring the extent of overall behavioral changes upon isolation, we also investigated whether isolation intensifies or diminishes the macaques' individuality reflected in their movement, performing individual recognition based on the location trajectories [12]. ...
One of the goals in animal socioecology is to understand the functions and dynamics of group living. While observations of free-ranging animals are a crucial source of information, an experimental investigation that manipulates the size or composition, or both, of animal groups in captivity can also bring complementary contributions to the research inquiry. When paired with an automatic data collection by biologging technology, experimental studies on captive animals also allow for big data analyses based on recent machine learning techniques. As an initial exploration of this research paradigm, the present study inquired to what extent isolation of captive Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata ) changed their movement patterns. Using three-dimensional location trajectories of the macaques that were systematically collected via Bluetooth Low Energy beacons and a deep neural network, we estimated the identifiability of whether a macaque was behaving in isolation or in group. We found that the neural network identified the isolation vs. in-group conditions with more than 90% accuracy from a five-minute location trajectory, suggesting that the isolation caused notable changes from the canonical group-living behaviors. In addition, the isolation made each individual more identifiable from one another based on their location trajectories.
... GPS-collar functionality was low, and so was remote drop-off abilities. We strongly recommend rigorous testing of small size collars before deployment in difficult assessable freeranging animals (Dore et al., 2020). GPS-collars must weigh below 5% of the animal body weight (Sikes, 2016), our GPS-collar:animal weight mean was 1.57% ± 0.25. ...
The effect of food provisioning on ranging patterns of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in non- anthropogenic areas is largely unknown, as most published studies have focused on urban macaques. In this study, we quantified habitat selection, daily path length and home range size in long-tailed macaques in Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia, comparing a non-provisioned to a provisioned group. To track the groups, we deployed six GPS-collars on females in both groups, of which only two collected data. Home range size (90% Auto-correlated Kernel Density Estimate) was 23 times smaller for the provisioned group (10.62 ha) than the non-provisioned group (249.90 ha). Home range size and area changed from dry to wet season for the non-provisioned group. Provisioned group home range size correlated negatively with number of visitors in the national park. Daily path length was significantly higher for the non- provisioned group. The provisioned group preferred settlements, where most of the provisioning occurred, and avoided areas with invasive acacia (Acacia nilotica). The non-provisioned group also avoid- ed invasive acacia, preferred secondary forest in the dry season and restored savannah in the wet season. Food provisioning can affect macaque spatial ecology, by shaping daily travel length and home range size, and changing patterns of habitat selection. Even tourism in a managed national park, where provisioning is strictly prohibited although not always enforced, has significant consequences for animal behaviour and their natural ecosystems.
Natal dispersal, the movement of individuals from their birthplace to new areas in which they may breed, is an important aspect of life history that influences processes at the level of the individual, group, and population. This chapter takes a holistic approach by reviewing what is known about the entire process of dispersal in owl monkeys, from when and why they leave their natal group to what they do and where they go after dispersing. It also examines how dispersal patterns can inform our understanding of the evolution and maintenance of owl monkeys’ social organization, mating system, and parental care. While owl monkey dispersal strategies are highly variable, we identify some important common patterns. All individuals, both male and female, disperse prior to reproducing. Individuals also often “prospect” prior to permanently dispersing, and almost always spend some time as solitary floaters. While dispersed solitaries may occasionally engage in prosocial interactions, they typically face aggression from adults in established groups. Currently, nearly everything known about owl monkey dispersal comes from a population of Azara’s owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) in Formosa, Argentina. Expanding studies to other sites and Aotus species will generate a more multifaceted understanding of dispersal in pair-living primates.
À l’ombre du feuillage dense de la forêt tropicale d’Afrique centrale, un gorille de l’Ouest (Gorilla gorilla) passe presque le tiers de sa journée à manger. Chaque jour, il a besoin de plus de 5 000 kcal et parcourt plusieurs kilomètres pour trouver sa nourriture en quantité suffisante. De l’efficacité de sa recherche peut ainsi dépendre sa valeur sélective. Si la sélection naturelle a donc pu jouer sur les capacités facilitant la digestion et la perception des ressources, ou la locomotion, elle a aussi pu influencer la capacité de ce grand singe à traiter, mémoriser et réutiliser un savoir de long terme permettant de connaître quand et où se trouve quelle ressource. Cette thèse propose de mieux comprendre l’implication de la cognition dans la recherche de nourriture chez le gorille de l’Ouest, et plus largement chez les primates. Nous comblons d’abord un vide théorique et illustrons par jeu de simulations agent-centrées comment une mémoire temporelle permet d’améliorer l’efficacité de la recherche de nourriture dans un environnement variable mais prédictible, comme la forêt tropicale et saisonnière où vivent les gorilles de l'Ouest. Par suite, nous prenons appui sur un suivi de long terme de cinq groupes de gorilles de l’Ouest d’Afrique centrale, habitués à la présence humaine, ainsi que sur un inventaire botanique et phénologique de leurs ressources alimentaires afin de montrer l’existence d’une mémoire spatio-temporelle. Pour ce faire, nous nous concentrons sur deux comportements : la restriction du déplacement au sein d’un domaine vital et les choix alimentaires effectués. Par suite, nous mettons en exergue une partie des mécanismes cognitifs spatiaux sous-jacents aux déplacements en nous focalisant sur l’utilisation par les gorilles de marécages largement dispersés mais aux ressources uniques et essentielles, et celle d’un réseau de sentiers d’éléphants de forêt. Ces études soulignent l’existence d’une mémoire spatiale précise jusqu’à de larges échelles, avec un encodage topologique de l’information. Nous montrons ensuite comment le savoir spatio-temporel est utilisé et insensible aux variations des ressources par analyse des patrons de déplacement et de revisite aux sites d’alimentation. Pour finir, nous élargissons notre champ de vision à travers plusieurs études multi-espèces se dessinant autour (a) d’une approche expérimentale, afin de relier stratégie de recherche alimentaire, cognition et degré de frugivorie chez les primates; (b) d’une revue d’opinion proposant une méthodologie standardisée pour comparer la cognition liée au déplacement des primates en milieu sauvage; (c) d’une approche phylogénétique, afin de comprendre l’influence de la sympatrie entre primates frugivores sur l’histoire évolutive de leur cognition et leur diversification. Cette thèse contribue ainsi à lever le voile sur les mécanismes proximaux et ultimes façonnant les stratégies de recherche de nourriture et les capacités cognitives chez les primates.
Understanding social organization is fundamental for the analysis of animal societies. In this study, animal single-file movement data—serialized order movements generated by simple bottom-up rules of collective movements—are informative and effective observations for the reconstruction of animal social structures using agent-based models. For simulation, artificial 2-dimensional spatial distributions were prepared with the simple assumption of clustered structures of a group. Animals in the group are either independent or dependent agents. Independent agents distribute spatially independently each one another, while dependent agents distribute depending on the distribution of independent agents. Artificial agent spatial distributions aim to represent clustered structures of agent locations—a coupling of “core” or “keystone” subjects and “subordinate” or “follower” subjects. Collective movements were simulated following two simple rules, 1) initiators of the movement are randomly chosen, and 2) the next moving agent is always the nearest neighbor of the last moving agents, generating “single-file movement” data. Finally, social networks were visualized, and clustered structures reconstructed using a recent major social network analysis (SNA) algorithm, the Louvain algorithm, for rapid unfolding of communities in large networks. Simulations revealed possible reconstruction of clustered social structures using relatively minor observations of single-file movement, suggesting possible application of single-file movement observations for SNA use in field investigations of wild animals.
Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) are Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Information regarding their distribution, abundance, and ecology is lacking in all habitat countries, yet governments continue to implement management initiatives to reduce human-macaque conflicts without concern for the consequences for long-tailed macaque populations. To reduce our knowledge gap on ecological consequences of human provisioning of long-tailed macaques, we conducted research on a synanthropic long-tailed macaque population in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. We investigated the distribution, abundance and density using line transect distance sampling and SDM habitat suitability. We compared the ranging patterns of a provisioned and a non-provisioned long-tailed macaque group through GPS-collaring, and subsequent AKDE home range and habitat selection analysis. Finally, we assessed human-macaque interactions through focal animal sampling and behavioural sampling observations in the provisioned group. We also investigated the Javan lutung (Trachypithecus auratus) population status. Results from our population survey showed that long-tailed macaques were drawn to roads and trails, where provisioning occurred, and that the population density across the park was only 41individuals/km2. Lutungs were present in more habitats than long-tailed macaques. We discovered a 25% co-occurrence of lutung and macaques throughout the park, and poly-specific associations between the two. Our ranging analysis showed that the home range of the provisioned group of long-tailed macaques was 23 times smaller than that of the non-provisioned group. We also found that the home range of the provisioned group decreased even further with increasing number of visitors. Most often humans initiated the human-macaque interactions, and both female and male macaques interacted more than expected. We encourage BNP management to focus more on human management than macaque management. We also encourage them to investigate intentions behind human behaviours towards the macaques before implementing management initiatives. We encourage researchers and conservation practitioners working in long-tailed macaque habitat countries to consider our results and conduct similar research on long-tailed macaque populations including ethnography before implementing management measures.
Space requirements are essential to assess population ecology especially for endangered species. The goal of this study was to estimate home range size and daily traveled distances (DTD) of two groups of woolly monkeys using two different sampling methods: direct observations of focal animals using handheld GPS devices and GPS collars located on four individuals. Our research questions were: (1) Are there differences in the estimates of home range size and DTD between methods? (2) In case of differences, are topography and trail locations associated with sampling bias? (3) What is the appropriate sampling interval to obtain statistically independent data? Highland woolly monkey home ranges and their DTD were underestimated by direct observations of focal animals using handheld GPS devices. Direct observations were affected by the rugged topography of the study site and were infrequent away from the trail system. In contrast, the use of GPS collars, it was costly but useful to obtain reliable data on space use by highland woolly monkeys. By using GPS collar was possible to track both study groups continuously with high quality and precision and covering broad geographic areas. Finally, our results demonstrated that the independence of observations for statistical purposes was reached after a 5-h sampling.
Wearable computing devices allow collection of densely sampled real-time information on movement enabling researchers and medical experts to obtain objective and non-obtrusive records of actual activity of a subject in the real world over many days. Our interest here is motivated by the use of activity data for evaluating and monitoring the circadian rhythmicity of subjects for research in chronobiology and chronotherapeutic healthcare. In order to translate the information from such high-volume data arising we propose the use of a Markov modelling approach which (i) naturally captures the notable square wave form observed in activity data along with heterogeneous ultradian variances over the circadian cycle of human activity, (ii) thresholds activity into different states in a probabilistic way while respecting time dependence and (iii) gives rise to circadian rhythm parameter estimates, based on probabilities of transitions between rest and activity, that are interpretable and of interest to circadian research.
Discrete‐time hidden Markov models (HMMs) have become an immensely popular tool for inferring latent animal behaviours from telemetry data. While movement HMMs typically rely solely on location data (e.g. step length and turning angle), auxiliary biotelemetry and environmental data are powerful and readily‐available resources for incorporating much more ecological and behavioural realism. However, complex movement or observation process models often necessitate custom and computationally demanding HMM model‐fitting techniques that are impractical for most practitioners, and there is a paucity of generalized user‐friendly software available for implementing multivariate HMMs of animal movement.
Here, we introduce an open‐source R package, momentuHMM , that addresses many of the deficiencies in existing HMM software. Features include: (1) data pre‐processing and visualization; (2) user‐specified probability distributions for an unlimited number of data streams and latent behaviour states; (3) biased and correlated random walk movement models, including dynamic “activity centres” associated with attractive or repulsive forces; (4) user‐specified design matrices and constraints for covariate modelling of parameters using formulas familiar to most R users; (5) multiple imputation methods that account for measurement error and temporally irregular or missing data; (6) seamless integration of spatio‐temporal covariate raster data; (7) cosinor and spline models for cyclical and other complicated patterns; (8) model checking and selection; and (9) simulation.
After providing an overview of the main features of the package, we demonstrate some of the capabilities of momentuHMM using real‐world examples. These include models for cyclical movement patterns of African elephants, foraging trips of northern fur seals, loggerhead turtle movements relative to ocean surface currents, and grey seal movements among three activity centres.
momentuHMM considerably extends the capabilities of existing HMM software while accounting for common challenges associated with telemetry data. It therefore facilitates more realistic hypothesis‐driven animal movement analyses that have hitherto been largely inaccessible to non‐statisticians. While motivated by telemetry data, the package can be used for analysing any type of data that is amenable to HMMs. Practitioners interested in additional features are encouraged to contact the authors.
Objectives:
Except for owl monkeys (Aotus spp.), all anthropoid primates are considered strictly diurnal. Recent studies leveraging new technologies have shown, however, that some diurnal anthropoids also engage in nocturnal activity. Here we examine the extent to which vervets (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) and olive baboons (Papio anubis) are active at night.
Materials and methods:
We deployed GPS collars with tri-axial accelerometer data loggers on 18 free-ranging adult females: 12 vervets spread among 5 social groups, and 6 olive baboons spread among 4 groups. Their locations were recorded every 15 min, and their activity levels, for 3 s/min over 7.5 months. We also used camera traps that were triggered by heat and movement at seven sleeping sites.
Results:
Travel was detected on 0.4% of 2,029 vervet-nights involving 3 vervets and 1.1% of 1,109 baboon-nights involving 5 baboons. Travel was mainly arboreal for vervets but mainly terrestrial for baboons. During the night, vervets and baboons were active 13% and 15% of the time, respectively. Activity varied little throughout the night and appeared unaffected by moon phase.
Discussion:
Our results confirm the low nocturnality of vervets and olive baboons, which we suggest is related to living near the equator with consistent 12-hr days, in contrast to other anthropoids that are more active at night. Since anthropoid primates are thought to have evolved in northern latitudes, with later dispersal to tropical latitudes, our results may have implications for understanding the evolution of anthropoid diurnality.
The development of GPS tags for tracking wildlife has revolutionised the study of home ranges, habitat use and behaviour. Concomitantly, there have been rapid developments in methods for estimating habitat use from GPS data. In combination, these changes can cause challenges in choosing the best methods for estimating home ranges. In primatology, this issue has received little attention, as there have been few GPS collar-based studies to date. However, as advancing technology is making collaring studies more feasible, there is a need for the analysis to advance alongside the technology. Here, using a high quality GPS collaring data set from 10 proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus), we aimed to: 1) compare home range estimates from the most commonly used method in primatology, the grid-cell method, with three recent methods designed for large and/or temporally correlated GPS data sets; 2) evaluate how well these methods identify known physical barriers (e.g. rivers); and 3) test the robustness of the different methods to data containing either less frequent or random losses of GPS fixes. Biased random bridges had the best overall performance, combining a high level of agreement between the raw data and estimated utilisation distribution with a relatively low sensitivity to reduced fixed frequency or loss of data. It estimated the home range of proboscis monkeys to be 24–165 ha (mean 80.89 ha). The grid-cell method and approaches based on local convex hulls had some advantages including simplicity and excellent barrier identification, respectively, but lower overall performance. With the most suitable model, or combination of models, it is possible to understand more fully the patterns, causes, and potential consequences that disturbances could have on an animal, and accordingly be used to assist in the management and restoration of degraded landscapes.
Social networks provide an established tool to implement heterogeneous contact structures in epidemiological models. Dynamic temporal changes in contact structure and ranging behaviour of wildlife may impact disease dynamics. A consensus has yet to emerge, however, concerning the conditions in which network dynamics impact model outcomes, as compared to static approximations that average contact rates over longer time periods. Furthermore, as many pathogens can be transmitted both environmentally and via close contact, it is important to investigate the relative influence of both transmission routes in real‐world populations.
Here, we use empirically derived networks from a population of wild primates, Verreaux's sifakas ( Propithecus verreauxi ), and simulated networks to investigate pathogen spread in dynamic vs. static social networks.
First, we constructed a susceptible‐exposed‐infected‐recovered model of Cryptosporidium spread in wild Verreaux's sifakas. We incorporated social and environmental transmission routes and parameterized the model for two different climatic seasons. Second, we used simulated networks and greater variation in epidemiological parameters to investigate the conditions in which dynamic networks produce larger outbreak sizes than static networks.
We found that average outbreak size of Cryptosporidium infections in sifakas was larger when the disease was introduced in the dry season than in the wet season, driven by an increase in home range overlap towards the end of the dry season. Regardless of season, dynamic networks always produced larger average outbreak sizes than static networks. Larger outbreaks in dynamic models based on simulated networks occurred especially when the probability of transmission and recovery were low. Variation in tie strength in the dynamic networks also had a major impact on outbreak size, while network modularity had a weaker influence than epidemiological parameters that determine transmission and recovery.
Our study adds to emerging evidence that dynamic networks can change predictions of disease dynamics, especially if the disease shows low transmissibility and a long infectious period, and when environmental conditions lead to enhanced between‐group contact after an infectious agent has been introduced.
Intergroup competition has an important impact on the survival and fitness of individuals in group-living species. However, factors influencing the probability of winning an encounter are not fully understood. We studied the influence of numerical advantage and location of the encounter on the chances of winning in eight neighboring groups of Verreaux’s sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), in Kirindy Forest, western Madagascar. Intergroup encounters were inferred from spatial data collected via GPS loggers over a period of two years. Location, i.e., the proximity to the respective core area, rather than the numerical advantage of a group in a given encounter, influenced the probability of winning. Accordingly, the high value that resident groups attribute to exclusive and intensively used areas increased their motivation in defending these locations against intruders. Moreover, losers used the encounter area less often than winners within a month after the encounter, suggesting that losing also entails long-term costs. Thus, our results suggest that in gregarious animals the particular circumstances of each encounter, such as the location, can outweigh group characteristics and predict the chances of winning an intergroup encounter.
Resumen
Los lineamientos para el uso de especies de mamíferos de vida silvestre en la investigación con base en Sikes et al. (2011) se actualizaron. Dichos lineamientos cubren técnicas y regulaciones profesionales actuales que involucran el uso de mamíferos en la investigación y enseñanza; también incorporan recursos nuevos, resúmenes de procedimientos y requisitos para reportes. Se incluyen detalles acerca de captura, marcaje, manutención en cautiverio y eutanasia de mamíferos de vida silvestre. Se recomienda que los comités institucionales de uso y cuidado animal (cifras en inglés: IACUCs), las agencias reguladoras y los investigadores se adhieran a dichos lineamientos como fuente base de protocolos que involucren mamíferos de vida silvestre, ya sea investigaciones de campo o en cautiverio. Dichos lineamientos fueron preparados y aprobados por la ASM, en consulta con profesionales veterinarios experimentados en investigaciones de vida silvestre y IACUCS, de quienes cuya experiencia colectiva provee un entendimiento amplio y exhaustivo de la biología de mamíferos no-domesticados. La presente versión de los lineamientos y modificaciones posteriores están disponibles en línea en la página web de la ASM, bajo Cuidado Animal y Comité de Uso: (http://mammalogy.org/uploads/committee_files/CurrentGuidelines.pdf). Recursos adicionales relacionados con el uso de animales de vida silvestre para la investigación se encuentran disponibles en (http://www.mammalsociety.org/committees/animal-care-and-use#tab3).
The application of advanced technologies to the study of little-known species is a necessary step in generating effective conservation strategies. Despite the biological importance of the small carnivore guild, a paucity of data exists in terms of the spatial ecology of these species, largely due to logistical constraints of large and bulky collar units. This study reports the first known satellite collaring of a viverrid, the Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga), in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Stationary tests of two generations of 65—70g e-obs GmbH ‘Collar 1A’ units recorded high fix success rates and good accuracy and precision under semi-open canopy. From October 2013— August 2015, nine adult V. tangalunga were fit with e-obs collars recording hourly nocturnal GPS locations. Collars were successfully deployed for 27 to 187 days. Field GPS fix success varied from 22% to 88.3%, with the study documenting a total GPS success of 58.1% across all individuals. Despite this large in-field performance range, the quality and quantity of data collected by these units surpass that of previous VHF studies on Asian viverrids, collecting on average a 16-fold increase in locations per collaring day. The successful application of satellite technology to these little-known carnivores carries significant biological and conservation implications, and it is recommended that satellite collars are a viable technology to conduct detailed and well-designed ecological studies of Viverridae species.
The placement of radio- and GPS-collars on primates has advanced the fields of primate behavior and ecology and yielded considerable conservation gains. However, to ensure that the placement of tracking collars remains a humane practice, the reporting of both positive and negative outcomes is required. Here, we evaluate the impacts of radio-collars on the reproduction, behavior, and health of female mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata) on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. In June 2005, as part of a behavioral study, we fitted 16 female howlers with ball-chain radio-collars weighing 1.2% of the mean adult female weight. We monitored these 16 collared females and 64 noncollared females across an annual cycle, and recaptured the collared females in July 2006 for collar removal. The mortality rate for collared females across the study year was 6.3% (N=1), while the net loss of noncollared females from study groups was 15.6% (N=10). All collared females reproduced. The behaviors of collared and noncollared females were not significantly different. However, on recapture to remove all remaining collars (N = 13), 38% of recaptured collared females presented with damage to the dermal layer on the back of the neck and 31% presented with more severe damage extending into the subcutaneous tissue and muscle. Given this physical damage, which was not apparent through binoculars, we cannot recommend using ball-chain radio-collars on female mantled howlers without careful welfare monitoring.
Background: Epidemiological models often use information on host social contacts to predict the potential impact of infectious diseases on host populations and the efficiency of control measures. It can be difficult, however, to determine whether social contacts are actually meaningful predictors of transmission. We investigated the role of host social structure in the transmission of Escherichia coli in a wild population of primates, Verreaux’s sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi). Using multilocus sequence typing (MLST), we compared genetic similarities between E. coli isolates from different individuals and groups to infer transmission pathways.
Results: Correlation of social and transmission networks revealed that membership to the same group significantly predicted sharing of E. coli MLST sequence types (ST). Intergroup encounter rate and a measure of space-use sharing provided equally potent explanations for type sharing between social groups when closely related STs were taken into account, whereas animal age, sex and dispersal history had no influence. No antibiotic resistance was found, suggesting low rates of E. coli spillover from humans into this arboreal species.
Conclusions: We show that patterns of E. coli transmission reflect the social structure of this group-living lemur species. We discuss our results in the light of the species’ ecology and propose scent-marking, a type of social contact not considered in previous epidemiological studies, as a likely route of transmission between groups. However, further studies are needed to explicitly test this hypothesis and to further elucidate the relative roles of direct contact and environmental transmission in pathogen transfer.
Many animals seek refuge when they sleep, often employing different sleeping sites in successive time periods. Switching from
one sleeping site to another might reduce predation or parasite exposure or increase proximity to food resources that are
temporally and spatially heterogenous. However, achieving these effects will depend on the synchronous and nonsynchronous
use of the same sleeping sites by conspecifics. We assessed the use of multiple sleeping sites by 5 wild baboon (Papio cynocephalus) social groups to evaluate how sites were exploited at both the population and group level. Of 126 woodland sleeping sites
used by the study population over ~900 nights of observation, 10 sites were used more than 100 times; these preferred sites
accounted for ~60% of all known sleeping sites. On average, individual groups left sleeping sites after 1–2 nights of continuous
use, and the same group did not reuse a site for an average of 45 nights. However, at the population level, preferred sites
were reused on average every 4 nights. This near-continuous occupation suggests that groups competed for access to preferred
sites, perhaps because preferred sites represented better protection from predators, lower parasite prevalence, or had better
foraging opportunities nearby. The number of trees in a sleeping site and the time since a site was last used were significant
factors distinguishing sites used on a given night by the most dominant versus most subordinate social group. These findings
highlight the importance of evaluating resource use at multiple levels of social organization.
Conflicts of interest about where to go and what to do are a primary challenge of group living. However, it remains unclear
how consensus is achieved in stable groups with stratified social relationships. Tracking wild baboons with a high-resolution
global positioning system and analyzing their movements relative to one another reveals that a process of shared decision-making
governs baboon movement. Rather than preferentially following dominant individuals, baboons are more likely to follow when
multiple initiators agree. When conflicts arise over the direction of movement, baboons choose one direction over the other
when the angle between them is large, but they compromise if it is not. These results are consistent with models of collective
motion, suggesting that democratic collective action emerging from simple rules is widespread, even in complex, socially stratified
societies.
Recently developed low-cost Global Positioning System (GPS) data loggers are promising tools for wildlife research because of their affordability for low-budget projects and ability to simultaneously track a greater number of individuals compared with expensive built-in wildlife GPS. However, the reliability of these devices must be carefully examined because they were not developed to track wildlife. This study aimed to assess the performance and accuracy of commercially available GPS data loggers for the first time using the same methods applied to test built-in wildlife GPS. The effects of antenna position, fix interval and habitat on the fix-success rate (FSR) and location error (LE) of CatLog data loggers were investigated in stationary tests, whereas the effects of animal movements on these errors were investigated in motion tests. The units operated well and presented consistent performance and accuracy over time in stationary tests, and the FSR was good for all antenna positions and fix intervals. However, the LE was affected by the GPS antenna and fix interval. Furthermore , completely or partially obstructed habitats reduced the FSR by up to 80% in households and increased the LE. Movement across habitats had no effect on the FSR, whereas forest habitat influenced the LE. Finally, the mean FSR (0.90 ± 0.26) and LE (15.4 ± 10.1 m) values from low-cost GPS data loggers were comparable to those of built-in wildlife GPS collars (71.6% of fixes with LE < 10 m for motion tests), thus confirming their suit-ability for use in wildlife studies.
Moving animals connect our world, spreading pollen, seeds, nutrients, and parasites as they go about the their daily lives. Recent integration of high-resolution Global Positioning System and other sensors into miniaturized tracking tags has dramatically improved our ability to describe animal movement. This has created opportunities and challenges that parallel big data transformations in other fields and has rapidly advanced animal ecology and physiology. New analytical approaches, combined with remotely sensed or modeled environmental information, have opened up a host of new questions on the causes of movement and its consequences for individuals, populations, and ecosystems. Simultaneous tracking of multiple animals is leading to new insights on species interactions and, scaled up, may enable distributed monitoring of both animals and our changing environment.
Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Multilevel societies (MLS), in which polygynous reproductive units are nested in a larger social matrix, represent a highly complex social system documented only in a small number of mammalian species. Using long-term behavioural data, satellite telemetry and social network analysis, we present a new framework for understanding the function and social dynamics of the golden snub-nosed monkey MLS. Here we show that several one-male units form a cohesive breeding band that associates with one or more all-male units to form a herd. Herds seasonally aggregate and exchange members, thus facilitating gene flow and inbreeding avoidance. This MLS evolved from the aggregation of independent one-male, multifemale units that characterize ancestral Asian colobines; the evolutionary pathway leading to this MLS contrasts with that proposed for African papionins, which appear to have undergone internal fissioning of multimale-multifemale groups. The results suggest that both environmental and phylogenetic factors are important in the evolution of a primate MLS.
Intraspecific competition is a key factor shaping space-use strategies and movement decisions in many species, yet how and when neighbors utilize shared areas while exhibiting active avoidance of one another is largely unknown. Here we investigated temporal landscape partitioning in a population of wild baboons (Papio cynocephalus). We used global positioning system (GPS) collars to synchronously record the hourly locations of 5 baboon social groups for ~900 days, and we used behavioral, demographic, and life history data to measure factors affecting use of overlap areas. Annual home ranges of neighboring groups overlapped substantially, as predicted (baboons are considered non-territorial), but home ranges overlapped less when space use was assessed over shorter time scales. Moreover, neighboring groups were in close spatial proximity to one another on fewer days than predicted by a null model, suggesting an avoidance-based spacing pattern. At all time scales examined (monthly, biweekly, and weekly), time spent in overlap areas was greater during time periods when groups fed on evenly dispersed, low-quality foods. The percent of fertile females in social groups was negatively correlated with time spent in overlap areas only during weekly time intervals. This suggests that broad temporal changes in ecological resources are a major predictor of how intensively overlap areas are used, and groups modify these ecologically driven spacing patterns at short time scales based on female reproductive status. Together these findings offer insight into the economics of territoriality by highlighting the dynamics of spacing patterns at differing time scales.
The ranging patterns of two male and five female spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) were studied with the use of radio telemetry in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. The average size of a spider monkey home range was 62.4 hectares; however, range size varied with sex, and, for females, with the presence of a dependent infant. The probability of encountering a radio-collared spider monkey in a three-hour search using radio telemetry (0.91) was much greater than using a visual search (0.20), and telemetric data resulted in a larger estimate of mean home range size than did observational data, when all subjects were compared. However, the difference appeared to be owing to the presence of male ranges in the telemetric, but not the observational, data. When the size of home ranges derived from radio-tracking data for adult females was compared to size of ranges for adult females derived from observations, the results were not significantly different. Adult males had larger home ranges than adult females, thus lending support to the hypothesis that males have adapted to the dispersion of females by occupying a large home range that overlaps the ranges of several adult females. The smallest home ranges were occupied by low-weight females with dependent infants, perhaps reflecting social and energetic constraints.
Global Positioning System (GPS) wildlife telemetry collars are being used increasingly to understand the movement patterns of wild mammals. However, there are few published studies on which to gauge their general utility and success. This paper highlights issues faced by some of the first researchers to use GPS technology for terrestrial mammal tracking in Australia. Our collated data cover 24 studies where GPS collars were used in 280 deployments on 13 species, including dingoes or other wild dogs (Canis lupus dingo and hybrids), cats (Felis catus), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), kangaroos (Macropus giganteus), koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), livestock guardian dogs (C. l. familiaris), pademelons (Thylogale billardierii), possums (Trichosurus cunninghami), quolls (Dasyurus geoffroii and D. maculatus), wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus and Petrogale lateralis), and wombats (Vombatus ursinus). Common problems encountered were associated with collar design, the GPS, VHF and timed-release components, and unforseen costs in retrieving and refurbishing collars. We discuss the implications of collar failures for research programs and animal welfare, and suggest how these could be avoided or improved. Our intention is to provide constructive advice so that researchers and manufacturers can make informed decisions about using this technology, and maximise the many benefits of GPS while reducing the risks.
The introduction and eradication of alien invasive plant species potentially alters feeding and spatial ecology of wild primates. We investigated whether the removal of an important dietary resource for wild chacma baboons ( Papio hamadryas ursinus ), black wattle ( Acacia mearnsii ), from a nature reserve would result in longer daily path lengths (DPLs) and greater movement toward other resources, specifically alternative black wattle stands outside the reserve, agricultural plots, and sleeping and geophagy sites. We fitted a juvenile male baboon with a self-releasing GPS collar to track the focal troop’s movements on Wildcliff Nature Reserve and adjacent properties, located in the Western Cape, South Africa, from January 25, 2010 to January 18, 2011. During this time, Working for Water, an environmental conservation initiative of the South African Department of Water Affairs, removed black wattle from the baboons’ home range. We estimated monthly home range (5.30–20.58 km 2 ) and DPL (1.7–11.7 km) and quantified the baboons’ use of five dominant vegetation types. Our vegetation use-availability analysis indicated that the troop preferred black wattle, Afromontane forests, and, to a lesser extent, pasture, but used agricultural plots and fynbos less than expected by availability. With increasing black wattle removal in the core area, the troop traveled further toward distant sources of black wattle, using sleeping sites out of their core area to accommodate such long day journeys. A general linear model indicated that movement to black wattle stands, as well as changing sleeping sites, day length, and both spring and winter seasons all significantly increased DPL. We suggest the influence that alien invasive species and their eradication has on ranging behavior should be a consideration in primate conservation and management policies.
There are few data on the daily ranging distances of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti). We fitted 1 adult male from a natural group at Jinsichang in China’s Yunnan Province with a global positioning system (GPS)
collar and tracked him from December 2003 to October 2004 to estimate the daily ranging distances of the group. The total
acquisition rate of the GPS collar was 82.2%, which indicates that one can use GPS collars to track the species efficiently
in high-altitude, temperate, coniferous forest. We obtained group locations or fixes at 5 predetermined times during the day.
The sleeping sites of the subjects are the key points to estimate the day range. We compared 2 measures of day range: the
2-point straight-line displacement and the multipoint cumulative daily ranging distance. Straight-line displacement between
2 consecutive mornings or 2 consecutive evenings can substitute for that between the morning sleeping site and the evening
sleeping site. In general, the group does not move at night. The 2 measures of day range yielded different results. The multipoint
cumulative daily ranging distance was the method of choice to measure their daily travel costs. The minimum required number
of fixes per day was 3. Per statistical evidence, the number of full-day group follows per month influences the estimate of
day range of the group and ≥10 d is required to obtain a reliable estimate; 5 d per month might not be enough. We dealt mainly
with the methodologic aspects of day range calculations. We did not address functional aspects on the estimate of day range,
viz. the influence of vegetation, food distribution patterns, climate change, seasonality, and the monkey group itself.
The release of wild or captive-bred mammals within their historical ranges typically aims to reestablish populations in areas
where they have become extinct or extirpated, to reinforce natural populations, or to resolve human–wildlife conflicts. Such
programs, which also typically in parallel help foster the protection of the release site, concern a wide range of endangered
mammalian species, including our closest living relatives: chimpanzees. In June 2008, the Chimpanzee Conservation Center (CCC),
which is located in the High Niger National Park (HNNP) in Guinea, released a group of 12 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) comprised of 6 females and 6 males (8–20yr old). The selected release site lies 32km from the sanctuary in the Mafou,
a core area of HNNP where wild chimpanzees are also known to occur. The purpose of this release was therefore to reinforce
the natural chimpanzee population within the Mafou core area and to promote the protection of the HNNP. Nearly 2yr postrelease,
9 chimpanzees still remain free-living. Two thirds of the release chimpanzees were equipped with VHF-GPS store-on-board tracking
collars. We used data from retrieved collars to explore the release chimpanzees’ habitat use, individual day range, and core
area use (50% and 80%) during the first year of the release. Males traveled significantly further than females. Although minimum
day range did not differ between the sexes or vary seasonally, some release males were active for longer during the day than
the females. Males also ranged over larger areas and used a wider network of core areas than the females. Habitat use was
similar to that recorded in wild chimpanzees in the HNNP. As of September 2010, 2 males and 3 females form a group at the
release site. Two of these females gave birth to healthy offspring respectively 16 and 20mo postrelease. Another female successfully
immigrated into a wild chimpanzee community. We suggest that the success of this chimpanzee release can be attributed to the
CCC’s lengthy rehabilitation process and the savanna-mosaic habitat of the HNNP. This release demonstrates that under special
socioecological circumstances, the release of wild-born adult chimpanzees of both sexes is a viable strategy, which can also
function as an effective conservation tool.
KeywordsChimpanzee conservation center–Chimpanzee release–Core area–Day range–Habitat use
The benefits to researchers of capturing and collaring free-ranging primates are numerous, but so are the actual and potential
costs to the individuals. We aimed to 1) evaluate quantitatively the possible demographic long-term costs of radio-collaring
a free-ranging primate species, and 2) evaluate qualitatively the costs to the subjects and the overall benefits to the research
program that results from monitoring a large number of groups with collared individuals during many years. Between 2000 and
2009, we captured, recaptured, and radio-collared 146 owl monkeys (Aotus azarai) to study the behavior, demography, and genetics of the species. To evaluate the potential long-term costs of the collaring
procedures on the population, we compared the demographic composition of groups (n = 20) in our core study area with those of undisturbed groups (n = 20) in a control area within the same forest. Groups in both areas ranged in size between 2 and 5 individuals. Surprisingly,
group size tended to be larger among the study groups owing to more infants and juveniles in those groups than in the control
groups. The benefits to the research program have included, among others, the reliable identification of individuals, increased
sample sizes, the recovery of specimens, studies of dispersal, outreach activities, and conservation education. Still, some
of the benefits will become tangible only when the project persists on time; is fully approved and supported by local authorities;
and has broad community participation, as well as conservation and education goals. Thus, any serious initiative to capture
and collar individuals should be the result of an extremely careful evaluation of benefits and costs.
KeywordsDarting–Demography–Dimorphism–Dispersal–Radio-collar–Telemetry
Global Positioning System (GPS) collars have revolutionized the field of spatial ecology, but to date, few primate studies have used them. We fitted a free-ranging, semi-habituated, juvenile male chacma baboon (Papio hamadryas ursinus) with an automatic self-releasing GPS collar and tracked his movements for 359 days. The collar captured 4254 fixes out of 5719 programmed opportunities, a 74.4 % acquisition rate, suggesting that the collar effectively tracked this baboon in a variety of habitat types. Of the data points captured, 73.7 % were three-dimensional fixes, and of these fixes, 66.9 % were highly accurate, having a dilution of precision of less than four. We calculated home range using three protocols with three estimation methods: minimum convex polygon, fixed kernel-density estimation (KDE), and fixed r local convex hull. Using all data points and the 95 % contour, these methods created home range estimations ranging from 10.8 to 23.1 km(2) for this baboon troop. Our results indicate that the KDE output using all data locations most accurately represented our data set, as it created a continuous home range boundary that excluded unused areas and outlying, potentially exploratory data points while including all seven sleeping sites and a movement corridor. However, home range estimations generated from KDE varied from 15.4 to 18.8 km(2) depending on the smoothing parameter used. Our results demonstrated that the ad hoc smoothing parameter selection technique was a better method for our data set than either the least squares cross-validation or biased cross-validation techniques. Our results demonstrate the need for primatologists to develop a standardized reporting method which documents the tool, screening protocol, and smoothing parameter used in the creation of home range estimations in order to make comparisons that are meaningful.
Recent technological improvements have made possible the development of lightweight GPS-tagging devices suitable to track medium-to-small sized animals. However, current inferences concerning GPS performance are based on heavier designs, suitable only for large mammals. Lightweight GPS-units are deployed close to the ground, on species selecting micro-topographical features and with different behavioural patterns in comparison to larger mammal species. We assessed the effects of vegetation, topography, motion, and behaviour on the fix success rate for lightweight GPS-collar across a range of natural environments, and at the scale of perception of feral cats (Felis catus). Units deployed at 20 cm above the ground in sites of varied vegetation and topography showed that trees (native forest) and shrub cover had the largest influence on fix success rate (89% on average); whereas tree cover, sky availability, number of satellites and horizontal dilution of position (HDOP) were the main variables affecting location error (±39.5 m and ±27.6 m before and after filtering outlier fixes). Tests on HDOP or number of satellites-based screening methods to remove inaccurate locations achieved only a small reduction of error and discarded many accurate locations. Mobility tests were used to simulate cats' motion, revealing a slightly lower performance as compared to the fixed sites. GPS-collars deployed on 43 cats showed no difference in fix success rate by sex or season. Overall, fix success rate and location error values were within the range of previous tests carried out with collars designed for larger species. Lightweight GPS-tags are a suitable method to track medium to small size species, hence increasing the range of opportunities for spatial ecology research. However, the effects of vegetation, topography and behaviour on location error and fix success rate need to be evaluated prior to deployment, for the particular study species and their habitats.
In the past decade, ecologists have witnessed vast improvements in our ability to collect animal movement data through animal-borne technology, such as through GPS or ARGOS systems. However, more data does not necessarily yield greater knowledge in understanding animal ecology and conservation. In this paper, we provide a review of the major benefits, problems and potential misuses of GPS/Argos technology to animal ecology and conservation. Benefits are obvious, and include the ability to collect fine-scale spatio-temporal location data on many previously impossible to study animals, such as ocean-going fish, migratory songbirds and long-distance migratory mammals. These benefits come with significant problems, however, imposed by frequent collar failures and high cost, which often results in weaker study design, reduced sample sizes and poorer statistical inference. In addition, we see the divorcing of biologists from a field-based understanding of animal ecology to be a growing problem. Despite these difficulties, GPS devices have provided significant benefits, particularly in the conservation and ecology of wide-ranging species. We conclude by offering suggestions for ecologists on which kinds of ecological questions would currently benefit the most from GPS/Argos technology, and where the technology has been potentially misused. Significant conceptual challenges remain, however, including the links between movement and behaviour, and movement and population dynamics.
Global positioning system (GPS) telemetry technology allows us to monitor and to map the details of animal movement, securing vast quantities of such data even for highly cryptic organisms. We envision an exciting synergy between animal ecology and GPS-based radiotelemetry, as for other examples of new technologies stimulating rapid conceptual advances, where research opportunities have been paralleled by technical and analytical challenges. Animal positions provide the elemental unit of movement paths and show where individuals interact with the ecosystems around them. We discuss how knowing where animals go can help scientists in their search for a mechanistic understanding of key concepts of animal ecology, including resource use, home range and dispersal, and population dynamics. It is probable that in the not-so-distant future, intense sampling of movements coupled with detailed information on habitat features at a variety of scales will allow us to represent an animal's cognitive map of its environment, and the intimate relationship between behaviour and fitness. An extended use of these data over long periods of time and over large spatial scales can provide robust inferences for complex, multi-factorial phenomena, such as meta-analyses of the effects of climate change on animal behaviour and distribution.
Ethnoprimatology, the combining of primatological and anthropological practice and the viewing of humans and other primates as living in integrated and shared ecological and social spaces, has become an increasingly popular approach to primate studies in the twenty-first century. Offering an insight into the investigation and documentation of human-nonhuman primate relations in the Anthropocene, this book guides the reader through the preparation, design, implementation, and analysis of an ethnoprimatological research project, offering practical examples of the vast array of methods and techniques at chapter level. With contributions from the world's leading experts in the field, Ethnoprimatology critically analyses current primate conservation efforts, outlines their major research questions, theoretical bases and methods, and tackles the challenges and complexities involved in mixed-methods research. Documenting the spectrum of current research in the field, it is an ideal volume for students and researchers in ethnoprimatology, primatology, anthropology, and conservation biology.
From foraging patterns in a single tree to social interactions across a home range, how primates use space is a key question in the field of primate behavioral ecology. Drawing on the latest advances in spatial analysis tools, this book offers practical guidance on applying geographic information systems (GIS) to central questions in primatology. An initial methodological section discusses niche modelling, home range analysis and agent-based modelling, with a focus on remote data collection. Research-based chapters demonstrate how ecologists apply this technology to a suite of topics including: calculating the intensity of use of both range and travel routes, assessing the impacts of logging, mining and hunting, and informing conservation strategies.
The global increase in urbanization is leading to heavier interface between humans and wildlife. Within these anthropogenic landscapes, little is known about ranging patterns, particularly with regard to urban primates. Here we present the results of the first long-term deployment of multiple GPS collars on two species of macaques to investigate the impacts of urbanization on urban primate ranging patterns in Singapore and Gibraltar. Collars data acquisition were excellent with respect to the amount, quality, and accuracy of data collected; however, remote connectivity and drop-off functionality was poor across all deployments. Analyses highlighted high variability in ranging patterns between individuals within each species that aligned with access to human food resources and patterns of tourism. Individuals from troops with less access to human food had much larger home, core, and day ranges relative to those with regular provisioning or raiding opportunities. Almost no temporal range overlap was observed between any focal individuals at either site and spatial overlap was low for all but two troops at each site. We found no relationship between anthropogenic schedules and changes in ranging patterns. Significant seasonal variation existed for daily path length and day range size for both the Singapore long-tailed and the Gibraltar Barbary macaques, with long-tailed macaques increasing their range during the equatorial monsoon season and Barbary macaques increasing their range during drier, summer months. This study highlights how the behavioral plasticity found within the genus Macaca is reflected in ranging pattern variability within urban environments.
Selecting an appropriate fix schedule has a pivotal role when using GPS collars. On the basis of deployments of GPS collars on 35 cats, we report on an often overlooked consideration: that GPS units are more efficient collecting data at high frequencies (15min between fixes in this study) than low frequencies (>2h between fixes).
Global Positioning System (GPS) units used in animal telemetry often suffer from nonrandom data loss and location error. GPS units use stored satellite information to estimate locations, including almanac and ephemeris data reflecting satellite positions at weekly and at <4-hr temporal scales, respectively. Using the smallest GPS collars (45–51 g) available for mammals, we evaluate how satellite information and environmental conditions affected GPS performance in 27 mobile trials, and field reliability during 56 deployments on Pacific marten (Martes caurina). We conducted trials in Lassen National Forest, California, USA, during March 2011–January 2012. We programmed GPS units to retain or remove satellite data (i.e., continuous or cold-start mode) before attempting a location (fix), thereby mimicking differing fix intervals. In continuous mode, fix success was 2.2× higher, was not influenced by environmental obstructions, and improved after a location with ≥4 satellites (3 -D). In cold-start mode, fix success was negatively correlated with vegetation cover. Location error was lower for 3-D fixes. Censoring cold-start fixes with only 3 satellites (2-D) and 2-D locations prior to the first 3-D fix in continuous mode decreased location error by 91% and 55%, ensuring <50 m accuracy. The significance of previous fix success and reduced battery expenditure underscores the benefits of ephemeris data and short fix intervals. Only 66% of 56 units functioned upon delivery for field deployment. Once tested and deployed, 28% malfunctioned. This study demonstrates that GPS tests should use the same fix schedules as field deployments, and GPS data quality in dense cover improves with short fix intervals. Miniature GPS units are a promising tool, but the study design should be carefully considered. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.
Context Animals carrying tracking and logging devices are subject to a range of instrument effects that negatively affect survival, reproduction and behaviour. The common recommendation is that device weight should not exceed 5% body mass (BM) for terrestrial species; however, this rule-of-thumb has little empirical basis. Modelling indicates that devices weighing less than 3% BM may still have impacts. Several studies have used telemetry and data loggers on domestic cats (Felis catus) with instruments ranging in weight from 30g to 125g, but there has been no quantitative evaluation of instrument effects. In addition, inexpensive GPS tags such as iGotU are increasingly being used to track domestic cats, but often with little acknowledgement of habitat-related location error. Aims We evaluated the impact of wearing devices of different weights on domestic cat movements, and quantified location error across typical suburban habitats. Methods We recorded movements of cats wearing three different GPS collar weights for a week at a time: light, 30g (<1% BM); medium, 80g (similar to 2% BM); and heavy, 130g (similar to 3% BM). Location error (LE) and fix success rates (FSR) were compared between backyard habitats and up- or downward orientation of the GPS tags on collars. Key results Home-range size and distance travelled from home were smaller when cats wore the heaviest collar. LE was lower and FSR higher for GPS tags with direct-line-of-sight to satellites (e.g. on lawns), but there was no difference between tags placed in dense vegetation (hedges) or more open vegetation (trees), or tags oriented up or down. Conclusions Collars carrying instruments on cats should be no more than 2% BM (medium-weight collar). LE was large relative to typical urban habitat size, indicating that misclassification of locations into habitats could easily occur in habitat-selection studies. Implications Some published accounts of cat home-range sizes may be underestimates, resulting in underestimates of the extent of impacts on prey species. Habitat-use studies should acknowledge the error associated with GPS tags and incorporate it into analyses using techniques such as Brownian Bridges.
The development of techniques to minimise impact on study animals is essential to alleviate animal welfare concerns. Reducing the potentially negative impacts from the attachment of telemetry devices is a key consideration in this area. The corrosive effect when copper, magnesium alloy and brass are connected through water acting as an electrolyte oxidises the magnesium alloy. I tested a range of magnesium washers as part of a light-weight, time-programmable, time-release mechanism fitted to telemetry collars to ensure that devices do not remain on indefinitely. Six of the eight washers in the trial corroded and released the collar between 71 and 191 days. This mechanism has potential application to a wide variety of mammals and telemetry research projects.
We tested a radiotelemetry collar that uses a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit to calculate animal locations. We placed the collar in a range of cover types and compared locations reported by the collar to differentially-corrected GPS locations. We placed the collar on a free-ranging moose (Alces alces) and determined how selection of cover types, collar movement, and collar orientation affected GPS locations. On or off the moose, the GPS unit collected a location in >90% of location attempts in areas with no or thin canopy cover, including mature deciduous canopies in winter. Under a mature conifer canopy or a mature deciduous canopy in summer, 60 to 70% of location attempts were successful. Locations from the GPS unit in the collar were close to the expected precision of non-differentially corrected GPS (within 40 m 50% of the time and 100 m 95% of the time). Locations did not have a directional bias. Movement of the moose while a location was being attempted did not affect GPS locations. The moose occasionally laid down so the collar was horizontal. Although this decreased the success of location attempts, <1% of location attempts were so affected. GPS radiotelemetry has great promise for expanding our knowledge about hourly, daily, and annual patterns in animal movements and habitat selection.
We tested the success rate and accuracy of GPS collar positioning for a free-ranging Japanese macaque. The orientation of the GPS unit, behavior of subject monkey and environmental conditions during positioning attempts were videotaped, in order to examine the factors affecting success rate and accuracy. Total positioning success rate was 38 % (54 success in 142 trials). Orientation of the collar GPS unit primarily influenced the positioning success rate. Success rate was 81 % when the collar GPS unit was oriented above or horizontal to the gravity, while all positioning attemps failed when the collar GPS unit was oriented downward. Vegetation also affected the success rate. Success rate was lower in the evergreen broad-leaved forest than those in the feeding site, grassland and defoliated broad-leaved forest. Orientation of the GPS unit was not seriously affected by positional behavior of the monkey. Frequent manipulation of the GPS collar by the subject monkey caused the changes in the relative position of the GPS unit around the neck (dorsal, ventral or side). On the other hand, other monkeys did not touch the collar. We conducted positioning by handheld GPS (Garmin GPS V) at the same time and place of each GPS collar positioning attempt. The difference between coordinate values of the GPS collar and that of the handheld GPS was 13.2 m on average, suggesting that the accuracy of the GPS collar is comparable to that of a handheld GPS. Effect of vegetation on the difference between coordinates recorded by the GPS collar and by the handheld GPS was not detected. The results clearly indicate that the orientation of the GPS unit is of primary importance to achieve higher success rate in GPS telemetry. In applying GPS telemetry to primate research, measures to stabilize the GPS orientation to upwards, no matter how hard the animal manipulates the GPS collar, must be considered.
The fascicularis group of macaques comprises four species: Macaca fascicularis, M. mulatta, M. cyclopis, and M. fuscata. The geographic ranges of M. fascicularis and M. mulatta are parapatric or marginally sympatric, with the former species widely distributed in insular and peninsular Southeast Asia and the latter species widely distributed in southern Asia; M. cyclopis is restricted to Taiwan, and M. fuscata is restricted to the Japanese archipelago. The four species in this group are compared with respect to pelage, external measurements and proportions, cranial characters, caudal vertebrae, molecular biology and genetics, natural history, and reproductive anatomy and behavior. In these species, head and body length and skull length generally increase with latitude, and tail length generally decreases with latitude; in shorter-tailed species, the number and length of caudal vertebrae is progressively reduced. Morphology of the glans penis in fascicularis-group species is uniquely derived among macaque species; morphology of the female tract in this group is similar to that in silenus-group species. Based on morphology and fossil history, a hypothesis is proposed concerning the evolution and dispersal of the fascicularis group.
During a two year field study in South Africa, all members of a community of lesser bushbabies (Galago senegalensis moholi) within a 1 × 1 km study area were captured, individually marked, and recaptured at regular intervals. Daily sightings of radio tagged animals at their sleeping sites offered a reliable basis for mapping individual home ranges. An analysis of social contact and dispersal during this relatively gregarious phase of the daily activity cycle is supplemented by quantitative data from direct observation at night with the aid of red light, including 57 nights on which single bushbabies were followed throughout the active period. A basic system of male and female territoriality between well established individuals of the same sex is obscured by a complex pattern of ranging and social contact exhibited by lower ranking animals. Periodic ‘mating’ and ‘removal’ migrations are described briefly. Despite the predominantly solitary habits of this species, social interrelationships are similar to those found within ‘age-graded male’ groups of more gregarious primates.
ABSTRACT Recent miniaturization and weight reductions of Global Positioning System (GPS) collars have opened up deployment opportunities on a new array of terrestrial animal species, but the performance of lightweight (<90 g) GPS collars has not been evaluated. I examined the success of 42 GPS collars from 3 manufacturers (Televilt/TVP Positioning, AB, Lindesburg, Sweden; Sirtrack Ltd., Havelock North, New Zealand; H.A.B.I.T [HABIT] Research Ltd., Victoria, BC, Canada) in stationary, open-sky conditions and during deployments on brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), a nocturnal arboreal marsupial. I assessed performance of these collars in terms of technical malfunctions, fix-success rates, battery longevity, and aspects of location quality. Technical malfunctions occurred in >50% of HABIT and Televilt collars, whereas all Sirtrack collars operated normally. Fix-success rates for all brands were significantly higher during stationary tests than when deployed on brushtail possums. HABIT and Televilt brands functioned poorly in field conditions, with success rates of 16.2% and 2.1%, respectively. Sirtrack collars had the highest fix rate when deployed (64.8%). I modified several HABIT collars by changing the GPS antenna location, with a resultant substantial increase in field fix success (92.6%). Most collars ceased working before they reached 50% of their manufacturer-estimated life expectancy. Suboptimal placement of GPS antenna, combined with short satellite acquisition times and long fix intervals, were a likely cause of low fix-success rates and premature battery failures. Researchers wanting to employ lightweight GPS collars must be aware of current limitations and should carefully consider prospects of low fix rates and limited battery lives before deciding whether these units are capable of meeting study objectives.
Although radio tracking has been used increasingly in primate field studies over the past 15 years, some primatologists have been reluctant to use it. We present data that demonstrate benefits of radio tracking in the study of rain forest primates. Data were collected during an ecological study of Ateles geoffroyi and Cebus capucinus in hilly, dense rain forest habitat with poor visibility, in northeastern Costa Rica. We SHOW that radio tracking decreased search time for both species, which led to increased contact time and facilitated continuous data collection.
Mean search time for both primate species was significantly reduced using radio tracking (Kruskal-Wallis Test, P < 0.05). Search times for both species increased at the end of the study, when the transmitters ceased functioning. These increased search times occurred despite high levels of familiarity with the ranging patterns of the animals. The rate of marking feeding trees increased significantly with radio tracking and decreased significantly when the radios failed (Kruskal-Wallis Test, P < 0.01).
Other benefits of radio tracking include: finding animals far off trail, in dense vegetation, and in inclement weather; maintaining continuous contact with the animals, which allows for more complete knowledge of ranging and foraging patterns; and monitoring group and subgroup composition.
Primates living outside protected areas frequently come into conflict with humans. While the focus of most research has been
on the costs and consequences of crop raiding in relation to subsistence agriculture, large-scale commercial agriculture presents
conservation challenges of its own. Baboons that occupy commercial pine plantations in southern Africa often damage young
trees and, consequently, are shot in large numbers. We here aim to describe the population structure and resource and habitat
use by baboons in such areas to provide the data needed for the formulation of viable long-term conservation policies. We
used radio-collars to obtain estimates of home range size and habitat usage from 2 plantation troops and detailed observation
of 1 of these to determine their diet. We compared these data, together with counts of troop size, to those from individuals
in the same population that did not enter plantation. Although the mean troop size (42.2) of baboons in plantations was significantly
higher than in adjoining natural areas (18.3), population density (2.8 individuals/km2) did not differ. Plantation baboons had a comparatively restricted diet in which a few indigenous species were disproportionately
represented. Pine cambium was not an important dietary component and the baboons generally avoided compartments of pine trees
to forage in small pockets of various natural plant communities. We argue that foresters should shift their policy from one
of baboon extirpation to the long-term management of local populations, in the context of a proper and ongoing evaluation
of the discounted cost of baboon damage.
KeywordsBaboons–Behavioral ecology–Conservation–Diet–Pine plantations
Cathemerality, an activity pattern comprised of distinct periods of diurnal and nocturnal activity, is a trait found among several of the Malagasy strepsirhines and one species of Aotus. Because occasional anecdotal reports suggest that some diurnal primates can be active at night, I investigated the possibility of nocturnal ranging behavior in the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) by using global positioning system (GPS) collars programmed to collect data across a 24-h period. Five individuals in a provisioned, free-ranging L. catta colony on St. Catherines Island, Georgia, USA, wore GPS collars across 1 week of the mating season. Results revealed that night ranging behavior occurred between the h of 1900 and 0530. An evaluation of the effect of moonlight on nocturnal activity showed that a greater rate of travel occurred during moonlit periods as opposed to periods when the moon had not yet risen. Distance travelled at night decreased across the deployment period, likely because of a decrease in available moonlight over time, as the lemurs were collared during a waning moon. Fewer mating opportunities over time may have also been responsible for the decrease in night ranging, because the number of females in estrus declined across the deployment period. Future research is needed to separate the effects of moonlight and mating activity on night ranging in this species, as well as to evaluate whether L. catta in Madagascar show night ranging similar to L. catta on SCI. These data raise the possibility that L. catta may be cathemeral, with an activity pattern fluctuating between diurnality and cathemerality in accordance with shifts in environmental conditions.
Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis Raffles, 1821) were captured at various locations in the north of Sumatra as part of a study on social behaviour and genetic relationships. We used individual cage traps, a group trap, a blowpipe and an air-pressure rifle. Provided that the monkeys were willing to take bait, individual cage traps proved most successful; they gave a high capture rate with minimal disturbance of the group. Success with young juveniles and peripheral animals could be improved by placing elevated traps in the centre and in clusters at the periphery of the trapping site. Trapping had no clear lasting effect on the natural behaviour of the animals.