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The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt Against “Modernization” in Belle-Époque Rio de Janeiro
... Opposition to the programme proposed by the eminent bacteriologist Dr Oswaldo Cruz organised as the Liga Contra Vacina Obrigatória (Anti-Vaccine League) with the aim to stimulate unrest by spreading a heady mix of disturbing truths and exaggerated scare-stories. The League claimed the vaccine infected humans with blood from sick animals, relied on coercion facilitated by the police-under what was known as the 'Torture Code'-and involved mass demolitions and evictions of cortiços (multi-family tenements) deemed insalubrious and therefore out-of-place in the idealised Belle Époque city (Hochman 2009;Needell 1987). For nearly one week riots and fighting took place in the streets of Rio. ...
... For nearly one week riots and fighting took place in the streets of Rio. While at first blush a protest against a violently introduced public health measure that challenged social and religious norms the Revolt also brought together a series of political disputeswithin the military, among elites alarmed at a rising coffee oligarchy, and labour groups' discontent with transport, working and living conditions (Needell 1987). At stake was far more than the parameters of public health policy but competing visions of modernity (Hochman 2009;Leu 2020;Needell 1987). ...
... While at first blush a protest against a violently introduced public health measure that challenged social and religious norms the Revolt also brought together a series of political disputeswithin the military, among elites alarmed at a rising coffee oligarchy, and labour groups' discontent with transport, working and living conditions (Needell 1987). At stake was far more than the parameters of public health policy but competing visions of modernity (Hochman 2009;Leu 2020;Needell 1987). ...
In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, masks and the act of masking have become emotive subjects for social and political debate. In Brazil, one of the countries most severely affected by the pandemic, the seemingly mundane act of mask-wearing has become part of a deep social, political and economic crisis at the centre of which is the far-right president Jair Bolsonaro. In this paper we explore the politics of (un)masking in Brazil from three vantage points in which the mask serves to dramatise the country’s current moment. Firstly, we trace the connections and disjunctions between the politics of mask-wearing and the genealogies of hygienist policies associated with the modern aspirations of the Brazilian republic. Secondly, we consider how masks are incorporated into the everyday life of the city through popular economies, which reveal the potentialities and limitations of work beyond the modern ideals of waged labour. Finally, we explore the incorporation of masks in urban street-art. We approach graffiti and murals as situated performances of symbolic resistance that contest and reveal the incoherences of Bolsonaro’s anti-science discourse. In tandem, these three perspectives foreground practices of (un)masking that expose long-standing tensions and new contemporary challenges that characterise the politics of a ‘crisis society’.
... The anti-vaccination movement was no less rancorous in Brazil. The opposition newspaper, the Correio da Manha in October, 1904 published the portrait of a man suffering from a grisly tumour that had distorted his arm and chest and accompanied this with a story describing vaccinations as "... the propagator of all means of illness, the monster that pollutes the poor and innocent blood of our children with the vile secretions expelled from sick animals..." (Needell, 1987). ...
... It was opposed by the middle class and the positivist church while opposition radicals exploited fears and ignorance of the poor. The debate eventually turned into a revolt and as crowds mobbed streets, there was an attempted coup, but this failed (Nachman, 1977;Needell, 1987). ...
... Some, like Amina Abdulkadir, disobeyed: "I heard about the controversy but my husband agreed that we still give our baby the polio vaccine", she toldIRIN NEWS (2004). activities: In the Brazilian revolt, the official package seemed to have had less voice and the work of the opposition newspaper, Correio da Manha(Needell, 1987) is a good example, dramatising the rumoured consequences of vaccination. The same role was played by the Central Broadcasting Service radio in Uganda. ...
The 2003 to 2004 revolt against the Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) in Nigeria provides a case study for investigating how a new scientific phenomenon becomes part of common sense in a culture with high levels of religiosity.
Moscovici’s Social Representations Theory about how society familiarises itself with the unfamiliar provides a framework for the research which includes two media analyses, historical texts, online and paper administered surveys and interviews. The media analyses examine the OPV controversy and science in the media. Correspondence analysis provides a geometric tool for visualising how the variables in both media analyses position themselves for the construction of genres of science news. Factor analysis groups the attitude items in the survey while logistic regression predicts outcomes controlling for other variables.
The media analyses found coverage of science in the period under review was generally positive and grew continually. The coverage of the OPV controversy was also generally positive but did not always mirror faithfully public opinion. Just as some Parisians in Moscovoci’s study likened psychoanalysis to a “symptom of an American invasion”, the initial description of the OPV by the people of northern Nigeria was a “western conspiracy against Muslims.”
The survey found different levels of trust in public institutions with scientists and religious leaders similarly rated. Pessimism, fear and progress characterise the attitude variables but the association with knowledge is not linear and confirms the influence of cultural values. Interviewees also confirm survey findings in that they simultaneously have faith in religion and in science.
Common sense in Nigeria is a mixture of science and religiosity and the public hold both in reverence: a phenomenon Moscovici refers to as cognitive polyphasia. The study also supports Durkheim’s view that science (in Nigeria) depends on public opinion.
... Para comprender esta revuelta es necesario entender el contexto en el que fue aplicada esta medida. La ley se promulgó como parte de una serie de reformas que buscaban modernizar la capital brasilera y que tuvo tres pilares: el mejoramiento urbanístico y embellecimiento de la ciudad buscando su «europeización»; la modernización del puerto para dar mejor salida a las agroexportaciones y producción industrial, y, por último, la erradicación de enfermedades que eran un problema de salud y que tan mala fama le habrían dado a la ciudad (Needell, 1987;Tuells, 2009). Las enfermedades como la fiebre amarilla, la peste bubónica y la viruela eran problemas graves para el país y, en especial, para Río de Janeiro. ...
... La magnitud y la movilización que alcanzó de la revuelta contra la vacuna traspasan el hecho de la promulgación de esta ley. En primer lugar, Needell (1987) destaca la importancia del contexto político previo al estallido, marcado por dos décadas de convulsiones, donde la lucha por la proclamación de la República y la abolición de la esclavitud habían acrecentado la violencia callejera, la politización de las clases medias y la división de las élites. En segundo lugar, confluyeron los intereses de diversos grupos, incluso antagónicos, que iban desde los opositores políticos a un Gobierno de carácter oligárquico, como estaba considerado el de Rodrigues Alves, a los militares que intentaron una rebelión; pasando por monárquicos que querían restaurar el régimen anterior; por estudiantes y personas de clase media que proclamaban la libertad de derechos; por trabajadores y los grupos más pobres de la ciudad que fueron los grandes afectados por las reformas urbanas, o por la Iglesia positivista, que, con ideas darwinianas, creía que no había que interferir en la adaptación y selección de los más fuertes. ...
Este capítulo debruça-se sobre o papel da confiança na gestão
da incerteza e do risco relativamente ao uso de medicamentos. Com base
numa pesquisa sociológica em Maputo, Moçambique, esta análise procura
compreender como diferentes modalidades de confiança, desdobradas
analiticamente em três ‘camadas’ ou bases relacionais —confiança nos sistemas
médicos, nas organizações e nos provedores de saúde, e nas experiências
pessoais e socialmente partilhadas— operam em conjunto dando
forma às relações dos indivíduos com os medicamentos, num contexto de
crescente pluralismo terapêutico.
... Críticos levantavam a 'santidade dos direitos individuais contra o poder coercivo do estado' como o fator improcedente do programa de vacinação. A conjunção desses fatores levou a violência urbana em novembro de 1904, conhecida como a Revolta da Vacina (Needell, 1987). as mudanças raramente trouxeram elementos positivos diretos para suas vidas. ...
... A violência como resposta tampouco era novidade, tendo o Rio de Janeiro vivenciado uma série de revoltas envolvendo práticas abusivas do governo, como contra a distribuição de carnes apodrecidas à população em 1902, conhecida como a Revolta das Carnes Verdes. SegundoNeedell (1987), a percepção da população marginalizada da belle époque de Rodrigues Alves deve ser compreendida no contexto que ...
The objective of this paper is to analyze the difference in mortality rates among blacks and whites in Rio de Janeiro during the first years of the Brazilian Republic. For that, mortality rates of diseases related to poor housing conditions and access to infrastructure are used as an indicator of economic inequality. Despite the decline in mortality rates in Rio de Janeiro at the beginning of the twentieth century, there was no convergence between the white and black population. In addition, quantitative analysis presents evidence that diseases which disproportionately affected the poor population, such as tuberculosis, indirectly increased the likelihood of death from other diseases, a phenomenon known as Mills-Reincke. This suggests that the mortality rate for the black population may have been previously underestimated.
... For example, some individuals still believe that mental health treatment is harsh and coercive and could worsen a patient's condition. 37 Brazil has a history of uprisings against treatments considered coercive, such as the Vaccine Revolt of 1904, 38 and this cultural aspect could deeply affect the population's treatment-seeking behavior. ...
Objective:
Most countries fail to treat individuals with psychopathologies. Investigating treatment barriers and reasons for dropout are key elements to overcoming this scenario.
Methods:
A representative sample of 2,942 urban-dwelling adults was interviewed face-to-face within a cross-sectional, stratified, multistage probability survey of the general population. Psychiatric diagnosis, severity level, use of services, reasons for not seeking treatment, and treatment dropout were investigated.
Results:
Only 23% of individuals with a psychopathology of any severity level in the last 12 months received treatment. Low perceived need for treatment (56%) was the most common reason for not seeking treatment. The most visited settings were psychiatric, other mental health care, and general medical care. Among those with a perceived need for treatment (44%), psychological barriers were the most common reason for not seeking it. Treatment dropout was more prevalent among those who visited a general medical care setting. Among individuals still in treatment, human services and psychiatric care were the most common types. Female sex was associated with structural barriers (OR = 2.1). Disorder severity was negatively associated with need barriers (OR = 0.4), and positively associated with structural barriers (OR = 2.5) and psychological barriers (OR = 2.5).
Conclusion:
Despite the need for treatment and better services, psychological barriers were the major reason for not seeking treatment. Apart from providing more specialists, investing in awareness, de-stigmatization, and information is the ultimate strategy for improving psychiatric care.
... O episódio conhecido como A Revolta da Vacina, ocorrido no Rio de Janeiro no início do século XX, propiciou uma série de reflexões que colocam a varíola e as propostas de organização dos serviços sanitários no centro de um debate mais amplo, nas esferas social, política e econômica. Sidney Chalhoub (1996), José Murilo de Carvalho (1987), Jeffey Needell (1987), Nicolau Sevcenko (1984), Cláudio Bertolli Filho e José Carlos Sebe Bom Meihy (1999), Miriam Bahia Lopes (1996), Ângela Pôrto (1985) e Jaime Benchimol ( , 2003, analisam sob vários aspectos esse momento da história da cidade e as causas que propiciaram o estopim dessa revolta popular, tanto pela ótica do estabelecimento do controle social, via medidas sanitárias coercitivas, quanto por um foco de cunho político, econômico e social. ...
Esta segunda edição revista do livro traz importantes atualizações para a pesquisa no tema. A primeira edição discutia as relações entre ciência, técnica e produção, tendo como referência a descoberta de Jenner e as reflexões de Pasteur sobre a vacina antivariólica. Aborda a organização institucional implementada durante o Império com o objetivo de possibilitar a prática da vacinação por intermédio da Junta Vacínica e do Instituto Vacínico do Império, introduzindo as primeiras experiências com a vacinação animal no Brasil realizadas na Santa Casa da Misericórdia. Trata, finalmente, da sobrevivência do Instituto Vacínico Municipal em outro contexto institucional, polarizado entre propostas de centralização e descentralização dos poderes públicos para a organização dos serviços de saúde. Destaca o surgimento de um conflito entre o barão de Pedro Affonso e Oswaldo Cruz, que representou uma das polêmicas da época em torno da centralização dos serviços de saúde e que contribuiu para os diferentes alinhamentos que redundaram em posições antagônicas assumidas por médicos e políticos. Este novo volume apresenta ainda novas contribuições bem mais recentes de estudiosos do assunto, além das diretrizes atualizadas pela Opas e OMS no âmbito das campanhas de erradicação desenvolvidas em diversos países.
... In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, for instance, vaccination campaigns were a tool of colonial and military enterprises seeking to sanitize bodies that were viewed as a threat to the security of privileged classes, an occupying army, or economic interests. Local movements protested that these campaigns were no salve for the neglect or destruction of broader programs for public well-being [29][30][31][32][33]. As illustrated in the point above, medical and public health authorities have at times been complicit in this neglect of broader public programs, raising reason to think carefully about their proposed role as vaccine brokers with disenfranchised publics. ...
In the early months of the COVID-19 epidemic, some have wondered if the force of this global experience will solve the problem of vaccine refusal that has vexed and preoccupied the global public health community for the last several decades. Drawing on historical and epidemiological analyses, we critique contemporary approaches to reducing vaccine hesitancy and articulate our notion of vaccine confidence as an expanded way of conceptualizing the problem and how to respond to it. Intervening on the rush of vaccine optimism we see pervading present discourse around the COVID-19 epidemic, we call for a re-imagination of the culture of public health and the meaning of vaccine safety regulations. Public confidence in vaccination programs depends on the work they do for the community—social, political, and moral as well as biological. The concept of public health and its programs must be broader than the delivery of the vaccine technology itself. The narrative work and policy actions entailed in actualizing such changes will, we expect, be essential in achieving a true vaccine confidence, however the public reacts to the specific vaccine that may be developed for COVID-19.
... Se, no início de 1890, ele abrira as portas de sua casa para oferecer "um curso de democracia, com o fito de habilitar os cidadãos ao perfeito conhecimento das doutrinas republicanas"; 23 ;as frustrações de 1892 o fizeram não só pedir exoneração do Diário Oficial, como também se dedicar ainda mais às organizações operárias, à defesa do socialismo e às questões do ensino, como fica sugerido no quadro a seguir, que também é formado pelo nome das entidades e pelo ano dos primeiros registros da participação de Vicente de Souza. Grande Oriente do Brasil 1908 A propósito, os fatos que se sucederam após a degola são os que mais alcançaram o interesse dos pesquisadores (Carvalho, 1987;Chalhoub, 1996;Meade, 1999;Needell, 1996;Moraes Filho, 1981;Gomes, 2005;Batalha, 2007;Mattos, 2008). É desse período que da-tam a articulação com o Centro Socialista de Santos (1895-1896); a organização do Centro das Classes Operárias (1901); a fundação do Partido Socialista Coletivista, juntamente com Gustavo de Lacerda (1902); a mobilização e a mediação de greves, com destaque para as paralisações dos trabalhadores do Novo Lloyd Brasileiro (1903); e o envolvimento na Revolta da Vacina, momento em que se ressalta a influência positivista de Vicente de Souza (1904). ...
Resumo Voltado às continuidades e rupturas das lutas por liberdade e cidadania protagonizadas por trabalhadores entre as últimas décadas do século XIX e início do XX, este artigo elege como linha condutora a trajetória de Vicente de Souza, professor, médico, abolicionista, republicano e socialista negro, na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. O estudo vale-se, basicamente, da análise de textos de natureza diversa publicados em jornais, imagens, documentos do governo e de associações políticas, culturais e de socorro mútuo do Império e da Primeira República, a fim de problematizar práticas comuns às políticas de memória sobre pessoas negras livres no Brasil.
... 3 Benchimol (1990) menciona os interesses da elite proprietária, mas enfatiza o quadro mais amplo de interesses econômicos associados às reformas e segregação social. O mesmo acontece em estudos posteriores, como Carvalho (1995) e Rocha (1995), e nos que relacionam a Revolta da Vacina com o projeto de modernização da cidade, como Sevcenko (1984), Needell (1987) e Meade (1999). Recentemente, historiadores sociais usaram processos judiciais da época. ...
This article makes a qualitative analysis of judicial records from the first decade of the 20th century - found in the National Archives - in order to reconstruct the role of legal practices, institutions, and concepts in the resistance and adaptation of Rio de Janeiro's property owners to the urban reforms made by Pereira Passos and Rodrigues Alves. We use as complementary sources: parliamentary debates and legislation, to understand the reforms' legal bases; legal books and journals, to study the evolution of relevant concepts, such as "property"; and newspapers, to contextualize and access extra-legal aspects of lawsuits, i.e., what does not appear in court records.
... Nem mesmo era preciso, pois, que os segmentos populares estivessem efetivamente implicados em badernas, revoltas ou quebra-lampeões, como, de fato, ocorreu, algumas vezes, durante a Belle Époque (MENEZES, 1966, p. 118-27;SEVCENKO, 1983, p. 53-4, 66-8;CARVALHO, 1987, p. 99-139;NEEDELL, 1987;MEADE, 1997); a simples visão dos representantes dos estratos inferiores, extáticos nas calçadas ou perambulando sem emprego pelas ruas, acionava, nas classes superiores interessadas no estabelecimento de uma nova ordem, o comportamento de poluição -fórmula com que Douglas define a reação de defesa frente aos "agentes poluidores", frente a qualquer objeto ou idéia capaz de confundir ou contradizer classificações ideais (o fora-de-lugar, o híbrido, o mestiço, o informe). ...
... In the beginning of the 20th century, the Brazilian government reinstated the law of 1837 that made vaccination mandatory but this was never reinforced [36,37]. This act was not accepted by parts of the population, and weeklong riots occurred until the government revoked the law, took control of the situation and then restored the vaccination program [38,39]. ...
The presence of zoonotic poxviruses in nature represents a potential human health risk that has to be re-evaluated by health authorities not only in developing countries, but also in many developed countries. For example, buffalopox virus infection remains to be a threat to humans and cattle in India, and monkeypox virus infection persists in several inhabited places in Africa and, more recently, in the USA. There are also a great number of zoonotic transmissions of cowpox virus from cats to humans in Europe. For almost a decade in Brazil, vaccinia-like viruses have been isolated from human and cattle infections. This review examines the ability of potentially pathogenic orthopoxviruses, including feral versions of vaccinia virus vaccine, to persist in nature and re-emerge for reasons we do not yet understand.
Mais de meio século após o preconceito racial ter se tornado o principal alvo dos movimentos urbanos pelos direitos civis nos Estados Unidos e na África do Sul, e décadas depois do surgimento dos movimentos negros contemporâneos no Brasil, o conjunto de ferramentas legislativas criado no Brasil para promover o direito à cidade ainda adere à longa tradição brasileira de silêncio acerca da questão racial. Este artigo propõe iniciar uma exploração das raízes históricas desse fenômeno, remontando ao surgimento do silêncio sobre a questão racial na política urbana do Recife, Brasil, durante a primeira metade do século XX. O Recife foi e
é um exemplo paradigmático do processo pelo qual uma cidade amplamente marcada por traços negros e africanos chegou a ser definida política e legalmente como um espaço pobre, subdesenvolvido e racialmente neutro, onde as desigualdades sociais originaram na exclusão capitalista, e não na escravidão e nas ideologias do racismo científico. Neste sentido, Recife lança luzes sobre a política urbana que se gerou sob a sombra do silêncio racial.
A study of Rio de Janeiro's hygiene movement during Brazil's early national period and its effects on state development.
Este artigo trata da fracassada revolta militar que ocorreu em 14 de novembro de 1904, no contexto da revolta popular que eclodiu no Rio de Janeiro em oposição à lei da
vacinação obrigatória – e que passou à história com o nome de Revolta da Vacina.
Nessa ocasião, um grupo de oficiais do Exército e estudantes militares, liderados por um
reduzido grupo de militares-políticos, protagonizou uma tentativa de golpe de Estado
que partiu da Escola Militar do Brasil, localizada na Praia Vermelha. Procuramos mostrar como a revolta da Escola Militar teve na revolta popular apenas um pretexto,
havendo outros interesses e propósitos envolvidos na deflagração do movimento. Nesse
sentido, destacamos o projeto de “refundação” da república de 1889, com dimensões
políticas e simbólicas fundadas num padrão de ação mais geral, e que ajudam a
compreender o levante militar.
This article is a portal into the rapidly expanding historiography of modern Brazil. It highlights the major nodes of discussion and debate among historians of Brazil over the last two decades, and describes how these debates have been shaped by broader shifts in the historical profession. Two themes frame this survey of the new historiographical trends for postcolonial Brazil. One is the impact of the linguistic or cultural turn on that historiography. Slower to have an impact in the Brazilian historiography were the writings of the Subaltern Studies scholars and postcolonial theorists.
Resumo
DOI: 10.12957/dep.2015.16529Resumo O artigo se baseia em jornais, manuais de direito, revistas jurídicas e autos processuais do início do século XX para estabelecer uma relação entre ideias e práticas jurídicas e a Revolta da Vacina. O argumento central é de que a lei de vacinação que desencadeou a Revolta fazia parte de um contexto maior, no qual o Regulamento Sanitário autorizava agentes sanitários a invadir residências, inclusive com a ajuda da polícia, para realizar expurgos contra doenças contagiosas. Trabalhadores, proprietários, comerciantes e advogados buscaram defender suas residências contra os abusos da Saúde Pública. Antes e depois da Revolta, o direito constitucional à inviolabilidade de domicílio fez parte de uma consciência jurídica contrária aos expurgos e à vacinação, que se concretizou no uso da linguagem jurídica como canal de resistência dentro e fora dos tribunais.
Palavras-chave: Inviolabilidade de domicílio, Revolta da Vacina, consciência jurídica
Abstract
This article relies on early-20th century newspapers, legal treatises, law reviews, and cases to establish a connection between legal ideas and practices and the 1904 Vaccine Revolt. The central argument is that the mandatory vaccination law, which triggered the Revolt, was part of a broader context in which the Sanitary Decree authorized sanitary agents to invade residences, with police support, in order to decontaminate them. Workers, property owners, businessmen, and lawyers sought to defend their homes against the Public Health Authority’s abuses. Before and after the Revolt, the constitutional right to the inviolability of the home was part of a legal consciousness against decontaminations and vaccination, which was concretized in the use of legal language as a channel of resistance inside and outside of the courts.
Keywords: Inviolability of the home, Vaccine Revolt, legal consciousness
This article discusses trends and topics on the current historiography of disease in modern latin America. It identifies three dominant trends: the sociocultural history of disease, the history of public health and the new history of medicine. As for the topics, the most relevant ones area the study of epidemics, the transmission of knowledge from the center to the periphery, tropical medicine, and the sociocultural dimensions of the disease.
En este artículo se discute las tendencias y tópicos dominantes en la historiografía sobre la enfermedad en América latina moderna. Las tendencias dominantes son la historia sociocultural de la enfermedad, la historia de la salud pública y la nueva historia de la medicina. Los tópicos más trabajados son el estudio de las epidemias, el de la transmisión de saberes desde el centro a las áreas periféricas, la medicina tropical y las dimensiones socioculturales de la enfermedad.
The history of the city in twentieth-century Latin America can be seen as a long contest over the exercise of urban public space. While the nature of this space is often less physical than it is social and situational, the struggle between different elements of the city to manipulate its politics and control its daily life has often been violent, leaving deep imprints in the collective memories of places as culturally and physically diverse as Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Havana, Bogotá, and Rio de Janeiro.
If approached from the perspective of contested space, the urban milieu offers an intriguing site for the historian interestedin exploring changing relations of power, class conflict, opposing visions of the future, breakdowns of social order, gendered spaces, health and disease, visual culture, spectacle and symbolic codes, and ultimately, the creation of community. Yet until the 1980s, most Latin American historians who were interestedin these themes confined their studies to the countryside. As late as 1975, Jorge Hardoy (1975:44) could write that “the urban history of the second half of the nineteenth century and the early decades of the twentieth is virtually unknown, in spite of the extremely rich material left to us by innumerable travelers, scientists, and men of state.” While historians and social scientists working from the 1950s through much of the 1970s delineated the complex relations between peasant villages and national states, the ideologies of rural rebellion, and the sources of identity and community in a countryside transformed by the demands of export capital, cities in twentieth-century Latin America were accorded secondary treatment, sometimes at the level of popular anecdotal narratives.
The migration of Europeans to the New World at the end of the nineteenth century has been documented by numerous historians. Few, however, have addressed the second migration which occurred between the countries of the Western Hemisphere, especially that which took place between Brazil and Argentina. This thesis uses primary and secondary sources, including diplomatic reports, government records and newspaper articles, to define the magnitude of the migration and shows that, between 1880 and 1914, a substantially larger number of people left Brazil for Argentina than left Argentina for Brazil. This thesis also offers a number of explanations for the phenomenon described above, including a difference in economic opportunities and possibilities for social mobility between the two countries. After providing background information on the immigration of Europeans to the Southern Cone during the period in question, this thesis examines key events including emancipation, political changes, labor organization and war and explains their impact on migration within the region. The differing colonial foundations of the two countries is also presented as playing a critical role in the development of elite attitudes toward free labor. In conclusion, a variety of factors allowed for increased social mobility, or at least the perception of social mobility, in Argentina, which is reflected in the magnitude of new immigrants who moved from Brazil across the Rio de la Plata in search of a better life.
The 30th anniversary of the World Health Organization's (WHO) official certification of smallpox eradication was marked by a slew of events hailing the campaign's dramatic tale of technological and organizational triumph against an ancient scourge. Yet commemorations also serve as moments of critical reflection. This article questions the acclaim showered upon smallpox eradication as the single greatest public health success in history. It examines how and why smallpox eradication and WHO's concurrent social justice-oriented primary health care approach (following from the Declaration of Alma-Ata) became competing paradigms. It synthesizes critiques of eradication's shortcomings and debunks some of the myths surrounding the global eradication campaign as a public health priority and necessity, and as a Cold War victory of cooperation. The article concludes with thoughts on integrating technical and social-political aspects of health within the context of welfare states as the means to achieving widespread and enduring global public health success.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the emergence and establishment of a "culture of immunization" in the contemporary Brazil from the eradication of smallpox. This culture is associated with a long process of introduction of vaccines, vaccination campaigns and mass vaccination undertaken by the Brazilian government since the late nineteenth century. Particular importance is attributed to the campaign to eradicate smallpox in Brazil (1966-1973). The experience of mass vaccination of the population against smallpox is contrasted with episodes of resistance as the "revolt against the vaccine", and regarded as crucial in shaping new policies and new understandings about the role of immunization in public health and its place in society Brazil.
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