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Learning a language abroad and the implications for social
participation and positioning
John W. Schwieter
a
and Aline Ferreira
b
a
Language Acquisition, Multilingualism, and Cognition Laboratory, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo,
Canada;
b
Bilingualism, Translation, and Cognition Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara
ABSTRACT
For second language learners, an international experience can
have positive effects on language learning and intercultural
development even when participating in a program of relatively
short duration. One issue which has not yet received attention is
the potential impact that the study abroad experience may have
on social participation and position as perceived by the learners
themselves. The present study draws on post-structural views of
second language acquisition and positioning theory to qualita-
tively analyze these issues among language learners who were
currently studying abroad. Thirteen students from a Canadian
university participated in a four-week language immersion
experience in Spain. On Day 1, the participants were asked to
give their informal definitions of social participation and social
positioning and on Day 2, were asked to submit more formal
definitions of these issues after having researched them on their
own. On the last day abroad, the participants re-read their Day 2
responses and answered open-ended questions in which they
reflected on how these social participation and positioning may
be affected as a result of the study abroad experience. The
discussion of the findings provides implications for study abroad
programming and directions for future research.
Introduction
In the last few decades, there has been a steady increase in the number of
scholary work that investigate various angles and variables of a study abroad
experience. Reflecting this growth are the examples of several books published
recently, including The Routledge Handbook of Study Abroad Research and
Practice (Sanz & Morales-Front, 2018), Second Language Study Abroad:
Programming, Pedagogy, and Participant Engagement (Plews & Misfeldt,
2018), Intercultural Interventions in Study Abroad (Jackson & Oguro, 2018),
Interculturality in International Education (Jackson, 2018), Online Intercultural
Education and Study Abroad: Theory into Practice (Jackson, 2019), among
others. The journal Study Abroad Research in Second Language Acquisition
and International Education (Howard, 2020) is in its fifth year, demonstrating
CONTACT John W. Schwieter jschwieter@wlu.ca Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue,
Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, Canada
CRITICAL INQUIRY IN LANGUAGE STUDIES
https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2020.1713785
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
additional testament to the growing interest among researchers who are con-
ducting empirical work, both qualitative and quantitative, in this fascinating
field. Among these many avenues of research on study abroad and language
learning, at least one area has been overlooked –one which has to do with the
potential implications the international abroad experience may have for lear-
ners’social participation and positioning, as subjectively viewed by the learners
themselves.
In the present study, we seek to bring together the ongoing dialogue of
social participation and positioning with research on study abroad by report-
ing on a study in which university-level students from Canada participated in
a four-week abroad experience in Spain. We define social participation as the
degree of involvement in the activities of a social group (Prohaska, Anderson,
& Binstock, 2012) and in the wide range of social roles and relationships
(Hartwell & Benson, 2007). We take social positioning to be a subjective and
perceived place in a social hierarchy which depends not only on character-
istics such as age, gender, ethnicity, education, employment status, and
income, but also on “how people experience society, the way they perceive
their position in comparison with others, and what they imagine their
position would be in the future”(Lindemann, 2007, p. 54). Social positioning,
as originally conceptualized by Davies and Harré (1990,1999) and colleagues,
also includes pinpointing oneself and others with rights and obligations in
and through interaction.
In the next section, we provide a background of social and post-structural
views of second language learning and social positioning theory, the theories
around which we have framed the present study. On this backdrop, we
present our study which begins with an overview of the study abroad
program and a description of the participants. Following this, we outline
the methodology and data analyses used to interpret the qualitative data.
Finally, we discuss our findings and offer implications for learning in immer-
sion contexts and for study abroad programming.
Background
Social and post-structural views of second language learning
Scholars who subscribe to social and post-structural theories of second
language learning argue that language acquisition cannot be explained by
merely the input to which learners are exposed and the output they produce
(Firth & Wagner, 1997; Norton, 2000). On the contrary, there are several
dimensions that must be considered including social, cultural, and political
aspects of language learning and use (Pavlenko & Norton, 2007). Quite a bit
of work has been conducted on language leaners’identities by examining
their language and socialization processes during acquisition (Angulo, 2008;
2J. W. SCHWIETER AND A. FERREIRA
Block, 2007; Coleman, 2013; Jackson, 2008,2016; Schwieter & Ferreira,
2014). This growing body of work sheds light on how L2 learners function
in a new language and culture and how their identities change as a result of
navigating this new territory. For instance, Miller’s(2007) ethnographic
study of ten recently-arrived high-school ESL students to Australia showed
how these learners were able to negotiate a new social identity which allowed
them to acquire and function well in their L2. Norton’s(2000) pioneering
study explored identity and power among five immigrant learners in an ESL
classroom in Canada. The results of her study suggested that “the learning of
a second language is not simply a skill that is acquired with hard work and
dedication, but a complex social practice that engages the identities of
language learners”(p. 132). A post-structural approach to identity and
language learning may best be described as being “multifaceted, fluid,
dynamic, a site of struggle, and shaped by power relations amongst speech
communities and individuals”(Kayi-Aydar, 2012, p. 34).
Social positioning theory
As we defined in the introduction, social positioning includes, among other
characteristics, locating oneself and others with rights and obligations in and
through language. Such positioning, therefore, allows individuals to under-
take various positions that deny or give rights to other individuals including
their speech and actions. Harré and Slocum (2003) maintain that there are
three definable categories of actions:
Those [actions] one has done, is doing, or will do; those which one is permitted,
allowed or encouraged to do; and those which one is physically and temperamen-
tally capable of doing …Positioning theory is concerned with the relations
between these three domains [of actions]. The focus, however, is on the relation
between what one has or believes one has or lacks a right to perform and what one
does, in the light of that belief (p. 125).
Social positioning can depend on moment-to-moment interactions (Lewis,
1997), but it is also contextually-engrained “across interactions or scales of
activity”(Anderson, 2009, p. 292). For instance, Adams (2011) argues that any
given individual may construct (or be assigned) his/her identities through
positions in different situations. Over the long term, some of these positions
become a part of the individual’s self-identity. In other words, it is “through the
accumulations of positions that positional identities are formed and shaped …
Positioning therefore closely interacts with who we are, thereby affecting how we
behave and communicate”(Kayi-Aydar, 2014,p.688).
Positioning has been explored vis-à-vis issues of race (Maloch, 2005;Zacher,
2008), gender (Clarke, 2005;Ritchie,2002), and identity development (Anderson,
2009;Reeves,2009). The general findings suggest that social positioning affects the
nature of learners’interactions in addition to their access to learning. This is an
CRITICAL INQUIRY IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 3
important consideration to make given thatpositioninghasconsequencesforthe
social interactions necessary for language learning (Lantolf, 2000). More pertinent
to the present study is how positioning is affected by engagement in educational
settings. Although many of these studies have explored the role that limited
proficiency level plays in English language learners’positioning in mainstream
classes (Ajayi, 2006;Miller,2000;Pavlenko&Norton,2007), others have looked at
the critical role of educational policies (DaSilva Iddings & Katz, 2007;Duff,2002)
and the educators themselves (DaSilva Iddings, 2005;Harklau,2000;Martin-
Beltrán, 2010;Reeves,2009;Yoon,2008).
Fewer studies have explored English language learners in ESL classes (Kayi-
Aydar, 2014; Menard-Warwick, 2008; Miller, 2007). Kayi-Aydar presented two
descriptive case studies that explored the relationship between social positioning
and the language learning experiences of two English language learners. The
results of her micro- and macro-analyses showed that the two participants came
to occupy polarized positions in which one of the learners was positioned as an
accepted member and one was an outsider. Furthermore, her study demon-
strated that “positioning not only shapes interactions but also contributes one’s
identity over time across various conversations. Constant indication of one’s
expectations of others, acceptances, or resistances suggest particular identities
for individuals”(p. 709). While limited, the studies investigating these issues
among learners in second language classes suggest the effectiveness of analyzing
positioning to better understand learners, how they negotiate positional iden-
tities, and how these positions have broader implications. It also opens the door
to investigate these issues in a study abroad/immersion settings. To our knowl-
edge, there have been no studies conducted to date which explore these variables
in an international/study abroad setting.
Present study
In the present study, we draw on social and post-structural views of second
language learning and positioning theory to explore study abroad learners’
perceptions of how, if at all, a short-term study abroad experience will affect
their social participation and positioning. Below we describe the study abroad
program, the learners who participated in the study, and the method and
analyses we used to interpret the qualitative data.
The study abroad program
The study we report here is based on the experiences of students from a
Canadian university who participated in a four-week Spanish language
immersion program in Spain. The program is led annually by a professor
from the Canadian university. During the time abroad, the students live with
Spanish-speaking host families and are placed in their appropriate level of
4J. W. SCHWIETER AND A. FERREIRA
Spanish language, where in the mornings they learn in a small classroom
setting of six to eight students. In the afternoons, the students participate in a
tutorial designed to introduce the artistic, historical, and cultural sites they
visit across Spain. As such, a typical weekday included Spanish language
instruction from 9 am to 1 pm, a break from 1 pm to 3 pm, and cultural
instruction from 3 pm to 4 pm. This totaled approximately 75 hours of
Spanish language instruction and 10 hours of cultural instruction. For more
details, see Schwieter and Ferreira (2016) for a program itinerary that was
similar to the one in the present study.
Participants
Thirteen undergraduate students, including 8 females and 5 males between
ages 20 and 24 participated in this study. These participants were currently
enrolled in a medium-sized, English-speaking university in Canada. None of
them had previously studied abroad or internationally traveled other than
vacationing with family. All participants were native speakers of English with
beginning- and intermediate-level proficiency in French. They also had taken
between one and three semester-long Spanish courses at the Canadian uni-
versity prior to the study abroad trip. Upon arriving in Spain, the host
institution administered a placement test and five participants were placed
into elementary Spanish classes (level A1), five in A2, and three in B1
according to the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (Council of Europe, 2011). For the sake of anonymity, pseudo-
nyms are used in place of participants’real names.
Method and analyses
To gather information on participants’preexisting definitions of the variables
of interest, on the first day abroad, the participants were asked to respond to
Figure 1.
Once the initial thoughts were gathered, the participants were tasked with
researching on their own how these issues have been formally defined and
described in the field. They were then asked to respond to Figure 2.
Think about the two issues below and briefly tell me how you would define and describe
them. There are no wrong answers; just tell me what comes to your mind.
1. Social participation (including social activism, engagement, and movements)
2. Social positioning
Figure 1. Question gathering participants’initial definitions of social participation and
positioning.
CRITICAL INQUIRY IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 5
On the final day abroad, the participants were given back their initial
definitions of social participation and positioning which they had con-
structed in consultation with external sources on Day 2 (nearly four weeks
earlier). They were asked to read over the responses they had written so as to
refresh their memory about the key issues and to then answer the open-
ended questions shown in Figure 3.
The reflections from the four open-ended questions were analyzed using a
content approach (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Schwieter, 2011; Schwieter,
Ferreira, & Miller, 2018). We also examined the data in accordance with
open, thematic coding (Grbich, 2013) in which we devised codes to reflect
what we observed in the data rather than preconceived thoughts (Bazeley,
2013). In the next section, we present the findings from these analyses and
discuss their implications.
Findings
Initial and revised definitions of the key issues
When we initially asked the participants to define in their own words social
participation and social positioning without having read about them before, as
expected, many responses were vague, simplistic, or underdeveloped. With
respect to social participation, for instance, Fran said “I think it is important
to add and participate in a social environment not only does it add to your
own personal growth, it adds to the growth of others.”Although statements
likes Fran’s are somewhat unclear, there were others whose initial definitions
were more developed and demonstrative of a basic understanding of what
social participation and positioning mean. These included participants such
as Olivia who gave specific examples:
Later on Day 1, do an internet search on your own for these keywords and read about them.
On Day 2, turn in a brief summary, in your own words, of what you have learned and how
you would define and describe the terms. Cite the websites and sources you use. Keep these
terms in mind throughout the study abroad experience. At the end, you will be asked to
reflect on how these issues may (or may not) apply to you back home as a result of having
studied abroad. So, throughout our time abroad, be on the lookout for any specific
experiences you have that could be related to these issues.
1. Social participation (including social activism, engagement, and movements)
2. Social positioning
Figure 2. Question gathering participants’refined definitions of social participation and
positioning.
6J. W. SCHWIETER AND A. FERREIRA
Social participation is involvement of an individual towards their community,
culture, or religion. This could mean volunteering or working within organizations
that affect their own society and larger society such as working at a shelter, within
local government organizations, or even alongside activist groups that raise aware-
ness of a particular cause/issue.
Rather than providing a definition, Gail listed the words that she asso-
ciated with social participation including “awareness, human rights, protests,
petitions, marches, change, equality, passionate individuals, divisive topics,
politics.”
There was more variation in the participants’initial definition of social
positioning. Whereas some participants like Ana appeared unsure of the term
by using a question mark in her response “Your place within society?”, others
like Bart expressed their uncertainty by saying “Ithink this has to do with
Read over the responses you turned in on the second day to help you remember what you
learned about the keywords. Then, answer the questions below.
1. How do you think that this study abroad experience has affected your future social
participation, either back home or elsewhere? In your response, please describe the
specific experiences and situations from your time abroad that support this. If you do not
feel that this study abroad experience has affected your future social participation, why
not?
2. How do you think that this study abroad experience has affected your social
positioning? In your response, please describe the specific experiences and situations
from your time abroad that support this. If you do not feel that this study abroad
experience has affected your social positioning, why not?
3. Leaving aside our particular study abroad experience, in general, how do you think a
study abroad experience can affect things like social participation (including social
activism, engagement, and movements) and social positioning? What are the essential
experiences and elements (including those not in the study abroad experience you just
had) that you believe would increase social participation and social positioning?
4. Are there any other related learning experiences from this study abroad program that
you wish to discuss? Think about things like how you may have changed as a person,
how you now view the world and other cultures, who and what were the people and
things that most helped you while abroad, etc.
Figure 3. Open-ended questions asked at the conclusion of the study abroad program.
CRITICAL INQUIRY IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 7
social status.”Interestingly, Janice mentioned “identity”in her description of
positioning “Social positioning relates to your identity in society. This may
include your class, gender, race, sexual orientation, etc. which are all things
that may affect your ‘hierarchical status’as defined by society.”Still, a few
participants such as Derrek responded with a definition that was rather
unrelated (or at least, was more related to social participation instead of
positioning) “People may make a bigger effort in trying to get their point
across and might hold positions in movements such as leading or encoura-
ging people to join them.”Gail once again created a list of terms she viewed
as artifacts representing social positioning including “age, gender, race,
ethnicity, income, education, one’s place in society.”
To rectify the inconsistent and unclear responses from the participant’s
preliminary definitions of social participation and position, on Day 2 we
asked participants to submit new descriptions of the two terms after having
researched and cited information on their own. As anticipated, their defini-
tions of social participation and positioning were significantly more devel-
oped. Bea now defined social participation as
Part of the culture of our society whose objective is to enhance the quality of life
and well-being of individuals and communities that make up society. It involves
different cultural practices and expressions that lead to creating and transmitting
values that are shared by these individuals and communities within which we can
use to give a more in-depth meaning to our lives and development.
She described positioning as “relating to how individuals take on different
positions within groups and also how they assign positions to others, most
done orally.”Gail’s original list of words turned into a more sophisticated
description. She explained that “Social participation possesses three main
characteristics: social contact, contributing resources to society, and receiving
resources from society …”and that “social positioning is the position one
holds within a social system which includes their status that they hold and
the duties, responsibilities, and rights they have. These can include their
occupation, family, hobbies, etc.”
1
It was important that the participants
had an understanding of these two issues given that they were explicitly
told to observe any situations or experiences during the study abroad pro-
gram which may relate to social participation and positioning. They were
verbally reminded of this halfway through the program.
Final day abroad: reflections on social participation and positioning
On the final day abroad, the participants were given as much time as they
needed to respond to the open-ended questions which elicited the learners’
reflections on how the study abroad experience may have affected their social
8J. W. SCHWIETER AND A. FERREIRA
participation and positioning. All participants were finished within 45 min-
utes. We organize the findings around these two key issues.
Social participation
Without exception, all of the participants felt –to various degrees –as
though the study abroad experience would have subsequent positive effects
on their social participation. For two of the participants, this outlook was
motivated by environmental factors. Gail, for example, said that the study
abroad program “helped me to see how other cultures and countries treat the
environment. I can use this information in the clubs and organizations I’min
back home that are working to help the environment. For example, I’ve
noticed tap water is never used in restaurants here, thus creating more plastic
waste.”For five participants, developing a more worldly view was identified
as affecting future social participation. Olivia felt that “this program helped
me to understand problems going on outside of Canada. I am more aware
now of these issues and can actually make a difference by acting and helping
to solve problems.”Ana echoed these sentiments saying that “by meeting
local people here, I learned more about how things operate in different places
and cultures. Studying abroad has further developed my interest in being
more involved in society at large.”
For six participants, various ethnic, religious, and social issues that were
experienced while abroad appeared to be motivation for their future social
participation. Janice movingly noted that “from Canada, I thought that the
world population was moving in a positive direction with respect to racism
and social injustices, regardless of cultural norms at home. This trip has
proven otherwise. Prior to this trip, I did not tolerate racism. After this trip, I
still do not tolerate it but now, I can see myself more active in combating
bigoted-racist structures and belief systems.”Marcus said that he is “more
likely to be active in improving society and forming connections between
different cultures and parts of the world through the history that I’ve learn
while being abroad. For example, I wasn’t aware of the importance and
impact of Muslims and Jewish people in Spain. Without the experience and
accompanying lessons, I likely would’ve dismissed or doubted the connec-
tion.”Arnold came to realize just how similar social problems can be across
societies: “by coming abroad, I realized that there are many similar problems
as we have back home, such as homelessness. Going back, I take with me an
understanding that social participation is not just locally done but something
that should try to reach out to all societies.”
Social positioning
As opposed to social participation, the majority of the participants (N = 9)
did not feel that the study abroad experience would have an effect on their
social positioning. In fact, a few learners elaborated that they personally
CRITICAL INQUIRY IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 9
believed that social positioning is a relatively static characteristic as seen in
various participants’statements: “I feel that [social positioning] doesn’t
change very often”(Tina), “Rather than changing my social position, the
study abroad experience has solidified the positions I already had”(Ana), and
“Since I see my social position being directly affected by demographics, I
don’t think it has changed for me”(Janice). Fran said that that there would
be no effect on her social position once back home because “when I return to
Canada, I will be with the same people I was with prior to the trip. This
interaction will reflect my family’s social positions which has not changed
due to this experience.”Finally, while Derrek saw nothing unique about
studying abroad that would change his position “because I believe that
many people my age travel abroad at some point and have very similar
experiences,”Marcus simply stated “I don’t really think studying abroad
has affected my social position in any way.”
Nonetheless, there were four participants who found value in studying
abroad for their social positioning. Two of these learners discussed feelings of
empowerment, particularly among friends and peers. For instance, Olivia
believed that “my study abroad experience will place me at a much higher
position in society as well as among other students because learning the
practical side of education really builds your personality and makes you more
confident socially and mentally. Others can see that.”Arnold similarly noted:
I think that this study abroad experience has positively affected my social position-
ing, specifically when hanging out with my friends or making plans. I feel this
because when we all hang out together, everyone gets along well and has a good
time. As well, when discussing with my peers about certain situations or when we
try to make plans during free time, I feel that I’m no longer afraid to express my
thoughts. Before this trip, I would typically be shy or scared to share my thoughts
and feelings while worrying that no one would care. However, through this study
abroad experience, I have gained the confidence to express my thoughts and
opinions, and I see that my peers take them into account. I have noticed that
this has positioned me higher in social settings.
Bart also mentioned decision making in his response while also focusing
on stronger leadership skills which, he felt, would in turn affect his social
positioning in which he has “learned to become a lot more comfortable in
group settings, especially in situations where I have to make decisions and/or
speak up. Because of this, going forward, I feel as though I will have a lot
more confidence taking on roles and situations which I am not comfortable
or familiar with.”
Finally, Stacey wrote of increased international experience giving her more
professional opportunities: “I think because of the international experience I
have got through studying abroad, my social position will increase as I move
higher and closer to my career goals.”
10 J. W. SCHWIETER AND A. FERREIRA
Discussion, implications, and conclusion
To examine issues such as social participation and positioning in the study
abroad setting is essential. The present study admittedly has an preliminary
quality which not only reflects the limited research in the area, but also
underscores the need for future work to be conducted. Given the limited
attention these topics have received in the language learning and study
abroad literature, the present study addresses an innovative issue which
reflects the growth of the field beyond linguistic and intercultural perspec-
tives to personal, social, and societal issues. While there were a number of
interesting findings that suggested that an international experience, even as
short as one month, can have consequences for social participation and
positioning of learners in different ways and to varying degrees, the present
study has only begun to scratch the surface of this unknown territory. Our
results have demonstrated a clear link between having studied abroad and the
potential for future social participation as consistently reported by all 13
participants. However, the same could not be said for social positioning.
Indeed, the majority of the learners who participated in this study abroad
experience failed to perceive any sort of impact on their social positioning.
This may be due to the short duration of the time spent abroad, the rigid
structure of the program (which may not have afforded them enough free
time), or simply that a study abroad experience, at least one of this nature led
by an accompanying faculty member, may not have consequences for some-
thing as complex as social positioning.
Study abroad programming should consider ways in which learners are
continuously encouraged to reflect on social positioning as they participate in
a range of roles in a new language and social environment. In fact, Bea
suggested in her open-ended response to social positioning “I don’t think this
study abroad experience has affected my social position. It was never talked
about or brought to my attention.”Unfortunately in the present study, after
the second day abroad, the researchers only reminded the participants about
social participation and positioning halfway through the program and were
not explicitly asked to think about the terms and their implications until the
final day abroad. In some way, this was done on purpose as to not interfere
with the participants’own observations and experiences during the program.
However, it may be beneficial for future studies to include ongoing discus-
sions between the researcher and participants, possibly in a similar or less-
formal format as Jackson’s(2008) study in which the participants took two
classes with the researchers, one on ethnography and one on intercultural
communication. After learning about these issues prior to studying abroad,
the learners then conducted ethnographic fieldwork, kept diaries including a
language use log, and participated weekly in surveys about their experience
during their sojourn. Upon returning home, the learners participated in a
CRITICAL INQUIRY IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 11
post-abroad survey and debriefing session and submitted ethnographic
reports. To date, the range of methods employed in Jackson’s study are
among the most extensive found in a single project exploring study abroad
learners. Its methodological approach would be highly beneficial to future
work looking at social participation and positioning in study abroad and
immersion contexts.
Furthermore, considerations at the planning level should also include
experiential-based activities and volunteer opportunities while abroad as
mentioned by Roy: “One nice thing would have been to include more
interaction with the local people and getting involved in the community
through volunteering. I think this could have given me the first-hand experi-
ence that would make me want to do even more involved back home and
beyond.”Researchers should continue to explore the impact of study abroad
on social issues such as participation and positioning. Preferably, this should
be conducted using mixed methods (e.g., Jackson, 2008), among different
programs (e.g., independent learners), and potentially longitudinal measures
(e.g., ethnographies).
Note
1. For social participation, Bea consulted www.unesco.org and Gail read information at
www.who.int. For social positioning, Bea referred to www.phys.org and Gail accessed
information at www.managementmania.com.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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