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A Review on Recent Progress of Batteries for Electric Vehicles

December 2019
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research 14(24):4441-4461

Authors:

The progress of the development of electric vehicles over the decades has been improving in a fast pace. After the outbreak of oil shortage and the impact of greenhouse gaseous released from the internal combustion engine vehicles to the environment in 1970s, society started to work on investigating the usage of environmentally friendly vehicle that uses alternate energy. Out of all the solutions, electric vehicle could be the answer to the challenges addressed. As battery serves a large part in the industry of electric vehicles, this review paper focuses on the recent progress of battery for electric vehicles. This review paper discussed about the oldest type of rechargeable battery, lead-acid battery to the recent commonly used battery, which is the latest technology of battery, lithium-ion battery. The materials of battery components, battery parameters, battery pack design and cell design as well as the sustainable issue of batteries for lead-acid battery, nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH), ZEBRA battery and lithium ion battery (Li-ion) were descripted and examined in exquisite details. The future development of the batteries such as rechargeable magnesium battery and sodium ion battery were also evaluated.

The first invention of electric car by Gaston Planté

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The constitution of a cell [5]

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Schematic construction of a Li-ion battery cell [8]

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Number of cycles against DoD for VRLA battery [55]

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+13

Relationship between battery capacity, discharge rate and operating temperature[56]

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Content uploaded by Ir Ts Dr Mohd Faizal Fauzan

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International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 14, Number 24 (2019) pp. 4441-4461

4441

A Review on Recent Progress of Batteries for Electric Vehicles

T. Y. Chian, W. L. J. Wei, E. L. M. Ze, L. Z. Ren, Y. E. Ping, N. Z. Abu Bakar*, M. Faizal and S. Sivakumar

School of Engineering, Taylor’s University, Taylor’s Lakeside Campus,

No. 1 Jalan Taylor’s, 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor DE, Malaysia.

Abstract

The progress of the development of electric vehicles over the

decades has been improving in a fast pace. After the outbreak

of oil shortage and the impact of greenhouse gaseous released

from the internal combustion engine vehicles to the

environment in 1970s, society started to work on investigating

the usage of environmentally friendly vehicle that uses

alternate energy. Out of all the solutions, electric vehicle could

be the answer to the challenges addressed. As battery serves a

large part in the industry of electric vehicles, this review paper

focuses on the recent progress of battery for electric vehicles.

This review paper discussed about the oldest type of

rechargeable battery, lead- acid battery to the recent commonly

used battery, which is the latest technology of battery, lithium-

ion battery. The materials of battery components, battery

parameters, battery pack design and cell design as well as the

sustainable issue of batteries for lead-acid battery, nickel metal

hydride battery (NiMH), ZEBRA battery and lithium ion

battery (Li-ion) were descripted and examined in exquisite

details. The future development of the batteries such as

rechargeable magnesium battery and sodium ion battery were

also evaluated.

Keywords: Electric Vehicles; lead-acid battery; nickel-based

battery; ZEBRA battery; Lithium based battery

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Due to public attention of the limited amount of fuel energy in

the world and the emission of greenhouse gaseous by the

internal combustion engine vehicles, people started to look for

environmentally friendly vehicles that can be powered using

alternate rechargeable energies. As electricity is one of the

sustainable energies, the concept of vehicles using electricity to

power up the car was introduced. Although electricity is the

sustainable energy to power up the motors of the vehicles, the

concept of an electric vehicle was not introduced to the world

until the year of 1859. In the same year, the rechargeable

battery named lead-acid battery was first conceived by Gaston

Planté [1]. Batteries play an important role to the evolution of

the electric vehicles as it is a must for the electric vehicles to

carry a portable item that stores electricity in order to have the

electricity supply to its motor.

Figure 1. The first invention of electric car by Gaston Planté

1.1 ELECTRIC MOBILITY

Electric mobility is one of the fields that uses rechargeable

energy which is the electricity. Electric mobility includes all the

street vehicles using electric motor that rely on the electricity

power either fully or partially. Vehicles using purely electric

motor (Electric Vehicles – EV), vehicles using small

combustion engine and electric motor (Range Extended

Electric Vehicles – REEV) as well as vehicles using

conventional internal combustion engine system and electric

propulsion system (Hybrid Electric Vehicles – HEV) are

considered as electric mobility. The automotive vehicles

created in the industry of electric mobility use electricity energy

in the rechargeable batteries to power up their systems in order

to function. As the automotive vehicles use electricity to power

up their electric motors, there are no emission of greenhouse

gaseous by the automotive vehicles as there are no combustion

occurred in the system unlike the usage of internal combustion

engines [2].

1.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE

The electric vehicle, which is as known as EV, is powered

purely by its electric motor that gains energy from the source

of electricity. Electric vehicles are not something new to

today’s world, the first electric car was invented back in 1859,

which is 160 years ago from 2019. The electric vehicles lost the

game in the industry of automobiles to the internal combustion

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engine vehicles over the years. According to the US

automobiles sales data in 1900, among 4800 automobiles sold,

the percentages of electric vehicles, internal combustion engine

vehicles and steam-power vehicles were 38%, 22% and 40%.

At that time, the demand of electric vehicles is considerable.

Frantically, the popularity of electric vehicles did not last and

the demand of it almost wiped out just 30 years later. The

demand of electric vehicles in 1930 was almost replaced by the

demand of internal combustion engine vehicles. However, due

to the announcement of oil shortage in 1970s as well as the

concerns of environmental and awareness of air quality in the

surrounding in 1980s arise, people starting to rekindle their

interests in electric vehicles. The development of the electric

vehicles accelerated as people wanted to save the environment

[3]. Norway is one of the many countries in the world that

highly promotes the usage of electric vehicles to its nations.

The government of Norway promotes electric vehicle usage by

adapting measurements like exemption of roadway tolls,

accessing infrastructure of charging stations, limited lanes for

public bus and more [4].

The usage of using electric vehicles can certainly bring several

benefits to the humankind society. One of the most obvious

advantages that people using electric vehicles is the reduction

of greenhouse gaseous emission. Electric vehicles that powered

mainly by the electric motor do not require combustion to run

the vehicles like internal combustion engine vehicles. Without

combustion, there is zero emission of greenhouse gaseous by

the electric vehicles.

However, there is also downsides of using electric vehicles than

using internal combustion engine vehicles. The downsides of

using electric vehicles including the lengthy time required for

the electric vehicles’ batteries to recharge. By using electric

vehicles, the users required to charge the vehicles exactly just

like how the internal combustion engine users needed to refill

the fuel. Unlike refilling the fuel, the time required to recharge

the batteries in the electric vehicles is longer. The time-

consuming batteries recharging session could be quite

inconvenience to the electric vehicles’ users.

1.3 TRACTION BATTERY

Traction battery was one of the most important components of

the electric. Mainly road vehicles, locomotives, industrial

trucks and mechanical handling equipment use the traction

batteries as power resources. It is also possible to refer to the

rechargeable traction battery as the electric vehicle battery

(EVB). The traction batteries, unlike the auxiliary batteries,

support the entire electric vehicles instead of just providing the

energy needed to start the engine for the vehicles. The lead-acid

battery, the nickel-cadmium battery (Ni-Cd), the nickel-metal

hydride battery (NiMH) and the lithium are examples of the

major traction batteries.

1.4 LEAD-ACID BATTERY

Lead-acid battery was invented in 1859 by Gaston Planté as the

world’s first rechargeable traction battery. The lead-acid was

the first type of rechargeable battery in the world that was

commercially used especially in the industry of automobiles

[5]. The lead-acid battery was modified by Camille Alphonse

Faure in 1881 and the performance and capacity of the modified

lead-acid battery has improved by using the lead grid lattice.

The manufacturing processes of the lead-acid batteries were

also made easier after the modification of lead-acid batteries by

Camille Alphonse Faure. Although the lead-acid battery was

invented 160 years ago from 2019, it is still contributing widely

in the field of automobiles considering its cheap cost [6].

1.5 NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY (NICD)

Nickel Cadmium Battery has been widely used by the society

and intended to replace lead-acid battery especially the

automobiles manufactured in Europe. The usage of Nickel

Cadmium battery in the electric vehicles is developed in 1980s

and 1990s. The Nickel Cadmium battery is well known for its

good battery cycle life. Unfortunately, due to its relatively low

range and uncompetitive selling price, the market of Nickel

Cadmium battery did not expand [7].

1.6 NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE BATTERY (NIMH)

The usage of hydrogen inserted in metallic alloys instead of

cadmium at the negative electrode, the Nickel Metal Hydride

battery is considered an advanced version of the Nickel

Cadmium battery. The Nickel Metal Hydride battery is

constantly sealed to prevent hydrogen from leaking. Due to the

Nickel Metal Hydride battery’s significant improvement in

energy density, it replaces Nickel Cadmium in the application

of electric vehicles. The usage of Nickel Metal Hydride battery

did not get commercialized in the 1990s as the newer

technologies of battery were introduced very soon after the

Nickel Metal Hydride was developed [7].

1.7 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries were developed and

introduced in the 1990s to the world with a significant weight

advantage over other battery systems. Lithium-ion battery,

known as one of the most outstanding quality in the new

electrochemical industry. It is one of the most used and

widespread batteries used by electric vehicles today [8]. The

Lithium-ion battery's weight advantages make it competitive

with other battery systems. Because of its high specific energy,

the lithium-ion battery has a relatively greater travel distance,

which is about three times greater than the mileage of the lead

acid battery [9].

In the automotive industry, the Lithium-ion battery has obvious

advantages as it has a long cycle life, high energy capacity and

high efficiency. Lithium-ion batteries are extremely likely to

contribute more to the current markets and the lives of people

as the development of new products, innovations and strategies

continues to advance[10].

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2.0 ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Batteries with the ability to store energy electrochemically have

achieved many of today’s advancements. Batteries are widely

used in variety of devices and machinery; however, it is the

complex chemistry occurring within the battery cells that

enables the modern conveniences. Batteries are composed of

two terminals which are positive and, negative terminals or

cathode and, anode, electrolyte and casing to hold all the

components within. The electrolyte is added to divide anode

and cathode but allowing the ions to flow. Battery undergoes

an electrochemical reaction where the conversion of chemical

energy to electrical energy occurs when a load or power supply

is connected between the terminals [11]. In this reaction, anode

undergoes oxidation which donates or releases electrons

through the terminal. Meanwhile, cathode undergoes reduction

where the electrode reacts with the ions and accepts the

electrons given by the anode. In short, the anode releases its

electrons and, the cathode accepts and uses them.

Currently, there is a few different types of rechargeable

batteries available to be used in electric vehicles. The batteries

are enhanced and transformed to have better quality and

chemical properties as the time passes by. The evolution of the

batteries can be arranged in the sequence of lead-acid battery,

nickel-metal hydride battery, sodium-nickel chloride battery

and a lithium-ion battery. Today, lithium-ion batteries have

dominated the major commercial market. Therefore, a brief

description of the electrochemistry in all rechargeable batteries

used in electric vehicles and the recent progress on the materials

selection for the electrodes used in lithium-ion battery will be

discussed.

Lead-acid batteries are assembled with multiple individual cells

covered with layers of lead alloy plates drenched in an

electrolyte. In each cell, there is a plate with lead dioxide as

positive electrode, a metallic lead plate as negative electrode.

Both plates are separated by an insulated separator and

immersed in an electrolyte with the composition of

approximately 65% H2O and 35% sulphuric acid [12].

In the charge and discharge condition of lead acid battery, huge

chemical processes take places for the conversion of energy.

The diluted sulphuric acid molecules dissolve and convert into

positive hydrogen ions (2H+) and negative sulphate ions

(SO4−). If a DC supply is connected to the terminals, the

positive hydrogen ions (2H+) moved towards the negative

electrode. Also, the negative sulphate ions (SO4−) are attracted

by the electrode that connected to the positive electrode. The

hydrogen ions receive two electrons at the cathode and form a

hydrogen atom. This atom reacts with the lead sulphate

(PbSO4) to form a product with the composition of lead (Pb)

and sulphuric acid (H2SO4).

Nickel-metal hydride batteries in a solid hydride cycle store

hydrogen as an active component. The negative electrode of the

nickel-metal hydride battery is a hydrogen storage medium that

releases the hydrogen when charging and discharging and

enables the electrochemical reaction to take place [3]. This

electrode is made from metal hydride which is usually the rare

earth mixture of lanthanum alloy [4]. The nickel hydroxide

Ni(OH)2 serves as the positive electrode in the battery cell.

Oxidation and reduction take place at both electrodes through

an electrolyte which consists of 30 % by weight of alkaline

potassium hydroxide (KOH) in water.

In charging condition. oxidation took place in nickel hydroxide

Ni(OH)2 electrode. Hydroxyl ion reacts with nickel hydroxide

Ni(OH)2 and form nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) and water.

On the other hand, the MH electrode which represents the

hydrogen-absorbing alloy is reduced. Water is separated into

hydrogen which again reacts with the metal to form MH in the

cathode. The nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)2 served as positive

electrode to promote the reversibility in electrochemical

reaction with nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH). The stream of the

nickel-metal hydride battery charging and discharging is

therefore in the opposite direction.

Sodium-nickel chloride battery used a negative electrode which

is composed of liquid metal sodium and a mixture of nickel (II)

chloride (NiCl2) and iron (II) chloride (FeCl2) as the positive

electrode. A ceramic solid metal, Na-β” alumina (Na2Al11O17)

is used as an electrolyte to separate both electrodes away. It

prevents the direct chemical reactions between the electrode

constituents but allowing the sodium ions to flow between the

electrodes. Also, the second electrolyte of molten sodium

tetrachloro-aluminate ( NaAlCl4) is used in helping the

transportation of sodium ions to the positive electrode [5]. The

constitution of a cell for sodium-nickel chloride battery is

shown as Figure 2.

Figure 2. The constitution of a cell [5]

In the discharged state, the mixture of metal chloride phase is

fabricated in the positive electrode from a mixture of

aluminium, iron, nickel and common salt. These metals are

oxidized by the initial charge and the salt is decomposed into

sodium and chloride ions. The chloride ions react and combine

with the oxidized metals to form metal chlorides. The cell

discharging process is a reversible chemical reaction.

Lithium-ion batteries relied on the insertion of reactions from

both negative and positive electrodes where lithium ions act as

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the charge transporting system to store energy. In 1991, Sony

became the first to manufacture and sell lithium-ion batteries

[6]. The idea of the reversibility in the movement of lithium ion

between the electrodes in the battery is first developed by

Armand which used different intercalated materials for two

electrodes [7]. It enables the lithium ions to flow back and

forward among two electrodes. Goodenough laboratory

discovered the reversibility of the NaFeO2 crystal structure in

deintercalation of the lithium ions at relatively high potentials.

Metals, including magnesium, aluminium, iron, etc. with the

mixture of nickel and cobalt were discovered later to have the

similar ability and adopted the lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)

to be the active positive materials for Sony’s lithium-ion

battery. Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) is the first and most

common form of layered transition metal oxide cathodes. It is

very suitable to be a cathode material because it has high

theoretical specific capacity, volumetric capacity, discharge

voltage, and good cycling performance. Meanwhile, most

lithium-ion batteries ' negative electrode consists of graphite or

lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12) and certain materials still under

development, namely lithium metal and Li-Si alloys [8]. The

electrolyte is used which is usually created to allow the

movement of ions between electrodes with a mixture of organic

solvent and lithium salts. Besides, a separating membrane or

separator is used to separate both electrodes away from each

other but, allowing the electrode to flow while eliminating the

chances of internal short circuit. Figure 3 shows the schematic

construction of a battery cell of the lithium-ion battery.

Figure 3. Schematic construction of a Li-ion battery cell [8]

Based on Figure 3, a separator is integrated to avoid the direct

contact between two electrodes. The electrons flow from

negative electrode to the load, and then went to the positive

electrode through the current collector when it acts as a

galvanic device. Concurrently, the lithium ions (Li+) flow from

negative electrode to positive electrode via the electrolyte so

that the electroneutrality can be maintained. At present, there

are many choices of materials that could be selected to be the

positive and negative electrodes, and the electrolyte in the

lithium-ion battery.

2.1 CATHODE

Intercalation compounds which enable the lithium ions (Li+) to

diffuse out and in are generally used as the positive electrodes.

These compounds include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2),

lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2), lithium manganese oxide

(LiMn2O4), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium nickel

manganese cobalt oxide (Li(NixMnyCo1-x-y)O2), and lithium

nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (Li(NixCoyAl1-x-y)O2). Lithium

cobalt batteries are very reactive which cause it to have low

thermal stability and unsafe to use if it is not being monitored.

The limitation of resources in cobalt also makes it be more

expensive which decrease the feasibility to be implemented

into electric vehicles. However, it is used to create high energy

to power the Tesla Roadster and Smart Fortwo electric drive.

Lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2) is recognized to be a low-cost

material for the high voltage batteries where it has a high

theoretical capacity with a value of 250 Ah kg-1. But the self-

passivation layer which formed on the surfaces cause

difficulties in the handling of this material. This material has a

complex manufacturing process due to its stoichiometric

properties and a lot of requirements needed to be met. Thus,

Lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2) is somewhat a less practical

electrode materials used in rechargeable batteries. Lithium

manganese oxide batteries (LMO) also have low internal

resistance and good current handling due to their architecture

that forms a three-dimensional spinal structure that could

improve the ion flow between the electrodes. The chemistry

within the battery cells provide better thermal stability.

However, it has roughly thirty-three percent lower capacity and

lower life span than lithium cobalt oxide. Most of the lithium

manganese oxide batteries are blended with the lithium

manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) to enhance its specific energy

and extend its life span. Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and BMW i3

had been manufactured in the past with the LMO-NMC

batteries [9]. Besides, a researcher in the University of Texas

had discovered which phosphate materials are selected as the

positive electrodes in the lithium-ion battery in 1996. Lithium

iron phosphate (LiFePO4) was then introduced, which has

improved electrochemical efficiency with low cell resistance

and high current rating Phosphate helps to stabilize the

electrode against overloading and increase heat tolerance which

restricts material breakdown [9]. Lithium iron phosphate

(LiFePO4) battery is less likely to experience the thermal

runaway as it has a wide range of operating temperature. This

battery also has higher self-discharge as compared to other

lithium-ion batteries. However, the moisture is an issue of this

battery where it significantly limits the its lifetime.

Additionally, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide

(Li(NixMnyCo1-x-y)O2) electrode is designed to increase its high

specific energy either power with high density. This electrode

is composed of nickel and manganese where nickel has high

specific energy but low stability; manganese helps in forming

a spinel structure which achieves low internal resistance but

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provides low specific energy. Nickel is used to combine with

the manganese enables to enhance the strength of each other’s

which make the NMC to be one of the most effective lithium-

ion system. This battery is currently high demand in the current

commercial market due to its high specific energy and excellent

thermal properties. Lastly, lithium nickel cobalt aluminium

oxide (Li(NixCoyAl1-x-y)O2) battery is somewhat similar to

NMC which offers high specific energy, power and a long life

span. This battery is not as safe as other batteries mentioned

above and require a special safety monitoring measure before

integrating it into the electric vehicles. It is also more expensive

to manufacture which limits their viability to be used in a wide

variety of application.

2.2 ANODE

There are two types of negative electrodes that are used in

lithium-ion batteries, namely lithium titanate and carbon-based

electrode. New types of negative electrodes are currently under

development, including lithium metal, lithium-metal alloy,

lithium-silicon alloys and conversion electrodes. First of all,

carbon and usually synthetic graphite are still used as the

negative electrode in the lithium ion batteries because they have

high specific capacity, low average voltage and high energy

efficiency in the round trip [10]. It is generally used and an

excellent alternative for the electrode as it is a material that is

low cost, available and safe from toxic. However, if the carbon

reacts with the atmospheric oxygen or experiences a thermal

runway event, the electrode may catch on fire. Furthermore, in

the traditional lithium ion battery, lithium titanate was used to

substitute graphite as the negative electrode which shapes into

a spinel shape. The appropriate counter-electrode with lithium

titanate is lithium manganese or lithium manganese cobalt

oxide. There is no volume difference in the spinel lithium

titanate during lithiation that extends the electrode's operational

life. Because of its lithium diffusion coefficient, it has weak

electrical conductivity and poor performance at high power

rates, but this can be enhanced by increasing the duration of the

transport path of lithium ion by correct nano-structuring.

Lithium titanate batteries are integrated in the Mitsubishi’s i-

MiEV electric vehicle. Therefore, lithium metal is a favorable

negative electrode in the lithium ion battery with large capacity

and low negative electrochemical potential where the electrode

size will decrease the negative electrode mass due to the

magnitude order. However, during lithium plating or stripping,

the growth of metallic dendrites in the lithium metal electrode

may cause short circuit. The design of this electrode progresses

and aims to create a stable lithium metal electrode that could

boost electric vehicle efficiency [11]. In addition, alloy-based

electrodes made of lithium-alloy metals have a higher specific

capacity than conventional graphite electrodes. Throughout

phase transitions, accommodation of a large amount of lithium

is followed by a major density shift in the host material. The

mechanical strain allows the metal electrode to break and

crumble during the alloying or de-alloying processes and the

lack of capacity that used to hold charge. The electrochemical

method experiments that are partly reversible to form alloys

between several metals and lithium proceed. In comparison,

lithium-silicon alloy has a greater potential effective strength

than metallic lithium in its completely lithiated structure. In this

electrode chemistry, during the transition between Si and

Li15Si4, there is a significant volumetric change in the

electrode material that creates high internal strain in the active

materials [12]. The internal strain could cause the Si material

to crack and eventually disintegrate, resulting in a significant

fade in reversible capacity. In contrast, Si has strong electrical

resistivity and poor lithium diffusivity. The composite

electrodes made of nanostructure Si have a high capacity to

withstand volume expansion [13], and boost mechanical and

electrical properties through the use of a highly doped Si

embedded in conductive matrices. The issues mentioned to date

have prevented the practical use in electric vehicles of silicon-

based electrodes. Finally, batteries that use the conversion-type

electrodes have a higher density of energy storage but undergo

a substantial fading in power than the one with intercalation-

type electrodes. In the conversion electrodes there is an actual

chemical reaction where it is opposed to the only intercalation

of the lithium ions into a host material's lattice.

3.0 BATTERIES PARAMETERS

The most important core for the electric vehicle is the traction

battery component. Without the main battery, the electric motor

cannot perform its function relatively. Lately, EV battery

manufacturers were keeping developing new type of battery for

electric vehicle, innovating and improving the existing batteries

to increase the efficiencies for each parameter.

3.1 BATTERY SPECIFIC ENERGY, SPECIFIC POWER,

ENERGY DENSITY, WEIGHT AND SIZE

At the early stages of the EV generation, Pb-Acid has used as

the primary core to power the EV. Pb-Acid battery basically

can be identified as two primary categories : Starting battery

and Deep-Cycle Battery[22]. Deep-cycle type such as VRLA,

AGM and Gel was used for EV as it has a greater energy

capacity and durability. In fact, Pb-Acid batteries was unable

to generate voltage itself; instead they received or stored a

charge from another origin. Therefore, Pb-Acid batteries are

referred to as storage batteries as they carry just one charge.

The size and amount of electrolyte of the battery plates will

determine how much charge lead acid batteries can be stored.

A battery's amp-hour (Ah) or watt-hour (Wh) rating is

described as the size of the storage capacity for all types of

batteries [23]. The Pb-Acid battery has a low specific energy

and energy density with a value of 35-40 Wh/kg and 80-90

Wh/L [24], in which the early electric vehicle required a large

amount of battery size in powering the vehicle that resulted in

incremental of curb weight of the electric vehicle at the same

time. According to study by Ahman, an EV battery should be

able to store up 30 kWh capacity to afford the vehicle an

acceptable range [25]. In order to generate 1 kWh electrical

energy, an approximate 30 kg lead acid battery was required.

Assuming the initial electric vehicle consumed 20 kWh/100

km, for the Pb-Acid battery to be capable to support the electric

vehicle, 20 packs of batteries to travel 100 km which consisted

total of 600 kg mass from the batteries itself. The typical Pb-

Acid battery has a specific power of 285 W/kg [26]. Specific

power, or gravimetric power density can be defined as the

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loading capability for a battery. Batteries made for EV

application usually have a low specific energy or energy

density in combination with a high specific power. A higher

specific power value indicate that more energy can deliver to

the electric motor to drive the vehicle which means greater

acceleration in a short time.

It did not take long for people to recognize that lead-acid type

battery was not suitable for powering the EV for a long-term

period due to low energy densities, sensitive to temperature and

life cycle. Soon, a new nickel-based battery was invented by

Waldemar Jungner in 1899 [27] which replaced the lead-acid

battery as the power source in EV. Unlike Pb-Acid, the nickel

metal hydride (Ni-MH) uses an alkaline electrolyte

– a concentrated potassium hydroxide aqueous solution. Some

common type of nickel-based batteries consisted Nickel-Iron

(Ni-Fe), Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn) and

Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH). Because of the short life cycle

and low specific strength characteristics, the Nickel Iron and

Nickel Zinc batteries were not really applied on the EV

application [28]. The battery which commonly used for EV was

the Ni-MH type as it possessed higher specific energy and

energy density compared to Pb-Acid battery with a value of 50-

70 Wh/kg and 100-140 Wh/L [28]. Ni-MH battery was chosen

over the Ni-Cd is because it has relatively higher specific

energy and density content and Ni-MH did not contain toxic

metals which was cadmium. Besides, research also had shown

that Ni-MH provided 40 % higher specific energy than the

standard Ni-Cd [27]. Therefore, most of the EVs has adopted

the Ni-MH battery technology as it can greatly lower the battery

packs total weight and improve the energy consumption

efficiency. It also has a lower energy density value which allow

the battery system to be contained within a smaller space. In

order to generate 1 kWh using Ni-MH battery, an approximate

20 kg of Ni-MH battery was required. Comparing to the lead-

acid, the battery mass can say to be reduced by a 33 %.

However, the used of Ni-MH battery in EVs has reached a

bottleneck as its practical specific energy limitation can only

achieved until 75 Wh/kg [29]. A typical Ni-MH battery has a

specific power of 200 W/kg [26]. Other than that, Ni-MH

battery also having self-discharge problem. In the first 24 hours

right after charge, the self-discharge rate of the Ni-MH battery

has a value of twenty percent and 10 percent per month

thereafter [27].

Later, there was another alternative battery that can be used for

power the EV which named as sodium-nickel chloride

(ZEBRA) or ‘Zero Emission Battery Research Activity’. This

technology was first invented in South Africa during the 1970s

and 1980s [30]. This type of battery has a remarkably specific

energy and energy density with a value of 100 Wh/kg and 160

Wh/L [31]. The specific power rating and power density for

ZEBRA battery is 170 W/kg and 250 W/L respectively [32].

However, the optimum operating temperature (300 °C) for

ZEBRA battery requires pre-heating before use, which

consumed considerable energy if parked regularly for long

periods. Therefore, it is more suitable to applications where the

EV is being used continuously such as the urban public

transportation.

Finally, the revolution of the battery reached the stage where

the lithium-ion based battery took over the place. The current

primary sources for almost every EV around the world are

using the Li-ion based battery. Lithium has the smallest value

of weight among of all metals, with the greatest

electrochemical potential and possessed the largest specific

weight and high density of energy [33]. Li-ion based battery

basically consisted of two types, those with liquid (Li-ion-

liquid) and those with polymer electrolyte (Li-ion-polymer)

while the liquid-ion type is preferable for EV purpose. There

are three different combination of materials for the liquid Li-

ion type battery which are Lithium Iron Phosphate (𝐿𝑖𝐹𝑒𝑃𝑂4),

Lithium Manganese oxide (𝐿𝑖𝑀𝑛2𝑂4) and Lithium Cobalt

Oxides ( 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂) . Li-ion based batteries that used for EV

applications normally has a specific energy of 150-200 Wh/kg

and an energy density of 250-400 Wh/L [34]. The specific

power rating for a typical liquid Li-ion battery used for EV

application has a value of 260 W/kg [26]. In order to generate

1 kWh using Li-ion battery, an approximate 7 kg of Li-ion

battery was required. Comparing to the Pb-Acid and Ni-MH,

the battery mass can say to be reduced by 77 % and 65 % for 1

kWh capacity.

Table 1. Comparison among four batteries used for EV

Battery type

Specific

Energy

(Wh/kg)

Energy

Density

(Wh/L)

Specific

Power

(W/kg)

Mass of battery for

EV to run a 100 km

with 20 kWh/100km

Mass reduction

compared to

previous battery

Lead -

Acid

35-40

80-90

285

500 – 600 kg

0 %

Ni- MH

50-70

100-140

200

300 – 400 kg

36.36 %

ZEBRA

(Na-NiCl2)

100

160

170

200 kg

42.86 %

Li-ion

150-200

250-400

260

100 – 140 kg

40 %

The data and specifications of each type of battery was

summarized and tabulated in Table 1. Table 1 displays that the

specific energy and energy density of Li-ion type of battery are

greater compared to others. This means that the EV powered by

the Li-ion batteries was lighter in mass and the batteries pack

occupied a relatively small volume space. The Li-ion batteries

were already become a very mature technology in powering the

EVs for year s[25]. Due to the improved technology of the Li-

ion battery, many car manufacturers had implemented the Li-

ion batteries into their EV to introduce into the consumer

market. Among the well-known vehicles are Nissan Leaf, VW

E-Golf, Hyundai Ioniq, Renault Twizzy and Tesla Model S

[35].

Currently, the used of Li-ion battery in EV application has

developed maturely. It consists a lot of different combination

of material for the Li-ion battery and each of the battery has

different parameters. A study has also stated that the specific

power for the current Li-ion battery can reach approximately

1000 W / kg and can be driven beyond 10,000 W / kg and the

energy density of 1000 W / L can be forced above 10,000 W /

L when needed, such as motor sports and military applications.

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[32]. Figure 4 that compares the various type of Li-ion batteries

will be illustrated below which consisted of Lithium Titanium

Oxide (LTO), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide

(NMC), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA),

Lithium Manganese Oxide （LMO）, Lithium Cobalt oxide

(LiCoO), and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP).

Figure 4. Specifications of different type of Li-ion batteries used for EV [17]

As shown from above, NMC, LiFePO4 and LMO has an

overall better performance based on the six parameters

compared among the six and most of the EVs today were using

these three types of Li-ion batteries.

3.2 BATTERY CAPACITY (EFFICIENCY) & TRAVEL

DISTANCE

The efficiency of a battery is a function of how much power the

battery can charge and eventually discharge which in terms of

battery capacity. In fact, different battery models made by

different manufacturers had different capacity numbers. In

which among of all the batteries types, Li-ion battery

technology has been proven that it possessed higher energy

density than Pb-Acid battery and other batteries used for EV

applications. This means that the same physical space can be

used to store more energy in a Li-ion battery. Because with Li-

ion batteries, it can retain more electricity as well as able to

discharge more fuel, running more devices for long duration at

the same time. The travel range of an EV depends on the type

and number of batteries used. There are other considerable

factors such as terrain, weather or the driver performance but

type of batteries being used was the focus. In addition, energy

efficiency also related to the battery capacity. The greater the

value rated for the battery efficiency, the more percentage the

energy stored in the battery can be utilized. Besides, the

charging time for a high efficiency battery is faster and

allowing the battery can achieve a greater depth of discharge at

the same time. Thus, a high efficiency battery corresponding to

a battery with a high capacity. Table 2 below has indicated the

comparison of the rated capacity from typical batteries used for

EV.

Table 2. Comparison of battery capacity

Type of

battery

Energy

Efficiency

(%) [24]

Nominal

Voltage

(V)

Rated

Capacity

(Ah)

Rated

Capacity

(kWh)

Distance that can

travel on a single

charge

Lead – Acid

215

1.29

Approximate 22

miles [36]

Ni-MH

343

26.4

75 - 150 miles

Na-NiCl2

[37]

278.6

17.83

~ 120 miles

Li-ion

350

158

250 miles

Some of the batteries from the existing EVs were taken to

compare the battery capacity. Lead-acid battery properties was

determined from 6 V electric golf car [38], Ni-MH battery

properties was determined from General Motors EV1 [39], Na-

NiCl2 battery properties was determined from the Z5-278-ML-

64 series and Li-ion battery properties was determined from the

current Tesla Model 3 - Standard Range Model [40]. From

Table 2, it can be clearly seen that the Li-ion based battery has

the greatest battery capacity (kWh) compared to others and

most of the current EVs are all using Li-ion based batteries. As

observed from table above, Li-ion based batteries have the

overall greater performance in EV application. Therefore, most

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of the current EVs are utilizing Li-ion based batteries to be the

power source in propelling the vehicle as Li-ion batteries

outperformed others in significant parameters. Some of the

aspects that affect the battery capacity would be discussed.

In fact, the battery capacity is affected by several factors such

as internal resistance, type of discharging method, discharge

mode and rate of discharge and charge. If the battery cannot

deliver the stored energy effectively, it will limit the use of

battery capacity. Thus, a battery needs a low internal resistance

(IR) as it is the person in charge of the amount of the energy

that can be delivered. A high resistance will heat up battery and

cause a voltage drop under load.

Table 3. Relationship between type of battery, internal

resistance and impact to battery capacity

Type of battery

Internal

Resistance

Impact to battery capacity

Lead – Acid (VRLA)

15 ~ 16 mΩ [41]

Low resistance – smooth flow

Ni – MH

778 mΩ [42]

High resistance restrict flow

Na – NiCl2

180 mΩ [43]

Relatively low resistance

Li – ion

320 mΩ [42]

Moderate resistance

Another factor is the different types of discharging mode of the

battery. There are basically two types of discharge which are

continuous discharging and intermittent discharging.

Continuous discharging refers to when battery continuously

supply energy to load without rest which the capacity is

dropping continuously. Intermittent discharging means connect

and disconnect the battery to drive a load at an interval period.

Some voltage will be recovery during this period and it will

provide a longer discharging time. Three common discharge

modes consisted of constant load, constant current, and

constant power. Constant power mode has the shortest

discharge time, followed by the constant current and then

constant load. Lastly, the discharge and charge rate of the

battery. Repeating overcharging and over-discharging a battery

can reduce the battery capacity as well as its lifespan.

Most of the Nickel-based batteries have suffered from the

memory effect problem. Basically, the Nickel-based batteries

will retain its memory of the most often used of depth of

discharge in the recent past. For any value that exceed the

regular usage of DOD, the battery cannot perform well beyond

the value, and partly decreases its unused capacity for future

use. For instances, as shown in Figure 5, the point M represents

the frequent usage of a Ni-MH battery with a 25 % charging

and discharging of its capacity, in which the point M will be

remembered by battery itself. For any usage beyond point M at

the next subsequent use, it will cause battery cell voltage to fall

below its original value as indicated by dotted line in the figure

below [44]. So, memory effect is one of the reasons that makes

Nickel-based batteries are not the ideal type battery for EV

purpose.

Figure 5. Ni-MH memory effect

3.3 SELF-DISCHARGE & CHARGING TIME &

TEMPERATURE

This section will be focused on the charging parameters of each

types of batteries used for EV. A battery’s charging and

discharging rate are subject to C-rates. A battery's power is

usually rated at 1 C, so a fully charged 1 Ah battery should

provide 1 A for an hour. Over two hours, the same battery

discharge at 0.5 C should provide 0.5 A, and for 30 minutes at

2 C, 2 A. A higher C-rate meaning can provide more current

flow in a relatively short time [45].

First and foremost, the Pb-Acid battery. As mentioned at the

previous section, Pb-Acid battery consisted of two types which

are Starting battery and Deep-Cycle Battery. However, the

common lead-acid battery used for EV application was the

VRLA which from deep-cycle category while some EVs still

using SLI type for auxiliary function. Most of the Pb-Acid

batteries has a self-discharge rate of 5 % per month [46]. In

fact, all types of batteries suffered from the self-discharge

problem. It is a permanent process and cannot be reversed. It is

a part of battery characteristics but not a manufacturing defect,

but poor fabrication process and improper handling can further

worsen the discharge rate per month. Self-discharge in the form

of leakage fluid indicated that the highest self-discharge rate

occurs immediately after charge and tapers off. Based on

research, the Pb-Acid battery and Li-ion battery have a lower

self-discharge rate compared to Nickel-based batteries.

Normal Pb-Acid battery has a charging time of around 8 – 16

hours for a deep-cycle charge at a charging temperature around

-20 °C to 50 °C [46]. The lead-acid battery is encouraged to be

always stored in a charged state (2.10 V) to avoid sulfation [47].

The lead-acid battery is best to operate at an optimum

temperature of 25 °C and has high overcharge tolerance. The

acceptable operating discharging temperature for the lead –

acid range between -45 °C - +50 °C [31]. However, the lead-

acid battery has a low charging rate of 0.1 C – 0.05 C which it

needs longer duration to full charge the battery itself [48]. The

lead-acid battery has a columbic efficiency around 90 % [46].

Coulombic efficiency (CE), also known as faradaic efficiency

or current output, defines the efficiency of charge that transmit

electrons into batteries. CE is the proportion of the battery's

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total discharge capacity to the battery's total charge capacity

over a full cycle. The longevity of the battery will be reduced

as temperature goes higher. According to study, the battery life

is cut in half for every 8 °C increase in temperature. A VRLA

that would last at 25 °C for 10 years would only be good at 33

°C for 5 years. If maintained at a steady desert temperature of

41 °C [49], the same battery will desist after 2 ½ years. The

nominal cell voltage of Pb-Acid battery is 2 V[46].

For the Nickel-based battery, the typical battery that normally

used for EV application is the Ni-MH battery. Most of the Ni-

MH batteries have a high self-discharge rate around a value of

20 % - 30 % per month [46]. Whenever a Ni-MH battery must

be used, it needs to be recharged first. It takes around a charging

time of 3 hours for rapid charge and an hour for a fast charge

purpose [47]. The Ni-MH batteries usually has an optimum

range of operating temperature from -30 °C to 65 °C [47].

Unlike lead-acid, Ni-MH battery has a low overcharge

tolerance as can damage the battery cells and create potential

hazards such as depleted battery capacity, possible explosion

and generate excessive heat [50]. It has a peak load current C-

rates of 0.5 C – 5 C [46]. The Ni-MH batteries commonly has

a columbic efficiency of 70 % for slow charge and 90 % for fast

charge [46]. The nominal cell voltage of Nickel-based batteries

is around 1.2 V[46].

For the ZEBRA battery, it has a negligible self-discharge rate

or none [37]. The ZEBRA battery has a 100 % coulombically

efficiency, in which the capacity charging in equal to capacity

discharging out [37]. It is because the ZEBRA battery has a

chemical element that possessed good electronic insulating

properties and has no chemical side reactions, which is the

sodium ion conducting beta alumina. In terms of the charging

time, ZEBRA battery takes about 6 hours for normal charge

and an hour for a fast charge [51]. It has an optimum operating

temperature from 270 °C – 350 °C as the beta alumina

electrode contribute only a little amount resistance at these

temperature [37]. The nominal cell voltage of ZEBRA batteries

is around 1.2 V[46]

For the Li-ion based battery, it has a small discharge rate per

month with a value less than 5 % / month [46]. The Li-ion

based batteries normally has a columbic efficiency of 99 % and

battery remains cool during charge [46]. For the charging time,

Li-ion based batteries has a charging duration about 2 – 3 hours

for a complete charge[46]. Li-ion batteries manufacturers

recommended using a 0.8 C or less to prolong the battery life,

nevertheless, most Li-ion batteries can take a higher charge C-

rate with only little stress. Thus, The acceptable range of

discharging temperature and charging temperature for the Li-

ion batteries are ranged between – 20 °C – 60 °C and 0 °C -

45 °C respectively and it has a low overcharge tolerance[47]. It

has a peak current range from 10 C – 30 C [46]. The Li-ion

battery was encouraged to be stored at an intermediate DoD

with a value of 3.7 – 3.8 V. It is advised to avoid storing the Li-

ion batteries at full charge and above room temperature as

irreversible self-discharge will occur [47]. The nominal cell

voltage of Li-ion based batteries is around 3.2 V – 3.7 V[46].

Under normal circumstances, Li-ion's self-discharge is

relatively stable throughout its service life; nevertheless, there

is a rise in maximum loading status and high temperature.

Longevity is also influenced by these same causes. In contrast,

a fully charged Li-ion is more likely to fail than a partly charged

Li-ion. Table 3 displays Li-ion's self-discharge at different

temperatures and level of charge every month. As shown in the

table, the Li-ion battery has a higher self-discharge rate at a

high temperature with a full charge. Hence, it can be concluded

that the self-discharge rate of the Li-ion battery is directly

proportional to the operating temperature and the state-of-

charge of the battery itself. It is advisable to not discharge a Li-

ion battery below 2.50 V/cell as it will turn off the protection

circuit at that state, in which the battery will not able to be

charged by most of the battery chargers[52].

Table 4. Relationship between of the various temperature and

state-of-charge in affecting the self-discharge rate per month

of the Li-ion battery [52]

State-of-charge

0°C

25°C

60°C

Full charge

20%

35%

40-60% charge

15%

3.4 LIFETIME / LIFECYCLE AND COST

In this section, cost, lifespan and lifecycle parameters for the

different types of batteries that utilized in EVs will be

discussed. The Pb-Acid battery act as the ancestors for all the

recent technology of batteries and has the overall lowest cost

compared to Ni-MH, ZEBRA as well as the Li-ion battery. Due

to low specific energy and energy density value, utilization of

Pb-Acid battery in the early EVs is limited. From past until

today, the Pb-Acid battery that typically use for EV application

is the valve-regulated type (VRLA). VRLA has a fast recharge

capability, high specific power and low initial cost as well as

having a maintenance-free operation [28]. Nevertheless, it

suffers from a low cycle life about 1000 cycles at the depth of

discharge (DOD) of 50 % and has an initial cost of $ 120 /

kWh[24] as well as having a lifetime of roughly 3-15 years.

Depth of discharge is a parameter used to determine the total

amount of the discharged battery. In fact, the amount of

discharged for a typical lead-acid battery should not exceed 50 %

as it will shorten the battery life [53]. The dominant reason for

its relatively short lifecycle of the VRLA battery. For examples,

the grid of the positive electrode corrodes, active material

depletes and positive plates expands in the battery [54]

As shown in Figure 6 below, it illustrated that the higher depth

of discharge used for a battery, the less life cycle that a battery

is. An alternative way to think of loading a battery or

discharging it is to visualize it as a balloon. If you constantly

inflate a balloon to its maximum capacity and then totally

deflate it, repetitive pressure will fatigue the material of the

balloon. Imagine now that by inflating repeatedly with another

balloon and deflate it from 50% to 90% full, the material will

become less stressed and last longer than the first balloon.

Likewise, the concept of the balloon example is like the battery

technology. The plate inside the battery is exposed to the same

pressure as the balloon content. In this example, when

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4450

compared to Pb-Acid battery, Li-ion batteries are simply

manufactured from a more superior, greater balloon material.

Figure 6. Number of cycles against DoD for VRLA battery

[55]

A higher working temperatures and high discharging current

condition would accelerate the aging phenomenon not only for

the lead-acid battery but also for others as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Relationship between battery capacity, discharge

rate and operating temperature[56]

After introducing of the nickel-based battery into the EV, the

usage of lead-acid battery for the EV has reduced as the nickel-

based battery has a higher specific strength and energy density

compared to Pb-Acid battery. Among of the nickel-based

batteries, Ni-MH was the one commonly used for EV

application. It is because that Ni-MH battery has no utilized

cadmium material act as the electrode and more

environmentally friendly. Ni-MH also has a great specific

energy and energy density among other nickel-based batteries.

Since after the introduction of Ni-MH battery in 1991, the

battery technology has developed rapidly until today. But,

mostly Ni-MH batteries are used for Hybrid Electric Vehicle

(HEV) application such as Toyota Prius and Honda Civic

Hybrid as it has a great specific power value. According to

study, a Ni-MH battery has a lifecycle as high as 3000 cycles

with the battery operating between 20 % - 80 % DOD. The life

requirements of full-function battery EVs and plug-in HEVs

could be achieved with a full-function Ni-MH battery[57]. At a

DOD of 80 %, the lifecycle of the Ni-MH battery can be

achieved over 1000 cycles for current trend. It is believed that

lifetime for a Ni-MH battery used for EV can be last over 7

years[58]. The cost for a Ni-MH battery is somewhere around

$ 200 – 350 /kWh [59]. In fact, due to roughly one third of the

mass of a Ni-MH battery pack was originated from the nickel

metal itself and the price of nickel has a large impact on the

overall price of a Ni-MH battery pack [60].

After the introduction of the Ni-MH battery into the EV field,

there is another alternative battery which come after Ni-MH

which was Sodium-Nickel Chloride (Na-NiCl2) or ZEBRA

battery. This battery is commonly used for public transportation

such as bus or van due to its high operating temperature. Thus,

for this battery, it has a lifecycle of around 1000 cycles at 80 %

DOD and expected to cost roughly between $160-300 /kWh

[28]. Lifetime is expected to be sustained more than 10 years

[51]. Overall for the ZEBRA battery, it has a greater

performance compared to lead-acid but it is only to able to

perform its maximum efficiency at temperature around 250 –

350 °C which made this battery only suitable for urban public

transportation.

In 21st era of centuries, the most modern battery technology

used in EVs is the Li-ion based battery. It is majorly used for

many EV application and HEV today such as Nissan Leaf,

Toyota Prius, Honda Insight and Tesla Model due to its long

cycle life and high energy density. Considering the customer-

driving profiles, the Li-ion battery is designated in a way to

ensure that it can be performed full-operating capability at least

10 years. According to one of the studies, Li-ion battery was

believed that it has reached its end of life when the cell achieved

80 % of beginning of life power or 80 % of beginning of life

capacity. The Li-ion battery can be able to provide a total

energy of up to 800,000 kWh for a 10-year vehicle life

depending on the demand for power and vehicle mileage

expectations [61].

Besides, the cost for the Li-ion battery pack is high at the initial

stage when the Li-ion was freshly introduced into EV

application which having a value of $ 1000 +/kWh in the year

around 2005 – 2010 and expected to drop to below $ 400 /kWh

in future trend as shown in Figure 8 [62]. However, due to

progressively advanced technology in battery field, the process

to manufacture the Li-ion battery become simplified as well as

a lot of alternative materials can be utilized in the Li-ion battery

which has a lower cost. Based on a market analysis paper, the

author made a core conclusion that the reduction of the costing

to manufacture a full automotive Li-ion battery packs has been

reached to roughly $410/kWh industry-wide whereas

automotive car manufacturing leaders such as Tesla and Nissan

predicted the Li-ion battery cost around $300/kWh

[62]. Likewise, the lifecycle of the Li-ion battery also depends

on the DOD. The larger the DOD, the shorter the lifecycle for

a Li-ion battery and avoid fully discharging and charging the

Li-ion battery between uses to prolong the battery life. One

more thing is that Li-ion battery has no memory effect and does

not required periodic full discharge cycles to extend life. A

typical type of Li-ion battery that used for EV application is

Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) such as Nissan Leaf,

Chevy Volt and BMW i3 [18].

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Figure 8. Cost for Li-ion and future prediction

The discharge cycle for the NMC battery at each of the DOD

will be shown in the Table 5 below. A typical Li-ion based

battery can have a lifecycle around 500 – 2000 cycles at a 80%

DOD condition [46]

Table 5. Lifecycle for Li-ion (NMC) battery at different DOD

Level

Depth of discharge (DOD)

Discharge Cycles

100 % DOD

~ 300

80 % DOD

~ 400

60 % DOD

~ 600

40 % DOD

~ 1000

20 % DOD

~ 2000

10 % DOD

~ 6000

Besides, there is another study on the future trend for the EVs

batteries cost which also displaying the findings from the

studies that highlighted the likely range for 2020–2030 battery

pack costs which will be shown in Figure 9.

According to some of the papers, some estimations has made

on the analysis of the battery cost. At year of 2020-2022, the

battery pack costs is believed will be reduced to $130–

$160/kWh, and at year of 2025, the battery cost is claimed to

reach to a price of $120–$135/ kWh. Furthermore, Tesla also

made a report that the price of the battery cost will become

$100/kWh by 2022 due to its NCA-based battery pack design

combining with the high-production volume can promote the

cost of battery pack become lower. In Berckmans’s finding, by

replacing the 2018-dominant graphite with the silicon alloy in

the NMC cathode batteries, the battery costs can has a great

decrease and solving the cycle-life issues at the same time [63].

BNEF's market survey indicated that the battery pack's volume-

weighted average cost is $176/kWh and expects pack-level

prices will fall to $62/kWh by 2030 [64].

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4452

Figure 9. Future prediction for electric vehicle battery pack costs [64]

4.0 BATTERY PACK DESIGN AND CELL DESIGN

4.1 REVOLUTION OF THE DESIGN (FROM INITIAL

ARCHITECTURE GEOMETRY UNTIL LATEST DESIGN)

Battery pack is the essential component to power electric

vehicles. It is the entire battery energy storage system. It

consists of the battery modules, battery management system

(BMS) and cooling system. The amount of power needed for

EV is huge and hence it needs dozens to thousands of batteries.

Current Li-Ion batteries have overheating issues, they are also

prone to failure which is caused by mechanical vibration and

impact force. The battery pack provides protection to the

batteries and manage batteries efficiently and safely. The

battery pack design has undergone significant development in

recent years.

In 1998, Ford produced the Ford Ranger EV. The first Ford

Ranger EV is powered by Delphi lead acid battery. It had 39

battery modules. In 1999, nickel metal hydride version of Ford

Ranger was produced. It had 25 Panasonic battery modules.

The NiMH Ranger has better performance than lead-acid

Ranger. The driving range for lead-acid Ranger is 105 km while

the NiMH Ranger has 132 km driving range. The recharging

duration also decreases from 8 hours 51 minutes to 8 hours 13

minutes. The mass of the packs has also been reduced

significantly from 870.1 kg to 485 kg [65]. The lead-acid

Ranger had double layer of modules while the NiMH Ranger

had single layer. Figure 10 shows the battery pack of NiMH

Ranger.

Figure 10. Battery Pack of NiMH Ranger [65]

Nissan Leaf is an electric vehicle launched in 2010. The battery

pack of Nissan Leaf has 48 serially connected modules. Each

module consists of 4 battery cells. There are total of 192 battery

cells. It uses Lithium Manganese Oxide laminated pouch cell

[66]. Laminated cell is smaller than cylindrical cell and thus the

packaging can be more compact and flexible. Figure 11 shows

the laminated cell used by Leaf.

Figure 11. Laminated Cell [66]

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The way of cells connecting in the module is two cells

connected in parallel and two cells connected in series. Figure

12 shows the battery module used by Nissan Leaf.

Figure 12. Battery Module of Nissan Leaf [66]

The modules are connected in series, and together with the

Battery Management System, service disconnect switch and

junction box, it forms the battery pack. Figure 13 shows the

battery pack of Nissan Leaf.

Figure 13. Battery Pack of Nissan Leaf [66]

The battery pack has total energy of 24 kWh. The driving range

is 160 km. Comparing to NiMH Ranger, the driving range of

Nissan Leaf has increased by approximately 20%.

Chevrolet Bolt EV started to produce in 2017. The battery pack

consists of 10 modules, there are eight modules which have 10

groups of cells each, another two modules have 8 groups of

cells each. Each group has three cells connected in parallel.

There are total of 96 cell groups and 288 lithium ion cells [67].

Figure 14 shows the battery pack of Chevrolet Bolt EV.

Figure 14. Battery Pack of Chevrolet Bolt [67]

The cell used is also laminated pouch cell. The group of three

cells resembles a book and each group is stacked together

which forms the module like a bookshelf. The battery pack has

60 kWh energy. Chevrolet Bolt EV has driving range of 380

km [68], which doubled the driving range of Nissan Leaf.

By comparing battery pack of these models, battery pack

design has developed in implementing more battery cells in a

compact design, storing more energy and increases the driving

range.

4.2 CELL CHEMISTRY, MATERIALS, BALANCING,

INTEGRITY

Batteries provide power to electric vehicle through electricity.

The electricity comes from the electrochemical reactions

occurred, which results in the flow of electrons and produces

electricity [69]. Different types of batteries contain different

chemical components and thus the chemical reaction also

varies from each other. The theory of the chemical reaction of

different batteries is similar.

As mentioned earlier, there are different materials used for the

anode, cathode and electrolyte of Lithium-Ion battery. The Li-

Ion battery developed by Sony in 1991 used Lithium Cobalt

Oxide (LiCoO2) as the positive electrode and graphite as the

negative electrode [70]. During discharge, oxidation is

occurred at the negative electrode. The lithium ion and electron

are released. The lithium ion moves through the electrolyte

while the electrons move through external circuit and both

particles react with cobalt dioxide at the cathode to form lithium

cobalt oxide. The reaction is in reverse direction when the cell

is charging. The electrolyte consists of lithium

hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) and organic solvent.

It was found by researchers from University of Texas in 1996

that the material for positive electrode of Li-ion battery could

be phosphate material too[17]. Lithium Iron Phosphate

(LiFePO4) battery has longer cycle life than other lithium ion

batteries. The negative electrode is also graphite. The half

reaction of negative electrode is the same as Lithium Cobalt

Oxide battery since graphite is used for both cases. At the

positive electrode, Lithium Cobalt Oxide is replaced by

Lithium Iron Phosphate [71].

4.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

(REQUIREMENTS, DESIGN, TOPOLOGY)

Battery Management System is an important electronic system

to maintain the performance of batteries. Overcharging may

damage the batteries. BMS helps to keep the batteries working

under safe conditions by monitoring the charging voltage and

stops charging when the required voltage has reached [72].

BMS also measures state of charge (SOC), which is the

available capacity of batteries [73]. The longevity of battery life

is also maintained by BMS.

4.3.1 Requirements for Lithium Ion batteries

Lithium Ion batteries are common batteries used by EV today

due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, there

is risk of electric shock and fire hazard if not handled properly.

BMS is a complex system. There are certain requirements of

BMS that have to be met for it to perform all the important task.

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4.3.2 Temperature Sensing

The temperature of batteries affects the performance greatly.

The range of operating temperature for Li-Ion batteries is -20

⁰C to 60 ⁰C. Nagasubramanian has found that when the

temperature is 25 ⁰C, the energy density of Panasonic 18650

Li-Ion battery was 100 Wh/L and was reduced to 5 Wh/L at -

40 ⁰C[74]. Thus, it is important to measure the temperature of

batteries. A few temperature sensors are needed and the

location where the sensors are placed need to be determined.

Simulations can be conducted to find the suitable placements

for the sensors. Example of the sensors are thermocouple and

fiber sensors [75].

4.3.3 Voltage Sensing

Minimum of one voltage acquisition channel is needed per cell.

Most electric vehicles have an additional programmable device

which alert BMS whenever any cell is not operated within the

allowed voltage range. The voltage acquisition is also

responsible for the SOC estimation. If the voltage measured is

more accurate, the SOC estimation is better [76].

4.3.4 Current Sensing

The determination of SOC using voltage measurement is

suitable during stand-still periods, another method which is

suitable for determining dynamic SOC is by measuring current,

also known as coulomb counting. The coulomb counter can

track the SOC. Current sensors in EV should be capable of

measuring current ranging from milliampere to 1000 Ampere

[76].

4.3.5 Communication

BMS needs to communicate with other system such as power

electronics, energy management system and others, to transmit

important information and receive instructions. The common

mean of communication is Controller Area Network (CAN). It

can provide robust communication under harsh operating

environment such as loud electrical noise. Other requirements

include electromagnetic interference (EMI) filtering device

which reduce the influence of EMI on sensors, galvanic

isolation to isolate high voltage part and low voltage part of

battery packs, and contactors which can cut off DC currents

when hazardous events happen.

4.3.6 Topologies and Design

As mentioned, battery pack consists of many batteries. The

Integrated Circuit (IC) of BMS plays important role in

monitoring these batteries at once. The front-end IC of modules

is referred as BMS Slaves. Their function is acquiring signal

and filtering. Another important component is The Electronic

Control Unit (ECU), also known as BMS Master. It controls

and oversees the electrical system.

4.3.7 The traction batteries of three EV models

4.3.7.1 Mitsubishi i-MiEV.

Battery pack of Mitsubishi i-MiEV has 12 modules. 10

modules contain eight cells each and another two modules have

four cells each, there are total of 88 prismatic cells [76]. There

is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) mounted on each module,

which contains a battery monitoring IC. It can monitor 12 series

connected lithium ion cells. There are also three temperature

sensors in each PCB. Other components in the battery pack

includes contactors, service plug, current transducer, fuses and

a fan. The BMS Master is placed under the rear bench seat. The

Cell Management Unit (CMU) is connected to BMS Master by

Controller Area Network. Figure 15 shows the battery pack of

Mitsubishi i-MiEV.

Figure 15. Battery Pack of Mitsubishi i-MiEV [76]

4.3.7.2 Volkswagen e-Up

The battery pack of VW e-Up contains 17 modules connected

in series, each module has six pairs of two prismatic cell. There

are total of 204 cells in the pack. There are BMS slave in the

white box which is situated at the left side of the pack. The fuse,

contactors and current measurement is situated below the black

cover in the middle. The BMS master can be found in another

white box. There is no cooling system in this pack. Figure 16

shows the battery pack of VW e-Up.

Figure 16. Battery Pack of Volkswagen e-Up [76]

4.3.7.3 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive

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There are 90 pouch bag lithium ion cells in the battery pack of

third generation Smart ED. The batteries are connected in

series. There are three PCBs in the battery pack and each of

them has six monitoring IC[76]. The BMS master is placed

beside the communication signal connector. The fuse and

contactor can be found beside the power connector. The entire

BMS of Smart ED is placed in the battery case. The space of

battery pack is used efficiently and there aren’t many cables

used. Figure 17 shows the battery pack of Smart ED.

Figure 17. Battery Pack of Smart Fortwo Electric Drive [76]

The main difference between the BMS of these three batteries

packs is integration. The battery of Smart ED showed large

scale of integration, while there is average amount of

integration in the batteries of VW e-Up and Mitsubishi i-MiEV.

For Smart ED, the monitoring IC and PCB are mounted on the

battery modules in a space saving method. The BMS master is

placed inside the pack too. As for the i- MiEV, the BMS master

is not placed in the pack, which leads to more cabling required.

Smart ED showed large scale of integration, while there is

average amount of integration in the batteries of VW e-Up and

Mitsubishi i-MiEV. For Smart ED, the monitoring IC and PCB

are mounted on the battery modules in a space saving method.

The BMS master is placed inside the pack too. As for the i-

MiEV, the BMS master is not placed in the pack, which leads

to more cabling required.

4.4 BATTERY THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

(BTMS)

Battery temperature affects the performance, reliability and

safety of EV. It is important for batteries to maintain within

ideal operating temperature range. The four important

functions of BTMS are cooling by removing heat, heating to

increase temperature of battery when temperature is too low,

insulating to reduce sudden change in battery temperature and

ventilation to expel hazardous gas from battery [77].

BTMS can be classified into two categories, which are BTMS

with vapor compression cycle (VCC) and without VCC. The

options of system for BTMS with VCC includes cabin air

cooling, direct refrigerant two phase cooling and secondary

loop liquid cooling. As for BTMS without VCC, there are

phase change material cooling, heat pipe cooling and

thermoelectric element cooling.

Production of BMW i3 started in 2013. It uses direct refrigerant

two-phase cooling system [78]. The refrigerant evaporator

which is implemented in the cooling plate is used to cool the

battery. There is phase changing during heat transfer, which

helps to keep the temperature almost constant. Audi e-tron

started production in 2018. It uses liquid cooling system. There

is 22 liters of coolant flowing around the 40 m cooling pipes

[79]. Important components such as the electric motor,

batteries, stators are liquid cooled. A heat pump is used to

utilize the waste heat from the electric motor for heating and air

conditioning the interior.

5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BATTERIES

Batteries can help on replacing our reliance fossil fuels which

can make the economy to by greener, although it may make the

world greener, the environment footprint for batteries need to

be consider too. In this part, lithium-ion batteries will be

mentioned regarding the environmental issues since lithium-

ion batteries are the batteries that commonly used in these days

[80]. Lifecycle analysis (LCA) will be used in this section to

calculate the footprint of the environment across the range of

impacts on GHG emissions, pollution issues, and more. LCA

can be defined as a way of assessing the impact on the

environment through the life cycle and process of the raw

materials, manufacturing, use, recycling and final disposal of

the product [81].

5.1 MATERIAL ISSUE

There are a lot of choices of materials can be used to produce

electrodes and electrolytes. Since there are a lot of materials

choices, this brings in slot issues such as toxicity, safety,

recycling or disposal impacts [82].

5.1.1 Resource Availability

Due to the soaring demand and huge size of future energy

storage installations, more material resources need to produce

more batteries to fulfill these circumstances [83]. Nowadays,

there are enough batteries key constituents, but as the

production getting larger years by years, the reserve key

constituents for batteries will ended up used up and one day this

will be the issue if there aren’t any further action taken when

there are still resources in the world [83].

In lithium-ion batteries, the key constituents of this battery are

lithium, manganese, cobalt, nickel and natural graphite, it were

expected to meet the near-term demand of batteries and the

inventor and researcher mentioned that these key constituents

are able to supply until the next decades with the rise in demand

[83].

In the statement from the researcher and inventor of the lithium-

ion batteries does not include the sharp increase in demand

where this will boost the market prices. It seems like the amount

of lithium left will not be enough to supply for the world to

have 100% electrification vehicles [80]. This might happen in

the next decades since the production and manufacturing line

of vehicles has slowly innovate electric vehicles. It has already

been 10% of the world vehicles were functioning with the help

of electricity with reducing of fuels [83].

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The key constituents of lithium-ion batteries were very limited

nowadays in the sense that the minded area were very small

selections and this will be very risky in the terms of only supply

lithium-ion batteries to the technologies [84].

5.1.2 Environmental Impacts

5.1.2.1 Electrode Materials

Among all the life cycle stages, mineral extraction and metal

refining has the most important contributions. Lithium-ion

batteries key constituents such as nickel and cobalt will

significantly increase the environmental footprint. According

the lifecycle analysis, these materials were considered as toxic

substances and from the min tailing, this will have the chance

of leaking [85]. Besides that, when smelting takes place for the

virgin cobalt and nickel recovery, high levels of Sulphur oxide

will be produced [86]. Cobalt and nickel can only be mined in

a less strict countries on environmental, health and regulations.

However, just minimize the leakage will reduce the toxicity

where it will benefit the environment, and this will beneficial

the environmental performance of batteries [87].

The way to reduce the impact of extractive activities are to

increase the efficiency of the resources and recycling or reusing

the batteries. Lead acid batteries can be last until this decade

are because there are more recycled (secondary) than raw

(primary) lead acid batteries were used in worldwide. However,

there are new inventor trying to replace lead acid batteries are

mainly because the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) has

added lead acid batteries as the Candidate List of Substances of

Very High Concern (SVHCs), this is mainly due to the toxic

substances [80].

5.1.2.2 Electrolyte Risks

The electrolyte used for batteries brings major impact on the

performance of a battery. However, electrolyte performance

and safety will need to be compromise. Minor electrolytes

substances will bring impact to human health such as the

electrolyte of lead acid batteries, sulphuric acid [88]. Not just

lead acid batteries, for one of the latest technologies batteries,

lithium-ion batteries, it is consider as relatively high flammable

and the electrolyte of the lithium-ion batteries will form a toxic

atmosphere when the lithium-ion batteries are not closed or

semi-closed properly and this aloe the formation of hydrogen

fluoride (HF), where it is an extremely toxic and corrosive

chemical reaction. This will only occur when there are car

crashing happening or any incident that not closing the batteries

properly [88].

5.1.2.3 Binders

Binders is like a glued where is “glued” the components of the

battery together. The binders used has cause impact to the

environmental. Majority binders are made of fluorinated

substances, this is because these substances will produce

energy intensive and the emission of ozone depleting

substances [87]. In the terms of recycling, it needs further

process such as toxic solvent to break down the binders only

can be recycled, and it is not biodegradable[89]. Therefore, the

binders took another process, but it can still be considered as a

substance that can be recycled.

5.2 ENERGY ISSUE: PRODUCTION & CHARGING

5.2.1 Energy Source for Production

The carbon intensity normally used in producing batteries have

a big impact on the environment footprint. In the production of

lithium-ion batteries, the production can be very complicated,

this is because to prevent the HF to be formed therefore it need

to be manufacture at extremely low humidity and cell assembly

at very dry surroundings [90]. According to a research paper

stated that there are 7 types of lithium-ion batteries which

assessed cumulative demand of 19 studies and took the average

of 1 Wh of lithium-ion batteries needs approximately 328Wh

of energy to produced. With the 1 Wh will be around 110 grams

of CO2, which are the GHG emissions[90]. Asian country is

mostly placing to manufacture lithium-ion batteries with some

mixture of electricity which results differently compared to

majority of the Europe countries [91]. An example shows that

in South Korea, the lithium-ion batteries there are production

with the mixture of coal, nuclear and gas. This results that the

impact to the global warming will be 60% higher than using

100% electricity supply [91].

After all these incidents, the things that can overcome GHG

emissions from the production of batteries will be by making

sure that the cells can be fully renewable sources [92]. When

the world thinks that this is nearly impossible, but there goes in

one of the largest batteries’ factory in Sweden, in the year of

2023, the manufacturing batteries factory will make sure it will

be 100% powered by renewable sources such as

hydroelectricity [92].

5.2.2 Roundtrip Efficiency

Roundtrip efficiency can be defined as a place to store the

energy and give the energy back to the grid. In mathematically

term it means the ratio of energy input is the ratio of energy

output which it is normally calculated in percentage. It can be

simplified with saying that when the power needs to be used,

the amount of energy coming out when there is discharge

occurring of a secondary (recycled) battery.

In a commonly used lead acid battery, there are efficiency over

70-80%. In another words, 20-30% of the energy will be lost

during the charging cycles. In another hand, lithium-ion

efficiency is over 90%, where after the charging cycle, only

10% of the energy will loss. All these lost energies will be the

impact to environmental [87]. It is a serious scenario since if

the improvement to overcome these issues can be reduce from

90% to 92% for lithium-ion battery, these 2 % difference will

lead to 7% reduction from the impact of environmental [93].

5.3 LIFESPAN

If a battery has a longer lifespan, it drags the number of times

on replacing the battery. The longer the lifespan will also affect

the cost reduced by relating it back to less impact to the

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environment. In real life application, battery in the electronic

vehicle’s lifespan is longer than the other smaller electronic

device. If the battery drained up dramatically, users will change

the whole electronics away and this will consider as end-of-life

(EoL) of the whole electronics which will increase the impact

of environment.

Battery’s lifespan has 2 categories to differentiate the batteries

namely calendar years and life cycle. For calendar years, the

inventor will calculate the maximum use of the batteries with

the length of time. For example, the battery can last for 3 years,

then the battery will be drained off completely. On the other

hand, life cycle of the batteries is where the inventor will

calculate with the number of charges to the batteries. For

example, if the battery can be charge for 2400 cycles, after 2400

cycles, the battery will be “half dead” or completely not

functionable. For the case of using lead acid batteries, it will go

through 3 phases which are formatting, peak and decline [94].

Figure 18. The three phases of lead acid batteries [94]

From Figure 18, it clearly shows how a battery life span will

be like. In formatting, this required 20-50 cycles to reach the

second phase, which is the peak phase. It will take 100-200

cycles to reach the third phase which is the decline phase. To

increase the lifespan of lead acid batteries, these batteries must

make sure to charge for ±15 hours [94]. For lithium-ion

batteries, the peak it can reached 2000 cycles, in another words,

the lead acid batteries result higher impact on environmental

compared to lithium-ion batteries.

5.4 END OF LIFE (EOL)

Recycle and reuse can be the ways for batteries that came end

of life (EoL). Recycle in batteries also called as secondary

batteries, this will give a big hand on reducing impact on

environmental Besides that, by comparing on increasing the

lifespan, reuse the batteries will be a better choice [80].

5.4.1 Recycling

Recycling has the direct environmental benefits. In lithium-ion

batteries, if the cathode used were materials such as aluminum

and copper, this may help the environment to save over 50% of

its lifetime which is a decade’s number [80]. As mentioned

earlier in section 5.1.2, the reduction of sulphuric oxide will be

emission by approximately 100% which is emission completely

since it prevents from smelting [86]. Somehow it will be

challenging to recycle lithium-ion batteries [95]. It contains a

huge number of mixed materials in lithium-ion batteries, where

compared to simpler batteries such as Pb-Acid batteries, the Li-

ion battery is much more complicated. For an electric vehicle

that powered by Li-ion battery, at least 100 individual cells are

needed [95]. Some of the materials need to be separated in the

lithium-ion batteries as the composition of the materials is not

allowed to be recycled.

When there are lithium-ion batteries without any labeled on it,

it stand for there are some of the compositions are not allowed

to be recycled [95]. Due to the production of electric vehicles,

the number of productions for lithium-ion batteries reaches

approximately 25 billion by just 2019 globally [96]. The

method of extracting cobalt, nickel and copper were known one

of the most economically valuable resources in the field of

recycling lithium-ion batteries, the other products will not be

recycled and neglected as there are too many cells in lithium-

ion batteries [95]. The main reason that cobalt lithium-ion

batteries can be recycled is that cobalt is a precious element, so

if cobalt is not extracted, the recovery of lithium-ion batteries

will be commercially unattractive [96].

5.4.2 Reuse

Batteries from electric vehicles that has lost the initial

capacities can be used in other lesser demand energy storage, it

means by lost the initial capacities means the batteries has only

75% compared to the initial capacities [89]. In some of the

research studies stated that secondary lithium-ion batteries are

feasibility and environmental benefits [97]. There are some

challenges to reuse due to the complex physical and chemical

process, one of the challenges is to design a battery

management system which fulfill the qualification of evolution

[98].

6.0 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

The development and revolution of battery technology from old

centuries to latest battery technology have been reviewed in the

paper. The revolution processes and parameters of the

rechargeable batteries from the earliest which is Pb-Acid

battery to the recent latest Li-ion battery were examined. Based

on the evolution from lead acid battery to lithium ion battery,

the parameters such as specific energy, energy density, specific

power, weight and size had enhanced along the evolution. The

battery specific energy, energy density and specific power have

increased over the evolution and the weight and size of battery

have significantly decreased over the years. Tin terms of

battery capacity and travel distance, the lithium ion battery has

the best performance among the other batteries. The charging

time and the discharge time of the batteries were also discussed.

The lifetime / lifecycle and cost of the evolution of batteries

were also reviewed. However, there are currently a few

developing batteries which use different anode, cathode and

electrolyte separator that could possibly enhance the

performance of the batteries by increasing the parameters such

as heat capacity, lifetime / lifecycle sustainability. The

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revolution in terms of the essential of battery pack design and

cell design were considered in the review paper. This include

the cell chemistry, materials, balancing and integrity of

batteries. The attributes of battery management system, thermal

management system for battery pack and the battery state

estimation were deliberated. Lastly, the sustainability issues of

the batteries including the impact of batteries to the

environment, the degradation / aging defects, the recyclability,

repurposing and extend life issues were discussed in detail.

Li-ion batteries have changed dramatically over the past 25

years, making it possible to introduce better performance in

consumer electronics and new applications such as drones and

EVs. Nonetheless, innovation is crucial to speed up these and

other implementations–a step-change in efficiency is required.

There's a lot going on in innovations of the next century. A host

of battery technologies are being built by innovative start-ups

utilizing new materials, while in the Li-ion sector there is

growing development focusing primarily on three areas: silica

anodes, advanced cathodes and solid-state electrolytes.The

silica anodes technology will be used to replace the carbon or

graphite anode in Li-ion batteries. The Li-ion anode

substitution with silica anode technology will increase the

battery capacity in absorbing ions because each silicon atom

will take up to four lithium ions, whereas six carbon atoms

absorb just one lithium in graphite anodes. It is therefore stated

that it can improve the energy density up to 40%. However, to

implement this technology in current Li-ion batteries, cycle-life

issues need to be addressed as the silicon atom will expand up

to 300 percent volume while charging, which can cause it to

break and cause the battery to fail. Ongoing technologies use

only small concentrations of silica which restrict possible

increases in density to 10–20%.

One of the future developments of the battery system industries

that can contribute to the progress of battery for electric

vehicles is the investment of magnesium-ion batteries.

Rechargeable magnesium battery (RMB) is potentially

contributing more to the automobiles industries after Lithium-

ion battery due to its relatively safe characteristic regardless of

it being a reactive metal, the high specific capacity and richness

in the earth’s crust. The availability and cost of magnesium is

winning over its counterpart which is the lithium-ion battery.

Another potential battery that possibly could be developed

further to achieve equally if not more of what lithium ion

battery has achieved is the sodium ion battery (SIB). The

positive aspects of sodium ion battery including the richness of

sodium precursor materials in the earth as well as its low

budget. Lithium precursors are about 25-30 times more

expensive than the sodium precursors. Due to the expansion of

knowledge of developing lithium ion over the decades, the

theories that have been accumulated during the research and

development of lithium ion battery can be used in developing

the sodium ion battery.

However, the current limitations of sodium ion battery include

the identification of suitable materials to have layered materials

which have been adopted by the lithium ion battery for most

applications. Comparing to lithium ion battery, the sodium ion

battery has lower energy density because of the layered sodium

ion battery cathode materials has operating voltages of up to

1.5 V lower than lithium ion battery’s layered. The success of

further research, investigation and development on the

materials to have layered materials that is suitable to use on the

sodium ion battery system will let sodium ion battery to make

a major impact on the electrochemistry industry.

Ultimately, in EV applications, the battery plays the most

important core role. To encourage more industrial EV

implementations in the future, other battery targets such as long

lifecycles, high specific energy and power, and the right

amount of price that can compare with an ICE must be met.

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Driving sustainability - The role of digital twin in enhancing battery performance for electric vehicles

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Apr 2024
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This review article explores the potential and significance of digital twins (DTs) in advancing battery technology, specifically in electric vehicles (EVs). Due to their ability to accurately predict, diagnose, and enhance energy systems, DTs offer a transformative solution for addressing environmental concerns and improving energy storage capabilities. Moreover, DTs hold promise in facilitating vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration and testing autonomous driving systems, while robust cybersecurity measures will be essential to protect sensitive data. The applications of DTs in estimating state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) parameters demonstrate their effectiveness in optimizing battery performance. In addition to exploring the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning models for improving battery performance while highlighting real-world case examples, the study also highlights how digital twin (DT) technology can enhance battery design, increase longevity, and ensure safety. Furthermore, this study discusses the challenges of implementing DTs for battery packs, and the potential applications of this technology in future directions are discussed. In conclusion, DTs are set to revolutionize the future of electric transportation, promoting sustainability and efficiency in the EV ecosystem.

Evaluating a Nickel–Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery Regeneration Patent Based on a Non-Intrusive and Unsupervised Prototype

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In the ongoing shift toward electric vehicles (EVs) primarily utilizing lithium-ion battery technology, a significant population of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) remains operational, which are reliant on established NiMH battery systems. Over the last twenty years, these HEVs have generated a substantial number of NiMH batteries that are either inoperable, experiencing performance degradation, or approaching the end of their service life. This situation results in a twofold challenge: (i) a growing volume of environmentally hazardous waste due to the difficulty of NiMH battery reclamation and (ii) escalating maintenance costs for HEV owners necessitated by replacement battery purchases. To overcome this scenario, patent WO2015092107A1, published in 2015, proposed a ‘Method for regenerating NiMH batteries.’ This method claimed the ability to restore NiMH batteries to their original functionality based on a non-intrusive approach. However, a comprehensive review of the relevant scientific literature fails to identify any empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of this regeneration technique. Within this context, this study provides a detailed analysis and evaluation of the regeneration process based on an unsupervised and non-intrusive prototype. The proposed prototype can be used not only to implement and evaluate the previous patent, but also to test any other process or methodology based on controlled charging/discharging periods under certain current conditions. NiMH battery cells from a Toyota Prius were included in this work as a real case study. The experimental results from this prototype demonstrate the reduced potential for battery regeneration using the proposed method. Future contributions should offer a promising solution for mitigating the challenges associated with NiMH battery disposal, maintenance within the HEV domain, and other second-life alternative options.

Comparison of Battery Chemistries for Electric Vehicle Applications

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Full-text available

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In the ongoing shift towards electric vehicles (EVs) primarily utilizing lithium-ion battery technology, a significant population of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) remains operational, reliant on established NiMH battery systems. Over the last twenty years, these HEVs have generated a substantial quantity of NiMH batteries that are either inoperable, experiencing performance degradation, or approaching the end of their service life. This results in a twofold challenge: a growing volume of environmentally hazardous waste due to the difficulty of NiMH battery reclamation, and escalating maintenance costs for HEV owners necessitated by replacement battery purchases. Patent WO2015092107A1, published in 2015, proposed a "Method for regenerating NiMh batteries." This method claims the ability to restore NiMH batteries to their original functionality. However, a comprehensive review of relevant scientific literature fails to identify any empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of the regeneration technique detailed in the patent. Within this context, this paper presents a detailed analysis and evaluation of the feasibility of the aforementioned patented method. To achieve this objective, the authors propose a prototype constructed utilizing NiMH battery cells sourced from a Toyota Prius. The experimental results obtained from this prototype demonstrate the potential for battery regeneration using the proposed method. These findings offer a promising solution for mitigating the challenges associated with NiMH battery disposal and maintenance within the HEV domain.

Sustainable Mobility and Environmental Impacts of Green Batteries: A Comprehensive Review

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Jun 2024

The comprehensive study explores the vital role of the batteries in sustainable development. It evaluates the performance of batteries in both internal combustion engine (ICE) and Electric Vehicles (EVs) while emphasizing the environmental benefits of Green Batteries. The study also explores the battery maintenance and recycling practices for everyday automotive use. Based on lithium-ion battery data, it underscores the urgent need for effective recycling solutions and the rising battery recycling sector. The environmental impacts of battery production, especially for EVs, are recognised, emphasising the importance of transition to renewable energy sources. A comparison between fossil and nonfossil fuels demonstrates the potential benefits of cleaner energy sources. The study also compares the performance of conventional batteries with green batteries, and ultimately recommends the adoption of green batteries powered by renewable energy as a sustainable solution.

Review of lithium-ion, fuel cell, sodium-beta, nickel-based and metal-air battery technologies used in electric vehicles

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Dec 2023

Interest in electric vehicles (EV) or hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) is increasing day by day. These vehicles have many advantages as they operate more efficiently and do not cause noise or environmental pollution compared with conventional vehicles. However, it has some disadvantages. For some, it is the most important trust issue. An important criterion is that the daily vehicle cannot go to a sufficient range. Therefore, vehicle designs and applications continue to be made with high energy and power distribution, low performance, and high efficiency ESSs using two or more energy storage systems (ESS). In addition, lithium-ion batteries are widely used in EVs and HEVs. Although they have high power and energy estimations, their high duration, short freezing life or service life, and insufficient efficiency are the guides for executing different alternative solutions. The aim of this article is to create a different perspective by including unusual battery types and fuel consumption technology known as clean energy sources. The Zero Emlu Battery Research (ZEBRA) battery, which is seen as a future technology in EVs and HEVs in this article, features such as the operating principle of the nickel-based battery structure (Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Iron, Nickel-Zinc), operating temperature ranges, cycle lifetimes, and service lives. In addition to the lithium-air battery, which is a metal-air battery technology and is seen as a source of hope with its high energy densities in the future, it is also included. Comparisons between these batteries were made, and their applicability in HEVs and EVs was examined.

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Increased adoption of the electric vehicle (EV) needs the proper charging infrastructure integrated with suitable energy management schemes. However, the available literature on this topic lacks in providing a comparative survey on different aspects of this field to properly guide the people interested in this area. To mitigate this gap, this research survey is an effort to provide know-how about the important aspects of the overall EV charging setup with 239 relevant references. It reviews the achievements of energy management systems in terms of improving fuel consumption efficiency and reducing carbon dioxide emissions in EV charging systems. State-of-the-art and most up-to-date standards of EV technology and charging infrastructure are presented. EV charging schemes based on standard grid and renewable energy resources are introduced with a brief comparison of the standard grid and photovoltaic-grid charging systems. Moreover, this article describes centralized and decentralized control configurations of EV charging. A comparative survey of different energy management algorithms is presented while highlighting the benefits and drawbacks of each algorithm. The work presented in this review will help frame future research needs. It is anticipated that the material gathered in this article will become a valuable source of information for the researchers working on this area of study.

Battery safety testing | Battery safety testing

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Jan 2024

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Supply Chain Efficiency Improvement through Value Stream Mapping : A Case Study of Battery Import Business

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Watcharapoj Sapsanguanboon

This research aims to analyze supply chain issues and develop solutions to improve supply chain efficiency based on a battery import business case study by collecting information on activities occuring in the warehouse sector, recharging and product inspection before shipping to the distribution center. A current value stream mapping is used to prepare a current supply chain performance study and assessment, fishbone diagrams are used to identify issues and causes that affect the performance, and a future value stream mapping is used to determine guidelines for supply chain efficiency improvement. The study discovered that four variables, including people equipment, locations, and processes, are the main drivers of difficulties influencing supply chain efficiency. The following are the solutions: 1) Creating organizational awareness and responsibility 2) Relocating the working area to the same location 3) Making a PM planning for warehouse building 4) Using a Cooling Tunnel 5) Using WMS and ERP in the operational processes. This solution can improve the performance by reducing operational activities from 29 to 17 activities, reducing work hours from 11,058.51 to 874.76 minutes, reducing moving distance from 34,805.00 to 1,012.00 meters increasing the workload from 315 to 504 batteries/day (60.00%), and reducing costs from 35.56 to 27.59 baht/battery (22.41%).

Stand-Alone Battery Thermal Management for Fast Charging of Electric Two Wheelers—Integrated Busbar Cooling

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Jun 2019

This paper presents a thermal interface for cylindrical cells using busbar-integrated cooling channels. This interface is available due to the use of a stand-alone refrigerant circuit for the thermal management of the battery. A stand-alone refrigerant circuit offers performance and efficiency increases compared to state-of-the-art battery thermal management systems. This can be achieved by increasing the evaporation temperature to the requirements of the Li-ion cells and the use of alternative refrigerants. The solution proposed in this paper is defined for electric two-wheelers, as the thermal management of these vehicles is currently insufficient for fast charging where high heat losses occur. Three channel patterns for the integrated busbar cooling were examined regarding their thermal performance to cool the li-ion cells of a 16p14s battery pack during fast charging. A method of coupling correlation-based heat transfer and pressure drop with thermal finite element method (FEM) simulations was developed. The symmetric channel pattern offers a good compromise between battery temperatures and homogeneity, as well as the best volumetric and gravimetric energy densities on system level. Average cell temperatures of 22 °C with a maximum temperature spread of 8 K were achieved.

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Full-text available

Jun 2019

In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.

Current Li-Ion Battery Technologies in Electric Vehicles and Opportunities for Advancements

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Full-text available

Mar 2019

Over the past several decades, the number of electric vehicles (EVs) has continued to increase. Projections estimate that worldwide, more than 125 million EVs will be on the road by 2030. At the heart of these advanced vehicles is the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery which provides the required energy storage. This paper presents and compares key components of Li-ion batteries and describes associated battery management systems, as well as approaches to improve the overall battery efficiency, capacity, and lifespan. Material and thermal characteristics are identified as critical to battery performance. The positive and negative electrode materials, electrolytes and the physical implementation of Li-ion batteries are discussed. In addition, current research on novel high energy density batteries is presented, as well as opportunities to repurpose and recycle the batteries.

Temperature effect and thermal impact in lithium-ion batteries: A review

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Full-text available

Nov 2018

Lithium-ion batteries, with high energy density (up to 705 Wh/L) and power density (up to 10,000 W/L), exhibit high capacity and great working performance. As rechargeable batteries, lithium-ion batteries serve as power sources in various application systems. Temperature, as a critical factor, significantly impacts on the performance of lithium-ion batteries and also limits the application of lithium-ion batteries. Moreover, different temperature conditions result in different adverse effects. Accurate measurement of temperature inside lithium-ion batteries and understanding the temperature effects are important for the proper battery management. In this review, we discuss the effects of temperature to lithium-ion batteries at both low and high temperature ranges. The current approaches in monitoring the internal temperature of lithium-ion batteries via both contact and contactless processes are also discussed in the review.

Sustainability Assessment of Second Use Applications of Automotive Batteries: Ageing of Li-Ion Battery Cells in Automotive and Grid-Scale Applications

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Full-text available

Jul 2018

The Sustainability Assessment of Second Life Applications of Automotive Batteries (SASLAB) exploratory research project of the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC) aims at developing and applying a methodology to analyse the sustainability of deploying electrified vehicles (xEV) batteries in second use applications. A mapping of industrial demonstration and publicly-funded research projects in the area is presented, followed by an experimental assessment of the capacity and impedance change of lithium-ion cells during calendar and cycle ageing. Fresh cells and cells aged in the laboratory, as well as under real-world driving conditions, have been characterised to understand their application-specific remaining lifetime, beyond the 70% to 80% end-of-first-use criterion. For this purpose, pre-aged cells were examined under duty-cycles that resemble those of second use grid-scale applications.

Selecting the Best Graphite for Long-Life, High-Energy Li-Ion Batteries

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2018
J ELECTROCHEM SOC

Most lithium-ion batteries still rely on intercalation-type graphite materials for anodes, so it is important to consider their role in full cells for applications in electric vehicles. Here, we systematically evaluate the chemical and physical properties of six commercially-available natural and synthetic graphites to establish which factors have the greatest impact on the cycling stability of full cells with nickel-rich LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) cathodes. Electrochemical data and post-mortem characterization explain the origin of capacity fade. The NMC811 cathode shows large irreversible capacity loss and impedance growth, accounting for much of full cell degradation. However, six graphite anodes demonstrate significant differences with respect to structural change, surface area, impedance growth, and SEI chemistry, which impact overall capacity retention. We found long cycle life correlated most strongly with stable graphite crystallite size. In addition, graphites with lower surface area generally had higher coulombic efficiencies during formation cycles, which led to more stable long-term cycling. The best graphite screened here enables a capacity retention around 90% in full pouch cells over extensive long-term cycling compared to only 82% for cells with the lowest performing graphite. The results show that optimal graphite selection improves cycling stability of high energy lithium-ion cells.

Battery Management System Hardware Concepts: An Overview

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018

This paper focuses on the hardware aspects of battery management systems (BMS) for electric vehicle and stationary applications. The purpose is giving an overview on existing concepts in state-of-the-art systems and enabling the reader to estimate what has to be considered when designing a BMS for a given application. After a short analysis of general requirements, several possible topologies for battery packs and their consequences for the BMS’ complexity are examined. Four battery packs that were taken from commercially available electric vehicles are shown as examples. Later, implementation aspects regarding measurement of needed physical variables (voltage, current, temperature, etc.) are discussed, as well as balancing issues and strategies. Finally, safety considerations and reliability aspects are investigated.

Electric Vehicle Battery Market Analysis: Lead Acid

Conference Paper

Aug 2018

F. Mohammadi

An economic and environmental assessment on landfill gas to vehicle fuel conversion for waste hauling operations

Article

Mar 2019
RESOUR CONSERV RECY

Review on Battery Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles

Article

Dec 2018
APPL THERM ENG

The lithium-ion batteries are widely used for electric vehicles due to high energy density and long cycle life. Since the performance and life of lithium-ion batteries are very sensitive to temperature, it is important to maintain the proper temperature range. In this context, an effective battery thermal management system solution is discussed in this paper. This paper reviews the heat generation phenomena and critical thermal issues of lithium-ion batteries. Then various battery thermal management system studies are comprehensively reviewed and categorized according to thermal cycle options. The battery thermal management system with a vapor compression cycle includes cabin air cooling, second-loop liquid cooling and direct refrigerant two-phase cooling. The battery thermal management system without vapor compression cycle includes phase change material cooling, heat pipe cooling and thermoelectric element cooling. Each battery thermal management system is reviewed in terms of the maximum temperature and maximum temperature difference of the batteries and an effective BTMS that complements the disadvantages of each system is discussed. Lastly, a novel battery thermal management system is proposed to provide an effective thermal management solution for the high energy density lithium-ion batteries.