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Clary sage essential oil and its biological activities
Abstract
Salvia sclarea or “clary sage” is an aromatic plant that is used for various ailments especially among the women. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the biological activities of clary sage oil with emphasis on its application in women health. The information of this study was extracted by key words of clary sage, S. sclarea, biological activities in references books and electronic resources. The results of investigation exhibited that the chemical composition of clary sage influenced from various ecological, geographical and environmental conditions, but linalool and linalyl acetate is known as main components of clary sage oil. Clary sage oil is used in aromatherapy for women during the menstrual cycle, childbirth and menopause. The modern clinical investigations confirmed the efficacy of clary sage oil as anti-stress, anti-depression and analgesic agents in primary dysmenorrhea. The anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory effects of clary sage have been confirmed. Furthermore, clary sage oil is known as safe oil with no adverse effects. Designing the large clinical study to evaluate the oral efficacy of clary sage oil for women ailments is essential for future studies.
... Phytotherapy, which uses plant-derived natural products, such as essential oils, generally presents a promising approach that has fewer adverse effects, compared with conventional drugs (Dragos et al. 2017;Petitjean et al. 2022). Clary sage essential oil (CSEO) exhibits antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects and is used as a traditional medicine (Seol et al. 2010;Kostić et al. 2017;Mahboubi 2020). CSEO has been found to reduce pain after percutaneous nephrolithotomy (Mahboubi et al. 2020). ...
... Clary sage essential oil (CSEO) exhibits antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects and is used as a traditional medicine (Seol et al. 2010;Kostić et al. 2017;Mahboubi 2020). CSEO has been found to reduce pain after percutaneous nephrolithotomy (Mahboubi et al. 2020). Linalyl acetate (LA), which is one of the monoterpene compounds, comprises 40% to 60% of the composition of CSEO (Pokajewicz et al. 2021). ...
Clary sage essential oil (CSEO) is utilized in perfumery, aromatherapy, and skincare. Linalyl acetate (LA), a primary component of CSEO, possesses sedative, anxiolytic, and analgesic properties. However, the mechanism of its analgesic action is not clearly understood. Transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channel, a non-selective cation channel, is mainly expressed in sensory neurons and serves as a sensor of various irritants. In this study, we investigated the effects of LA on TRPA1 channel using heterologous expression system and isolated sensory neurons. To detect channel activity, we employed Ca2+ imaging and the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. The analgesic action of LA was measured in a pain-related behavioral mouse model. In cells that heterologously expressed TRPA1, LA diminished [Ca2+]i and current responses to allylisothiocyanate (AITC) and carvacrol: exogenous TRPA1 agonists, and the inhibitory effects were more pronounced for the former than for the latter. Moreover, LA suppressed [Ca2+] i and current responses to PGJ2: an endogenous TRPA1 agonist. Similar inhibitory actions were observed in native TRPA1 channels expressed in mouse sensory neurons. Furthermore, LA diminished PGJ2-induced nociceptive behaviors in mice. These findings suggest that analgesic effects of LA exert through inhibition of nociceptive TRPA1, making it a potential candidate for novel analgesic development.
... EO was extensively tested in vitro and in vivo in various models of experimental inflammation. DMPBD dose-dependently inhibited the rat ear edema induced by ethyl phenylpropiolate (EPP), arachidonic acid (ArA), and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), and it was more potent than any tested standard drugs such as diclofenac, oxyphenbutazone, and phenidone [145]. It had equal activity to diclofenac in inhibiting the carrageenan-induced rat paw edema. ...
... Clary sage EO [145] and particularly lavender EO [147] have proven effective in treating primary dysmenorrhea in controlled clinical trials, which is attributed to the muscle-relaxing as well as anti-inflammatory activities. Moreover, Thymus vulgaris and Zataria multiflora Boiss., a plant native of southwest Asia belonging to the Laminaceae family, whose EO contains thymol and carvacrol as main and second main components, were shown effective in reducing pain associated to dysmenorrhea in clinical trials [143]. ...
Essential oils (EOs) are mixtures of volatile molecules endowed with health-promoting biological activities that go beyond their role as aromas and natural preservatives and can be exploited to develop functional foods and diet supplements. Their composition is briefly addressed along with regulatory aspects. The potential health benefit of human diet supplementation with EOs is outlined through a review of the recent literature on available clinical trials and preclinical research concerning EOs activity towards: (1) irritable bowel syndrome; (2) inflammatory bowel disease; (3) regulation of microbiota; (4) gastroprotection; (5) hepatoprotection; (6) protection of the urinary tract and diuresis; (7) management of metabolic disorders including hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia; (8) anti-inflammatory and pain control; (9) immunomodulation and protection from influenza; and (10) neuroprotection and modulation of mood and cognitive performance. The emerging potential in such activities of selected EOs is given focus, particularly green and black cumin, bergamot, orange, myrtle, peppermint, sage, eucalyptus, lavender, thyme, lemon balm, ginger, and garlic.
... In general, these effects may depend on the method of application (inhalation or dermal application) and sex. Clinical studies confirmed that oil from S. sclarea is effective in reducing stress, depression and as analgesic agents in primary dysmenorrhea (Mahboubi, 2020). Studies have confirmed that clary sage has antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antiinflammatory effects. ...
... Therefore, women who experience menstrual cramps or dysmenorrhea may be offered aromatherapy as part of their nursing care (Han et al., 2006). In aromatherapy, oil from clary sage is used for women during their menstrual cycle, childbirth and menopause (Mahboubi, 2020). ...
Phytotherapy for the correction of excess body weight is widely used. However, a comprehensive study of herbal preparations on the organism of model animals has been carried out only for a few plant species. Supplementing the diet of rats with closely related sage species (Salvia officinalis L. and S. sclarea L.) against the background of high-fat hypercaloric diet triggered multidirectional changes in their metabolism. The addition of crushed dry shoots of S. officinalis to the diet of animals led to a sharp increase in their body weight (up to 130.8% of the initial one in 30 days of the experiment). The body weight of the rats treated with S. sclarea for 30 days increased only up to 103.8% of their initial weight and was lower than in the control group. Addition of S. officinalis caused an increase in daily weight gain up to 253.1% of the control group, and S. sclarea – its decrease to 27.8% of the daily weight gain in the control group. In the S. officinalis group, the relative weight of the brain, spleen, and thymus decreased, while in the S. sclarea group, the relative weight of the thymus decreased and that of the colon increased. Under the influence of S. officinalis, the concentration of urea, total bilirubin, and triglycerides in the blood plasma of male rats decreased and the concentration of total protein and the activity of alkaline phosphatase increased. While consuming S. sclarea shoots, there was an increase of alkaline phosphatase activity in the rats’ blood, but atherogenic index (23.1% of the level of the control group) sharply dropped due to an increase in the concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (286.9% of the control) and a decrease in the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (67.7% of control). In rats feeding on S. sclarea shoots, we observed a decrease in the concentration of triglycerides in the blood (39.9% of the control), a decrease in the activity of gamma-glutamyl transferase (62.8%), and an increase in the Ca/P ratio (132.5% of the control group). No significant changes were observed in CBC and WBC differential of male rats when eating S. officinalis and S. sclarea shoots. According to the results of the open field test, the physical and orientational activity of male rats under the influence of S. officinalis significantly decreased by the end of the experiment. Emotional status of rats, on the contrary, decreased when they ate dry crushed shoots of S. sclarea in the composition of the food. Thus, excess body weight of rats in the conditions of hypercaloric diet led to more pronounced deviations from the norm while consuming dry crushed shoots of S. officinalis. The addition of S. sclarea dry crushed shoots to the animals’ diet normalized the body weight in comparison with the control group, reduced the negative manifestations of obesity at the biochemical and organismal levels. In this regard, the substances that contains S. sclarea should be carefully studied for anti-atherosclerotic activity, and tea supplemented with S. sclarea shoots can be recommended as a corrective supplement in the diet of overweight people.
... Clary sage essential oil, extracted from the flowering tops of Salvia sclarea, is known for its unique composition, including linalyl acetate, linalool, and sclareol (70). These components exhibit potent anti-inflammatory properties, making clary sage oil particularly effective in reducing inflammation in the throat and oesophagus (71). This anti-inflammatory action can help alleviate discomfort and enhance swallowing function in dysphagia patients by calming irritated tissues and supporting recovery. ...
Dysphagia, a prevalent and distressing condition in end-of-life care, significantly impacts patients' quality of life and overall health. Conventional treatments may be limited in effectiveness or poorly tolerated in this vulnerable population. Aromatherapy has been explored as a complementary approach to support symptom relief, focusing on the therapeutic potential of essential oils with muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and saliva-stimulating properties. Computerised search in Scopus, PubMed®, Web of Science and b-on databases, using the combination of keywords dysphagia, swallowing difficulties, aromatherapy, essential oils, end-of-life care, palliative care, non-invasive therapy, and therapeutic use of essential oils. Although direct evidence remains scarce, preliminary findings suggest that certain essential oils—such as lavender, peppermint, chamomile, and ginger—may help ease swallowing by reducing muscle tension, inflammation, and anxiety, and by promoting salivation. Safety considerations and the need for individualized approaches are emphasized, particularly in fragile populations. This review highlights the potential role of aromatherapy as an adjunctive tool in holistic dysphagia care at the end of life. Further clinical studies are needed to establish standardized protocols and determine efficacy.
... Similarly, a previous study found no statistically significant differences between inhalation of clary sage oil and control subjects, although blood pressure tended to be lower (18). Clary sage oil has been found to alleviate anxiety and reduce stress (19,20), responses likely mediated through the regulation of the autonomic nervous system (21). The significant effect observed in participants who inhaled linalyl acetate suggests that clary sage oil's effects may largely be attributed to linalyl acetate, which has been found to reduce blood pressure (13). ...
Background
Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is a significant global health concern due to its substantial burden on individuals and healthcare systems. In addition to its physical impact, DFU has emotional effects on patients. This study analyzed the effects of inhaling clary sage (CS; Salvia sclarea L.) or linalyl acetate (LA) on depression and psychological factors in patients with DFU.
Methods
This study, performed at the Diabetic Wound Center, enrolled DFU patients, categorized as having mild or moderate to severe depression based on visual analog scale (VAS) for depression scores. Patients were randomized to inhalation of 5% CS oil, 5% LA or almond oil (control) by natural breathing. Blood pressure, heart rate, Depression-VAS, Anxiety-VAS, and Stress-VAS were measured before and after inhalation.
Results
This study enrolled 72 patients with DFU, including 43 with mild and 29 with moderate to severe depression. Of the 43 patients with mild depression, 14, 14, and 15 were randomized to inhalation of CS, LA, and almond oil, respectively. Of the 29 patients with moderate to severe depression, 9, 11, and 9 were randomized to inhalation of CS, LA, and almond oil, respectively. Compared with inhalation of almond oil, inhalation of CS oil significantly reduced stress (p < 0.05) and (p < 0.01) in patients with mild depression, whereas inhalation of LA significantly reduced anxiety-VAS (p < 0.05) and depression-VAS (p < 0.05) in patients with moderate to severe depression.
Conclusion
Inhalation of CS oil may have the potential to alleviate stress and anxiety in DFU patients with mild depression, whereas inhalation of LA may have the potential to alleviate anxiety and depression in DFU patients with moderate to severe depression. These findings suggest that adjunct therapy in DFU patients should be individualized according to the degree of depression.
Clinical trial registration
http://cris.nih.go.kr/, identifier KCT0009722.
... ხარისვარდას (Salvia sclarea L.) ეთეროვან ზეთს ტრადიციულ მედიცინაში იყენებენ პირის ღრუს ანთებითი დაავადებების დროს, როგორიცაა სტომატიტი და გინგივიტი [3], ასევე ასთენიის, ნევრასთენიისა და სტრესის დროს [1,4]. კვლევებით დადგინდა ეთერზეთის პოტენციური ანტიდიაბეტური აქტივობა და შეიძლება გამოყენებულ იქნას თანამედროვე, ან ალტერნატიულ მედიცინაში დიაბეტის, ან მასთან დაკავშირებული გართულებების პრევენციისათვის [3,5]. ...
A study on the chemical composition of the essential oil obtained from the aerial parts of Salvia sclarea L., cultivated in Georgia, was carried out. The percentage of dominant components was determined by GC integration, the dominant components in the essential oil are linalool (26.81%) and linalyl acetate (42.99%). Quantitative content of dominant compound linalyl acetate, in Salvia sclarea essential oil, was also determined using a standard sample. From terpene family, oxygenated monoterpens are dominants. The content of phenolic compounds in the aqueous, methanolic and chloroformic fractions of the residual plant material after hydrodistilation, was determined by using Folin-Ciocalteu test. In aquaeous fraction total phenolic content was 13 ± 1%, in the methanolic fraction - 9.2 ± 0.9% and 11 ± 1% in the chloroformic fraction. The essential oil has exhibited significant antioxidant activity in ORAC test as well as an antibacterial activity (E. coli, Salmonella enterica, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus epidermidis). Salvia sclarea essential oil, methanolic and chlorophormic fractions exhibited high anti-inflammatory activity with 85%, 92% and 96% inhibition of NO production respectively, at 77 μg/ml, 14 μg/ml and 13 μg/ml dose, without any significant toxicity. Methanolic fraction revealed a moderate cytotoxic activity (73 ± 4 μg/ml) against A-549 cell line.
... Based on bibliography, the proportions of linalool and linalyl acetate, as major constituents were highest in Salvia sclarea essential oil, at the full flowering stage [6]. As it described, distillation of freshly harvested plant materials and the excess moistures, lead to production of linalool from hydrolysing of linalyl acetate and α-terpinyl acetate [7]. In our case, the essential oil was obtained from ...
The aim of the research was to study chemical composition and anti-inflammatory effect of essential oil from Salvia sclarea aerial parts growing in Georgia. It is well known that essential oils of Salvia possesses anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and anti-diabetic activities. Essential oil (EO) was obtained by hydrodistillation and characterized by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. EO yield from areal part was 0.23%. In total, 25 different compounds of terpene nature were identified. Linalyl acetate (18.8%), linalool (14.9%) and spathulenol (9.07%) were the main components in S. sclarea essential oil. The anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oil was evaluated on a base of nitric oxide (NO) production measure in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 murine monocyte-macrophage cells. EO exhibited high anti-inflammatory activity with 74% inhibition of NO production, at 80 µg/ml dose, without any significant toxicity. The aerial parts of S. sclarea were collected during the flowering season (June, 2021). Dried aerial parts were hydro-distilled with three replicates for two hours with glass Clevenger-type apparatus. The concentrations of the compounds (%) were calculated by integrating their corresponding chromatographic peak areas (nonpolar column and TIC regime) using the Agilent MassHunter Software. The structure of each component was defined on the base of their mass spectral data, compared with spectral profile of reference compounds in the NIST database and the Wiley library [1,2]. For additional identification, during GC-MS analyses, the authentic samples of Linalool, Caryophyllene, Caryophyllene oxide, Humulene, α-terpineol and Linalyl acetate were
... [19][20] From the essential oils used in insomnia treatment are lavender oil, lemon oil, 21 anise oil, 22 chamomile extract, 23 clary oil. 24 In the light of the previously mentioned facts, the purpose of this study was to prepare SNEDDS entrapped with zaleplon and essential oils for improving zaleplon oral bioavailability and investigating the synergetic effect of essential oils with zaleplon on the central nervous system in order to insomnia treatment. ...
Background: Insomnia is usually associated with mental and physical daytime impairment. Zaleplon (Zp) is indicated in insomnia management but its limited aqueous solubility led to its low bioavailability (BAV) ~30%. Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) was a recommended nano-delivery system for improvement poorly soluble drugs’ oral bioavailability. Consequently, this study aimed to prepare SNEDDS entrapped Zp using essential oils (EOs) have insomnia management effect. Materials and Methods: Different EOs, surfactants and co-surfactants in varying ratios were used in preparing Zp-loaded SNEDDS, which were chosen according to their ability to ease the emulsification and improve Zp solubility. To optimize the formulations; Zp-SNEEDS formulae were characterized for particle-size, zeta-potential, emulsification-time, and drug loading capacity. Additionally, in-vitro release and stability studies were performed to provide a perception on the stability and enhancing Zp release from Zp-SNEDDS formulae. To improve Zp-SNEDDS activity; BAV study and psychomotor evaluation test were carried out in albino mice. Results: The selected optimized formulae containing Tween80, PEG400 and anise oil had nanoparticle size (~98nm), loading capacity up to 40%, emulsification time~34sec and increased Zp dissolution rate up to 2 folds compared to pure Zp suspension. Zp-SNEEDS’ BAV is 1.29 and increases in the sleep time up to 165min which equal to the synergetic effect of anise oil and zaleplon alone. Conclusion: The significant increase in the rate and extent of Zp oral absorption from nano-positively charge Zp-SNEEDS with high BAV and increases in sleeping time indicates the effectiveness of Zp-SNEEDS in improving Zp oral absorption and therapeutic effect in insomnia treatment. © 2022, Association of Pharmaceutical Teachers of India. All rights reserved.
... The antimicrobial potential could be attributed to the components of oregano oil like p-cymene, γ-terpinene, carvacrol, and thymol. [101] [71] Torch ginger Etlingera elatior 1-dodecanol and lauryl acetate Food flavouring and preservation [53] Salvia sclarea Linalool and linalyl acetate Flavouring meat dishes, soups, sausages, and canned food [72][73][74] Noni Morinda Citrifolia Esters and fatty acids Chemical additives in poultry diet [75] BasilOcimum basilicum Linalool, estragole, methyl cinnamate, bicyclosesquiphellandrene, eucalyptol, αbergamotene, eugenol, γ-cadinene and germacrene D Flavouring tomatoes, salads, sauces, and vegetables. [74,76] GingerZingiber officinale 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol,and 10-gingerol Antimicrobial activity against pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in foods [77,78] Spearmint Mentha spicata Carvone and cis-carveol Flavour vegetables, soups, meat and fish sauces, and salads and chewing gums [74,79] PeppermintMentha piperita ...
The poultry processing sector provides a sustainable source of animal protein of high nutritional quality. Plant essential oils were proposed as natural alternatives to enhance safety and extend the shelf life of poultry meat. However, the applications to this sector are limited due to the low stability and rapid oxidation of the essential oil. The emergence of active packaging incorporating essential oils has expanded potential food applications. Critical factors for successful development of active packaging interventions include appropriate essential oil selection, polymer source selection (carbohydrates-based, proteins-based), the bioactivity as a function of the packaging matrix as well as the target and food constituents, the minimum inhibition concentrations achievable in conjunction with processing conditions. The large gap between the commercially available active packaging and the demand for sustainable environmentally friendly packaging is an important limitation for current applications in chicken meat. Therefore, this article reviews the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, the green extraction approaches and the applications of essential oils in controlled release packaging (CRP). Moreover, this review aims to fill gap between the CRP and their limitations to expand their potential applications in chicken meat.
... Other scientific evidence demonstrates the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal and cytotoxic activities of its essential oils [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. Clary sage is also used in aromatherapy as a highly effective relaxant for the treatment of stress, asthma, digestion and menstrual problems as well as an aid to induce childbirth [21,22]. Some authors have found that clary sage seeds are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, which make them ideal for use in nutraceuticals. ...
Salvia sclarea L. is an important industrial crop, valued for its herbal-aromatic properties and high quality essential oils, that is used in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In this study, carried out from 2009 to 2010, the morphological and production characteristics and essential oil content and composition of three Sicilian populations were studied. In particular, the composition of essential oils extracted from primary and secondary inflorescences using steam distillation was assessed. Morphological, production and qualitative data from the three populations were subjected to analysis of variance and cluster analysis. Regarding the quality of the oils, only the most prevalent compounds were taken into consideration in this study. The three populations were linalyl acetate/linalool chemotypes. Highly significant variations were found for the effective local population and inflorescence type in the composition of the essential oil principal components. In particular, the primary inflorescences were found to be accumulation sites favoured by monoterpenes, and secondary inflorescences were favoured by sesquiterpenes and sclareol. Populations “S. Stefano Quisquina” and “Alcara Li Fusi” performed best on a morphological and production level, whereas populations “Prizzi”and “Alcara Li Fusi” performed best in terms of quality. Population “S. Stefano Quisquina” produced high levels of sclareol. Biotype selection from within the populations should be based on both morphological, production and quality analyses.
... Volatile oily liquids derived from various parts of a variety of plants by steam distillation (Sahal et al., 2019) have been reported to be one such alternative against hard-to-treat microorganisms by means of displaying antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties against several pathogenic microorganisms (Adukwu et al., 2012;Bazargani and Rohloff, 2016). Essential oils such as clary sage, clove and thyme oils have been traditionally used in different parts of the world to treat various microbial diseases (Mahboubi, 2020;Naeini et al., 2014;Pina-Vaz et al., 2004). Considering all these antecedents, the aim of the present work was to determine biofilm formation levels of three different abscess cultures and to investigate antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects of clary sage, clove and thyme oils against the identified bacterial strain isolated from the highest biofilm forming abscess culture. ...
Introduction
Abscesses are high density microbial infections of which biofilm formation plays a crucial role on their recurrence and chronicity. In this study, the authors aim was to determine biofilm formations of three different abscess cultures and to investigate antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects of clary sage, clove and thyme oils against the identified bacterial strain isolated from the highest biofilm forming abscess culture.
Methods
This in vitro study consisted of skin, breast and perianal abscess materials of 3 different patients. “Papanicolaou” staining and “Periodic Acid Schiff” staining methods were performed for cytological examination. Biofilm formation and biofilm inhibition tests were determined by “Crystal Violet Binding” assay and Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) of the selected essential oils were calculated by “Micro-Dilution” method.
Results
Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes and Proteus mirabilis strains were isolated from perianal, skin and breast abscesses respectively. The bacterial strain that exists in the highest biofilm forming abscess culture was identified as P. mirabilis. P. mirabilis strain was found as resistant to Ampicillin and Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole. Clary sage oil was unable to inhibit growth of P. mirabilis strain at the highest concentration tested (500 μL/mL). However, clove and thyme oils inhibited biofilm formation of P. mirabilis strain in addition to inhibiting its growth at very low concentrations (1.95 μL/mL and 0.98 μL/mL respectively).
Conclusion
Thyme oil having the lowest inhibitory concentration and the highest antibiofilm effect has a good potential to be used as an antimicrobial and antibiofilm agent for the management of abscesses with P. mirabilis infections.
... Furthermore, in cancer research, it was shown that sclareol has an outstanding effect on the inhibition of the ERK-related signaling pathway [28]. These effects of sclareol demonstrate the capacity for Salvia sclarea essential oil to be used for the improvement of dysmenorrhea symptoms [29]. It has been used as an abdominal massage oil, and it was proven to be effective in decreasing the severity of dysmenorrhea [30]. ...
Salvia sclarea essential oil is used as an aromatic therapy for dysmenorrhea. Sclareol—one of the natural products isolated from S. sclarea—displays anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities; however, researchers have not yet evaluated the mechanism related to the pain-relieving effect of sclareol. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the potential effect of sclareol in ex vivo and in vivo dysmenorrhea models, as well as its possible mechanism. In the ex vivo study of uterine tissue from Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, the uterine contraction amplitude was observed and recorded. In the in vivo study, we measured the uterine contraction pressure of SD rats and performed writhing tests on mice. The uterine tissues from the writhing test subjects were collected and analyzed by Western blot. The results demonstrated that sclareol inhibited prostaglandin (PG) F2α-, oxytocin-, acetylcholine-, carbachol-, KCl-, and Bay K 8644-induced uterine contraction and possessed an analgesic effect in the writhing test. Sclareol affects the Ca²⁺ level and regulates oxytocin receptor (OTR), myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p-p38, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and phospho-myosin light chain 20 (p-MLC20) protein expression. Integrating these results, we suggest that sclareol is a potential alternative supplement for dysmenorrhea.
Clary sage is an aromatic essential oil-bearing herb. It is widely used in aromatherapy which helps to relieve stress, anxiety as well as support in women's menstrual health. It is useful not only in the medical sphere, but also in the agricultural, culinary, and cosmetic industries. Its biological properties, viz., antimicrobial, antianxiolytic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and cytotoxic, are well established in several studies. Essential oil can be obtained from its leaves and flowers using conventional and modern methods including, steam distillation, hydrodistillation, hydrodiffusion, solvent, subcritical water, microwave heating, and combination methods. Major compounds found in S. sclarea essential oil are monoterpene alcohols such as linalool, geraniol, nerol, α-terpineol; monoterpene esters such as linalyl acetate, neryl acetate; sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as germacrene-D, α-copaene; oxygenated sequiterpenes such as caryophyllene oxide; and diterpenes such as sclareol. Salvia sclarea oil is safe to use, and there are no adverse effects reported so far. It is further gaining popularity as natural additive in foods, smart food packaging, and cosmetics as a result of recent and novel studies.
Medicines, their safety, effectiveness and quality are indispensable factors of national security, important on a global scale. The COVID-19 pandemic has once again emphasized the importance of improving the immune response of the body in the face of severe viral infections. Plants from the Salvia L. genus have long been used in traditional medicine for treatment of inflammatory processes, parasitic diseases, bacterial and viral infections. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory effects of plant extracts LS-1, LS-2 from Salvia deserta Schang. and LS-3, LS-4 from Salvia sclarea L. plants growing in southern Kazakhstan by conventional and ultrasonic-assisted extraction, respectively. The cytotoxic effects of the named sage extracts on neonatal human dermal fibroblasts (HDFn) were evaluated using the MTT assay. Immunomodulatory effects of the studied extracts were compared by examining their influence on pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and phagocytic activity of murine immune cells. Depending on the physiological state of the innate immune cells, sage extracts LS-2 and LS-3 had either a stimulating effect on inactivated macrophages or suppressed cytokine-producing activity in LPS-activated macrophages. The greatest increase in TNF-α secretion was found after treatment of spleen T lymphocytes with sage extract LS-2, obtained by ultrasonic-assisted extraction.
Lamiaceae is one of the largest families of aromatic plants and it is characterized by the presence of external glandular structures which produce essential oils highly valued in cosmetics and medicine. Plants of Lavandula latifolia, Mentha piperita, Salvia sclarea, Salvia lavandulifolia, Thymus capitatus, and Thymus mastichina were grown for one year. In order to evaluate the effects of drought stress, plants were subjected to two water treatments (100% ETo and 70% ETo, including the rainfall during the experimental period). At the end of the experiment, the biomass, the essential oil content, and leaf nutrients concentration were assessed for each water treatment and species studied. At the end of the experiment, L. latifolia, M. piperita and T. capitatus plants showed a significant fresh weight reduction under drought stress conditions whereas the other species studied remained unchanged. With respect to dry weight, only L. latifolia plants showed a reduction under water deficit conditions. As far as essential oil content was concerned, L. latifolia and S. sclarea plants had a reduction under water deficit conditions. Leaf nutrient concentration showed different trends between species considering the nutrient assessed. The economic viability of the growth of this species will be dependent on the benefits achieved which are related to yield production obtained and the price accorded for both raw material and the essential oil extracted.
The differences in the chemical composition of the phenolic compounds of Salvia officinalis versus Salvia sclarea growing in different habitats, were studied. First, the optimal solvent - methanol - for ultrasonic extraction of phenolic compounds from these plants was chosen experimentally. Total phenolic content and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays were determined spectrophotometrically. Total phenolic content was in the range of 63.9 to 134.4 mg GAE/g of plant depending on the studied species. The highest antiradical activity was displayed by the methanol fractions of S. sclarea varieties (83 and 67%). HPLC-DAD analysis of extracts was done in order to identify the presence of individual phenolic compounds. This was done by comparison of their retention times with those observed for 17 commercially available standard compounds. The results showed differences in the phenolics composition, with plants collected on Crimean peninsula accumulating more phenolic acids than Polish varieties. In turn, the Polish varieties of sage contain bigger amount of flavonoids in their tissues.
Objectives
This pilot study using a quasi-experimental design was conducted to evaluate the feasibility (i.e., limited efficacy, practicality, and acceptability) of our intervention protocol involving inhalation of the scent of clary sage essential oil by pregnant women and measurement of their preinhalation and postinhalation oxytocin levels.
Results
Participants were women of singleton pregnancies between 38 and 40 gestation weeks (N = 11). The experiment group (n = 5) inhaled the scent of clary sage essential oil diluted 50-fold with 10 mL of odorless propylene glycol for 20 min. Regarding limited efficacy, the oxytocin level 15 min postinhalation increased in 3 women and was unmeasurable in 2. The control group (n = 6) inhaled similarly without the 50-fold dilution of clary sage essential oil. Their oxytocin level increased in 2 women, decreased in 2, and was unmeasurable in 2. Uterine contraction was not observed in both groups. Regarding practicality, 3 of the 11 women could not collect sufficient saliva. The cortisol level decreased in both groups postinhalation. The protocol had no negative effects. Regarding acceptability, burden of the protocol was not observed.
Trial registration The Clinical Trials Registry of University Hospital Medical Information Network in Japan—UMIN000017830. Registered: June 8, 2015
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-017-3053-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Plant essential oils (EOs) are known to inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi. Whether these antimicrobial effects are comparable to synthetic household products is less clear. Furthermore, limited research is available on the potential additive effect of blending EOs. In this investigation, a new EO blend containing orange, patchouli, peppermint, and clary sage was compared to its individual single oils and to three household products–air freshener, liquid soap, and body spray–for their ability to inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Pseudonomas aeruginosa, and Aspergillus brasiliensis in the disc-diffusion assay. The new EO blend significantly inhibited the growth of the four microorganisms. The zones of inhibition of new EO blend were greater than the air freshener and similar to the liquid soap and body spray, with the exception of Str. pneumoniae in which the body spray provided greater inhibitory zone. The new EO blend and the single oils, with the exception of peppermint, equally inhibited the growth of S. aureus and Str. pneumoniae suggesting no additive effect. P. aeruginosa and A. brasiliensis showed variable susceptibility to all EOs except for no susceptibility to orange and limonene. No difference was found between (−) and (+)-limonene; whereas, (+)-menthol showed greater effect than (−)-menthol. In conclusion, blending the EO of orange, patchouli, peppermint, and clary sage was beneficial in inhibiting the growth of S. aureus, Str. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, and A. brasiliensis providing a natural antimicrobial fragrance option over synthetics fragrances used in soaps, body sprays, and air fresheners.
The effects of clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) oil (CS-oil), and its two main components, linalool (Lol) and linalyl acetate (LA), on cells of the eukaryotic human pathogen yeast Candida albicans were studied. Dynamic and thermodynamic properties of the plasma membrane were investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, with 5-doxylstearic acid (5-SASL) and 16-SASL as spin labels. The monitoring of the head group regions with 5-SASL revealed break-point frequency decrease in a temperature dependent manner of the plasma membrane between 9.55 and 13.15 °C in untreated, in CS-oil-, Lol- and LA-treated membranes. The results suggest a significant increase in fluidity of the treated plasma membranes close to the head groups. Comparison of the results observed with the two spin labels demonstrated that CS-oil and LA induced an increased level of fluidization at both depths of the plasma membrane. Whereas Lol treatment induced a less (1 %) ordered bilayer organization in the superficial regions and an increased (10 %) order of the membrane leaflet in deeper layers. Acute toxicity tests and EPR results indicated that both the apoptotic and the effects exerted on the plasma membrane fluidity depended on the composition and chemical structure of the examined materials. In comparison with the control, treatment with CS-oil, Lol or LA induced 13.0, 12.3 and 26.4 % loss respectively, of the metabolites absorbing at 260 nm, as a biological consequence of the plasma membrane fluidizing effects. Our results confirmed that clary sage oil causes plasma membrane perturbations which leads to cell apoptosis process.
The essential oils from three Salvia species from Heidelberg, Germany were analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry (GLC-MS). Intermedeol (57.4%), 1,8-cineole (15.5%), and linalyl acetate (36.3%) were found as the major components in the essential oils of Salvia discolor, Salvia officinalis,and Salvia sclarea, respectively. To our best knowledge, no previous works on the chemical composition of the essential oil of S. discolor have been reported
Essential oil obtained from Salvia sclarea L. leaves was tested for hepatoprotective, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene down regulation and cytotoxic activities. Histopathology of liver tissue showed severe inflammation and necrosis after treatment with 1.5μg lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/30g body weight of BALB/c mice. A decrease in inflammation was observed with the treatment of different concentrations of essential oil. Necrosis and infiltration of hepatocytes were barely seen at 100μg of oil. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis showed down regulation of iNOS at transcriptional level. Growth of HeLa cells was inhibited by the oil with an IC50 of 80.69±0.01μg/mL. Propidium iodide (PI) staining revealed the presence of apoptosis in oil treated cells. The findings indicate that S. sclarea essential oil is a promising natural source which may be useful for herbal medicine preparation.
Nowadays, use of alternative and complementary therapies with mainstream medicine has gained the momentum. Aromatherapy is one of the complementary therapies which use essential oils as the major therapeutic agents to treat several diseases. The essential or volatile oils are extracted from the flowers, barks, stem, leaves, roots, fruits and other parts of the plant by various methods. It came into existence after the scientists deciphered the antiseptic and skin permeability properties of essential oils. Inhalation, local application and baths are the major methods used in aromatherapy that utilize these oils to penetrate the human skin surface with marked aura. Once the oils are in the system, they remodulate themselves and work in a friendly manner at the site of malfunction or at the affected area. This type of therapy utilizes various permutation and combinations to get relief from numerous ailments like depression, indigestion, headache, insomnia, muscular pain, respiratory problems, skin ailments, swollen joints, urine associated complications etc. The essential oils are found to be more beneficial when other aspects of life and diet are given due consideration. This review explores the information available in the literature regarding therapeutic, medical, cosmetic, psychological, olfactory, massage aromatherapy, safety issues and different plants used in aromatherapy. All the available information was compiled from electronic databases such as Academic Journals, Ethnobotany, Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, and library search.
The spreading of bacterial antibiotic resistance among clinical strains of pathogenic bacteria has made investigators to search for other active antibacterial agents which could provide a valuable complement to the existing therapies.
To determine the antibacterial activity of clary sage oil (Salvia sclarea L.) against Staphylococcus clinical strains which were isolated from patients with wound infections.
A comprehensive evaluation of Staphylococcus clinical strain resistance to antibiotics was performed. The constituents of clary sage oil were assayed by GC-FID-MS analysis. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the tested essential oil against staphylococci by the micro-dilution broth method was determined.
The clary sage oil was active against Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis and S. xylosus with MIC values ranging from 3.75 to 7.00 µl/ml.
The results of the in vitro tests encourage to use formulations containing sage oil as the active natural antimicrobial agent. Because of its antimicrobial properties clary sage oil may be applied to treat wounds and skin infections.
This article discusses findings from a large evaluative study on the use of aromatherapy in childbirth (Burns et al, 1999). The sample involved 8058 mothers and took place on the delivery suite of a busy teaching unit. A primary objective was to examine whether aromatherapy could facilitate maternal coping mechanisms during labour by improving mothers’ sense of wellbeing, reducing anxiety and fear and influencing the perception of pain. Mothers consistently rated the administration of aromatherapy positively. Aromatherapy was found to be an inexpensive choice for mothers. Only 100 mothers reported minor side-effects associated with essential oil administration. This study provides a valuable insight into the potential for the use of a aromatherapy in midwifery practice.
Although Salvia sclarea (clary sage) is widely used in aromatherapy and has antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, its mechanisms of action remain poorly understood. We therefore assessed whether clary sage is effective in treating endothelial dysfunction induced by chronic immobilization stress in rats.
Rats were intraperitoneally injected with almond oil, clary sage oil (5%, 10% or 20%), or nifedipine once daily, followed by immobilization stress (2 h/day) for 14 days. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HR) were measured, as were serum concentrations of corticosterone (CORT); a biomarker of chronic stress, malondialdehyde (MDA); a biomarker of oxidative stress. Nitric oxide production was assessed by nitrite assays, and eNOS level, a biomarker of endothelial dysfunction, was measured by western blotting. Endothelial dysfunction was also assayed by measuring the effect of clary sage on the contraction of rat aortae.
Treatment with 5% (p = 0.029), 10% (p = 0.008), and 20% (p = 0.008) clary sage significantly reduced SBP and treatment with 20% clary sage significantly reduced HR (p = 0.039) compared with the chronic immobilization stress group. Clary sage decreased CORT serum concentration (10%, p = 0.026; 20%, p = 0.012) and MDA (10%, p = 0.007; 20%, p = 0.027), findings similar to those observed with nifedipine. In addition, 20% clary sage significantly increased nitric oxide production (p <0.001) and eNOS expression level (p <0.001) and relaxed aortic rings in rats subjected to chronic immobilization stress.
Clary sage treatment of rats subjected to immobilization stress contributed to their recovery from endothelial dysfunction by increasing NO production and eNOS level as well as by decreasing oxidative stress. Appropriate concentration of clary sage may result in recovery from endothelial dysfunction. These findings indicate that clary sage oil may be effective in the prevention and treatment of stress-induced cardiovascular diseases.
This study is carried out in order to evaluate the fatty acids content and composition, the phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of Salvia sclarea rosette leaves under saline conditions. The total fatty acid content decreased significantly with salt concentrations. Concerning the composition, the treatment of 25 mM NaCl decreased the palmitic, stearic and arachidic acids proportions while it increased the unsaturated form of these fatty acids in contrast to the two other treatments (50 and 75 mM). The phenolic contents were higher at 25 and 50 mM than that at control, but decreased significantly with the application of 75 mM. Antioxidant activity of the methanol extracts was determined by DPPH and β-carotene/linoleic acid assays. In these test systems, the highest activity was exhibited at 25 and 50 mM NaCl and was reduced significantly with increasing NaCl levels. Hence, S. sclarea under these two moderate salt concentrations should be used commercially in foodstuffs like sage and rosemary.
The aim of this work was to study the fatty acid composition and proximate analysis, including total
proteins, dry matter, total phenol levels, antioxidants and antiradical activities of clary sage (Salvia sclarea
L.) seeds harvested in five consecutive years, from 2006 to 2010. Firstly, the dry matter, oil, protein and
fatty acid composition of the clary sage seeds were determined. The dry matter, oil and protein content
of the clary sage seed samples varied between 97.64 and 98.35, 23.83 and 29.34, and 21.97 and 22.96%,
respectively. Secondly, the fatty acid compositions in the oil and the bioactive properties in the extract
were investigated. Polyunsaturated fatty acids were the most abundant fatty acids in the clary sage.
The �-linolenic, oleic and linoleic acid contents of the sage oils changed from 50.04 to 53.69%; 20.10
to 22.97%; 15.54 to 18.06%, respectively according to year. The total phenolic content, antioxidant and
antiradical activities of the sage seeds were determined in the range of 7.71–13.21 mg GAE/g dry extract,
50.45–74.04 (mg AAE/g dry extract) and 13.14–21.21% respectively. Each of the investigated parameters
of the sage seeds was significantly affected by the harvesting year. Consequently, clary sage seeds are
rich in fatty acids and contained high levels of antioxidant and antiradical activities making them ideal
for use as nutraceuticals.
Sclareol is a high-value natural product obtained by solid/liquid extraction of clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) inflorescences. Because processes of excretion and accumulation of this labdane diterpene are unknown, the aim of this work was to gain knowledge on its sites of accumulation in planta. Samples were collected in natura or during different steps of the industrial process of extraction (steam distillation and solid/liquid extraction). Samples were then analysed with a combination of complementary analytical techniques (gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer, polarized light microscopy, environmental scanning electron microscopy, two-photon fluorescence microscopy, second harmonic generation microscopy). According to the literature, it is hypothesized that sclareol is localized in oil pockets of secretory trichomes. This study demonstrates that this is not the case and that sclareol accumulates in a crystalline epicuticular form, mostly on calyces.
Since soil salinity is a widespread problem, we proposed to focus on its effect on seedling growth, mineral composition and
particularly on essential oil composition known to be reliable to abiotic conditions. Clary sage seedlings were hydroponically
cultivated under different salt concentrations (0, 25, 50, and 75mM NaCl). The dry biomass and the mineral element contents
were determined. The essential oils were extracted and analyzed by GC and GC–MS. Results showed that growth was reduced by
42% at 75mM. This growth decrease was accompanied by a decrease in tissue hydration and a slight restriction in K+ uptake, as well as an increase in Na+ levels. Concerning essential oil yields, the application of 25mM NaCl increased significantly the oil yield which decreased
with increasing salt concentration. Besides, the chemical composition of clary sage was found to be also strongly affected
by salt treatment since each salt concentration appeared to induce a different new chemotype in clary sage essential oil.
Keywords
Salvia sclarea L.–Salinity–Growth–Mineral composition–Essential oil composition
Pharmacological properties of S. sclarea and S. desoleana oils are discussed in relation to their chemical composition. After systemic administration, these oils had a depressant action on the CNS in mice and a hydrocholeretic effect in rats. Otherstudies demonstrated also a good anti-inflammatory activity in rats as well as a peripheral analgesic action in mice. These essential oils possess invitro antimicrobial properties against some humanpathogen strains and their activity is comparable to S. officinalis oil, well known for its antiseptic properties. In vitro studies carried out on mucoadhesive preparations showed the ability of the oil components to permeate the oral mucous. This could be of interest in the treatment of humaninflammatory diseases of mucous tissues, frequently associated with microbial infections. These oils are also able to inhibit the growth of some phytopathogenic fungi and could therefore be useful in the agronomic field as an alternative to synthetic compounds, with a view to reducing environmental pollution. Some biological effects were correlated with the chemical composition and the kind of the formulations utilized in order to examine some possible applications of these oils in human medicine. All pharmacological activities seem to be attributable to the content of some oxygenated compounds, like alcohols (mainly linalool and alpha-terpineol) and esters (linalyl and alpha-terpinyl acetate). Experimental observations point the hypothesis of a synergic action between the different components, even if the oils in toto were more active than their fractions or single components.
The purpose of the present study was to screen aromatic essential oils that have antidepressant effects to identify the regulatory mechanisms of selected essential oils.
The antidepressant effects of essential oils of Anthemis nobilis (chamomile), Salvia sclarea (clary sage; clary), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), and Lavandula angustifolia (lavender) were assessed using a forced swim test (FST) in rats. Rats were treated with essential oils by intraperitoneal injection or inhalation. Serum levels of corticosterone were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Among the essential oils tested, 5% (v/v) clary oil had the strongest anti-stressor effect in the FST. We further investigated the mechanism of clary oil antidepression by pretreatment with agonists or antagonists to serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), adrenaline, and GABA receptors. The anti-stressor effect of clary oil was significantly blocked by pretreatment with buspirone (a 5-HT(1A) agonist), SCH-23390 (a D(1) receptor antagonist) and haloperidol (a D(2), D(3), and D(4) receptor antagonist).
Our findings indicate that clary oil could be developed as a therapeutic agent for patients with depression and that the antidepressant-like effect of clary oil is closely associated with modulation of the DAnergic pathway.
The essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation of dried aerial parts of Salvia sclarea L. plants, regenerated in vitro and reproduced from seeds, were analyzed by GC and GC-MS. The oils from in vitro and in vivo plants were compared in respect to their chemical composition as well as antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities. The chemical profiles of both oils were very similar, although the yield of essential oil from in vitro plants was lower (0.1%, v/w) than the oil yield isolated from in vivo S. sclarea plants (0.2%, v/w). Both oils showed antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity. The oil from in vitro regenerated plants of S. sclarea exhibited stronger cytotoxic action against NALM-6 cell lines in comparison with the essential oil from in vivo plants.
The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of aromatherapy on menstrual cramps and symptoms of dysmenorrhea.
The study was a randomized placebo-controlled trial.
The subjects were 67 female college students who rated their menstrual cramps to be greater than 6 on a 10-point visual analogue scale, who had no systemic or reproductive diseases, and who did not use contraceptive drugs.
Subjects were randomized into three groups: (1) an experimental group (n = 25) who received aromatherapy, (2) a placebo group (n = 20), and (3) a control group (n = 22). Aromatherapy was applied topically to the experimental group in the form of an abdominal massage using two drops of lavender (Lavandula officinalis), one drop of clary sage (Salvia sclarea), and one drop of rose (Rosa centifolia) in 5 cc of almond oil. The placebo group received the same treatment but with almond oil only, and the control group received no treatment.
The menstrual cramps levels was assessed using a visual analogue scale and severity of dysmenorrhea was measured with a verbal multidimensional scoring system.
The menstrual cramps were significantly lowered in the aromatherapy group than in the other two groups at both post-test time points (first and second day of menstruation after treatment). From the multiple regression aromatherapy was found to be associated with the changes in menstrual cramp levels (first day: Beta = -2.48, 95% CI: -3.68 to -1.29, p < 0.001; second day: Beta = -1.97, 95% CI: -3.66 to -0.29, p = 0.02 and the severity of dysmenorrhea (first day: Beta = 0.31, 95% CI: 0.05 to 0.57, p = 0.02; second day: Beta = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.10 to 0.56, p = 0.006) than that found in the other two groups.
These findings suggest that aromatherapy using topically applied lavender, clary sage, and rose is effective in decreasing the severity of menstrual cramps. Aromatherapy can be offered as part of the nursing care to women experiencing menstrual cramps or dysmenorrhea.
The aerial parts of Salvia multicaulis, S. sclarea and S. verticillata were collected at full flowering stage. The essential oils were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by combination of capillary GC and GC-MS. The in vitro antimicrobial activity of the essential oils were studied against eight Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumulis, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae) and three fungi (Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger). The results of antibacterial activity tests of the essential oils according to the disc diffusion method and MIC values indicated that all the samples have moderate to high inhibitory activity against the tested bacteria except for P. aeruginosa which was totally resistant. In contrast to antibacterial activity, the oils exhibited no or slight antifungal property, in which only the oil of S. multicaulis showed weak activity against two tested yeasts, C. albicans and S. cerevisiae.
Objectives:
The menopausal transition is the time from the onset of menstrual changes until one year after the final menstrual period. During this phase, perimenopausal women experience a variety of health-related symptoms, which seemingly derive from declining level of estrogen secretion. It has long been recognized that some essential oils have the efficacy of alleviating menopausal symptoms. On the basis of this, it is possible that these essential oils have the potency to facilitate estrogen secretion in women. The present study investigated this possibility by examining if the olfactory exposure to the essential oil increase salivary estrogen concentration.
Methods:
We tested the effect of ten essential oils; clary sage, frankincense, geranium, lavender, jasmine absolute, neroli, rose otto, ylang ylang, orange and roman chamomile, which are thought to relieve perimenopasal symptoms.
Results:
The results have shown increase of salivary estrogen concentration induced by exposure to geranium and rose otto compared to control odor.
Conclusion:
Together with the previous studies, the present study may give support to the notion that olfactory exposure to some essential oils can influence salivary concentration of estrogen.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Salvia sclarea L., clary, is an aromatic plant traditionally used in folk medicine for the treatment of various diseases and conditions. Although it has been primarily used as a stomachic, there are data on traditional use of S. sclarea as an agent against gingivitis, stomatitis and aphthae.
Aim of the study:
The aim of the study was to examine the effect of the S. sclarea ethanolic extract on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced periodontitis in rats from the immunological and histopathological standpoint.
Material and methods:
Periodontal inflammation in rats was induced by repeated injections of LPS from Escherichia coli into the interdental papilla between the first and second right maxillary molars. The extract was administered two times a day by oral gavage (200mg/kg body weight). The inflammatory status was assessed by the measurements of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) of gingival tissues and descriptive analysis of histological sections of periodontium. Chemical characterization of the extract was determined using high performance liquid chromatography system (HPLC). Antioxidant activity of the extract was estimated with two in vitro complementary methods: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and β-carotene/linoleic acid models.
Results:
Treatment with S. sclarea extract, compared to the untreated group of the rats, significantly diminished the process of inflammation decreasing the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, reducing the gingival tissue lesions and preserving bone alveolar resorption. Considerably smaller number of inflammatory cells and larger number of fibroblasts was noticed. The administration of the extract three days earlier did not have significant preventive effects. Rosmarinic acid was the predominant compound in the extract. The extract showed strong antioxidant effects in both test systems.
Conclusions:
S. sclarea extract manifested anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-induced periodontitis suggesting that it may have a role as a therapeutic agent in periodontal diseases. Having in mind that overproduction of reactive oxygen species is connected to periodontitis, the strong antioxidant capacity may be contributable to anti-inflammatory properties of the extract.
The present work evaluates the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of clary sage (CS) Salvia sclarea L. Antimicrobial, total antioxidant, DPPH radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging and metal chelating activities, reducing power, and total contents of phenolic compounds of dried herb samples extracted with chloroform and acetone were studied. The chloroform extract had stronger total antioxidant activity than the acetone extract and exhibited 93 and 68% inhibition of linoleic acid peroxidation, respectively, a-Tocopherol, quercetin, butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene were used as standard antioxidants. Antimicrobial activities of both CS extracts were examined by means of disk-diffusion methods with 11 microbial species (Bacillus megaterium NRS, Proteus vulgaris FMC 1, Listeria monocytogenes BRIE 1, Bacillus cereus FMC 19, Staphylococcus aureus FÜ, Bacillus brevis FMC 3, Klebsiella pneumoniae FMC 5, Micrococcus luteus LA 2971, Pseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 50071, Escherichia coli DM and Mycobacterium smegmatis CCM 2067) and 4 fungal species (Penicillum frequentans, Fusarium equiseti, Aspergillus candidus and Byssochlamys fulves). Both CS extracts were effective in inhibiting the growth of the organisms except for Escherichia coli DM. The antifungal activity of each of the above extracts is lower than the antimicrobial activity.
Some factors of importance for the quality of the essential oil of Salvia sclarea are discussed. The effect of environmental conditions and distillation parameters on the oil quality is pointed out. Under controlled conditions, a standard quality of the essential oil can be achieved.
Clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) is an industrial crop grown for its high value essential oil, widely used in perfumery and cosmetic industries. In the present work, agromorphological characteristics, essential oil content and composition and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were studied to estimate the relationships among 11 clary sage accessions, with a known variety CIM-Chandni grown in northern Indian plains. The clary sage accessions were distinguished on the basis of agro-morphological traits and essential oil constituents. As a consequence, these were grouped into dwarf, medium and tall; early and late maturing; low, medium and high yielding. Maximum genotypic coefficient of variation was recorded for spike weight plant-1 followed by spike length and plant height. In general, the genotypic correlation was higher than phenotypic. Significant positive genotypic correlation was recorded for plant height with spike length, days to flowering with days to maturity and spike weight plant-1, spike length with oil content. A high direct positive effect on oil content was because of spike length. The variety CIM-Chandni showed genetic similarity with all its progenies except SS1. Accession SS1 selected as a distinct and best performing genotype based on agro-morphic, quantitative, qualitative traits and RAPD profiling.
The purpose of this study was to examine the antidepressant-like effects of clary sage oil on human beings by comparing the neurotransmitter level change in plasma. The voluntary participants were 22 menopausal women in 50's. Subjects were classified into normal and depression tendency groups using each of Korean version of Beck Depression Inventory-I (KBDI-I), KBDI-II, and Korean version of Self-rating Depression Scale. Then, the changes in neurotransmitter concentrations were compared between two groups. After inhalation of clary sage oil, cortisol levels were significantly decreased while 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) concentration was significantly increased. Thyroid stimulating hormone was also reduced in all groups but not statistically significantly. The different change rate of 5-HT concentration between normal and depression tendency groups was variable according to the depression measurement inventory. When using KBDI-I and KBDI-II, 5-HT increased by 341% and 828% for the normal group and 484% and 257% for the depression tendency group, respectively. The change rate of cortisol was greater in depression tendency groups compared with normal groups, and this difference was statistically significant when using KBDI-II (31% vs. 16% reduction) and Self-rating Depression Scale inventory (36% vs. 8.3% reduction). Among three inventories, only KBDI-II differentiated normal and depression tendency groups with significantly different cortisol level. Finally, clary sage oil has antidepressant-like effect, and KBDI-II inventory may be the most sensitive and valid tool in screening for depression status or severity. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A new and unique chemotype of clary sage, Salvia sclarea L., was identified recently in wild populations of this species in the northern part of Israel. This chemotype was crossed to a cultivated form of clary sage of Russian origin which represents the standard chemotype of the species. The two chemotypes were easily intercrossed with one another and in both cross directions. The hybrids were vigorous but totally sterile despite apparent normal chromosome pairing at meiosis and regular segregation at Anaphase I. It seems, therefore, that the genetic diversity of the Israeli material can not be exploited to enrich the gene pool of clary sage. Further study is needed to determine the geographic distribution of the new chemotype and whether or not it deserves different taxonomic rank.
Objectives:
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of inhalation of Salvia sclarea (clary sage; clary) or Lavandula angustifolia (lavender) essential oil vapors on autonomic nervous system activity in female patients with urinary incontinence undergoing urodynamic assessment. STUDY DESIGN, LOCATION, AND SUBJECTS: This study was a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial carried out in 34 female patients with urinary incontinence.
Outcome measure:
The subjects were randomized to inhale lavender, clary, or almond (control) oil at concentrations of 5% (vol/vol) each. Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, pulse rate, respiratory rate, and salivary cortisol were measured before and after inhalation of these odors for 60 minutes.
Results:
The clary oil group experienced a significant decrease in systolic blood pressure compared with the control (p=0.048) and lavender oil (p=0.026) groups, a significant decrease in diastolic blood pressure compared with the lavender oil group (p=0.034) and a significant decrease in respiratory rate compared with the control group (p<0.001). In contrast, the lavender oil group tended to increase systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared with the control group. Compared with the control group, inhalation of lavender oil (p=0.045) and clary oil (p<0.001) resulted in statistically significant reductions in respiratory rate.
Conclusions:
These results suggest that lavender oil inhalation may be inappropriate in lowering stress during urodynamic examinations, despite its antistress effects, while clary oil inhalation may be useful in inducing relaxation in female urinary incontinence patients undergoing urodynamic assessments.
The chemical composition of the essential oils obtained from the flowers and leaves of Salvia sclarea L. (Lamiaceae) cultivated in Slovak Republic have been studied by GC and GC/MS methods, which resulted in the identification of 34 and 23 components, respectively. The major constituents in the flower oil were linalool (18.9%), linalyl acetate (13.7%), sclareol (15.7%), α-terpineol (6.5%), germacrene D (5.0%) and geranyl acetate (4.3%), while the major components in the leaf oil were germacrene D (28.8%), bicyclogermacrene (12.5%), spathulenol (10.1%), caryophyl-lene oxide (6.2%) and α-copaene (6.0%).
AN epimeric mixture of the diterpenes sclareol and 13-epi-sclareol (sclareol) (Fig. 1) has been shown to constitute 10%; of the surface exudate on leaves of Nicotiana glutinosa
1. Investigations into its effect on fungal growth showed that it neither inhibits the spore germination of several species of facultative pathogens in vitro nor reduces the weight of mycelium produced in liquid medium. The development of hyphae of certain species of fungi, for example Alternaria brassicicola, is, however, markedly affected by this compound. In the presence of sclareol, increased branching is induced which leads to a substantial reduction in the diameter of colonies growing on agar1. Such morphological effects could be interpreted as the result of alterations in the regulation of natural fungal growth processes. This report describes the effect of sclareol on the germination and growth of rust fungi in vitro, and the protection it can provide to plants against diseases caused by these fungi.
The analysis of the volatile components in the essential oil of Salvia sclarea L. (Labiatae) by GC and GC-MS demonstrated the presence of at least 72 compounds. They correspond to 97.2% of the oil. The major compounds were linalool, linalyl acetate, terpineol, neryl acetate, geraniol, geranyl acetate, nerol, and sclareol.
The comparative analysis of volatiles in essential oil by gas chromatography–Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (GC–FTIR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) are investigated using a DB-wax capillary column. This technique is applied to allelochemicals present in volatiles. The identification analysis of volatile components in four kinds of clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) oil is described. The GC–FTIR information obtained is complementary to the information obtained from GC–MS. With the IR subtractive spectrum technique, the GC overlap peaks can be resolved without further separate step on the other column of different polarity. Combined with GC–FTIR, GC–MS techniques, and linear retention indices (RI) of the volatile compounds, the reliability of qualitative analysis is greatly enhanced.
Stable lines of both callus and cell suspensions of Salvia sclarea and callus of Nicotiana glutinosa accumulated sclareol at rates (μg g−1 day −1) varying from 0.2 to 6% of those found in the parent plants. Accumulations of the anti-fungal diterpene were at a maximum near entry to the exponential growth phase. Despite these apparent relative biosynthetic deficiencies, callus of both species incorporated 3R-[2-4C]mevalonate into the compound with efficiencies ca 30% of those displayed by the parent plants under similar external environments.
This study assessed the effectiveness of blended essential oils on menstrual cramps for outpatients with primary dysmenorrhea and explored the analgesic ingredients in the essential oils.
A randomized, double-blind clinical trial was conducted. Forty-eight outpatients were diagnosed with primary dysmenorrhea by a gynecologist and had 10-point numeric rating scales that were more than 5. The patients were randomly assigned to an essential oil group (n = 24) and a synthetic fragrance group (n = 24). Essential oils blended with lavender (Lavandula officinalis), clary sage (Salvia sclarea) and marjoram (Origanum majorana) in a 2:1:1 ratio was diluted in unscented cream at 3% concentration for the essential oil group. All outpatients used the cream daily to massage their lower abdomen from the end of the last menstruation continuing to the beginning of the next menstruation.
Both the numeric rating scale and the verbal rating scale significantly decreased (P < 0.001) after one menstrual cycle intervention in the two groups. The duration of pain was significantly reduced from 2.4 to 1.8 days after aromatherapy intervention in the essential oil group.
Aromatic oil massage provided relief for outpatients with primary dysmenorrhea and reduced the duration of menstrual pain in the essential oil group. The blended essential oils contain four key analgesic components that amount to as much as 79.29%; these analgesic constitutes are linalyl acetate, linalool, eucalyptol, and β-caryophyllene. This study suggests that this blended formula can serve as a reference for alternative and complementary medicine on primary dysmenorrhea.
From an acetone extract of the whole plant Salvia sclarea, seven known diterpenes, sclareol, manool, salvipisone, ferruginol, microstegiol, candidissiol and 7-oxoroyleanone, and two new ones, 2,3-dehydrosalvipisone and 7-oxoferruginol-18-al, as well as two sesquiterpenes, caryophyllene oxide and spathulenol, alpha-amyrin, beta-sitosterol and the flavonoids apigenin, luteolin, 4'-methylapigenin, 6-hydroxyluteolin-6, 7,3',4'-tetramethyl ether, 6-hydroxy apigenin-7,4'-dimethyl ether were obtained. The diterpenoids and the sesquiterpenoids were tested for antimicrobial activity against standard bacterial strains and a yeast. 2,3-Dehydrosalvipisone, sclareol, manool, 7-oxoroyleanone, spathulenol and caryophyllene oxide were found to be active against Staphylococcus aureus, the first and third compound against Candida albicans and the last compound against Proteus mirabilis.
The authors report the process and results of an evaluation of a midwifery aromatherapy service for mothers in labour: This study of 8058 mothers in childbirth, is the largest research initiative in the use of aromatherapy within a health-care setting. The study involved a wide range of participants, from mothers who experienced a low risk, spontaneous labour and birth, to those whose labour was induced, and those who had vaginal operative delivery and Caesarean section. The study-took place over a period of 8 years, which enabled a more challenging test of the effect of aromatherapy on intrapartum midwifery practice and outcomes. In the study a total of 10 essential oils were used, plus a carrier oil, which were administered to the participants via skin absorption and inhalation. The study found little direct evidence that the practice of aromatherapy per se reduces the need for pain relief during labour, or the incidence of operative delivery. But a key finding of this study suggests that two essential oils, clary sage and chamomile are effective in alleviating pain. The evidence from this study suggests that aromatherapy can be effective in reducing maternal anxiety, fear and/or pain during labour. The use of aromatherapy appeared to facilitate a further reduction in the use of systemic opioids in the study centre, from 6% in 1990 to 0.4% in 1997 (per woman). Aromatherapy is an inexpensive care option. In 1997 when 1592 mothers used aromatherapy, the total cost was 769.17 Pounds. The study reports a minimal incidence of associated symptoms. Out of 8058 mothers, 1% (100) recorded an associated symptom. These were mild in nature. The successful model of integrated practice that this aromatherapy study presents, offers a useful example for other units to consider.
Variously oxidized 12 natural abietanes, 6,7-dehydroferruginol methyl ether (3), ferruginol (5), 11-hydroxy-12-oxo-7,9(11),13-abietatriene (7), royleanone (9), demethyl cryptojaponol (12), salvinolone (14), sugiol methyl ether (16), sugiol (17), 5,6-dehydrosugiol methyl ether (19), 5,6-dehydrosugiol (20), 6beta-hydroxyferruginol (23), and taxodione (25) were synthesized. Antimicrobial activities of synthesized phenolic diterpenes and their related compounds against MRSA and VRE were evaluated. Phenols (12-hydroxyabieta-8,11,13-trien-6-one 22 and 23), catechols (12 and 14) and taxodione 25 showed potent activity with 4-10 microg/mL of MIC against MRSA and 4-16 microg/mL of MIC against VRE. (-)-Ferruginol showed more potent activity than natural type (+)-ferruginol. Quinone methide 7 showed the most potent activity with 0.5-1 microg/mL of MIC against both MRSA and VRE.
Salvia sclarea cultivated at the Herb Garden of Casola-Valsenio (Emilia-Romagna region, Italy) has been found for the first time naturally infected by broad bean wilt fabavirus, serotype I (BBWV-I). Symptomatic plants showed malformed leaves, with chlorotic mosaic followed by yellowing and stunting. BBWV-I was identified by applying virological tests: mechanical inoculations on herbaceous plants, electron microscopy, DAS-ELISA and PAS-ELISA. The essential oil obtained from BBWV-infected material corresponded to 2/3 the quantity of that from healthy material. The GC-MS and HPLC analyses of these oils afforded a comparative analytical profile of the two plant materials attributed to BBWV-I infection. The oils from infected materials showed higher percentages of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (e.g. germacrene D and beta-caryophyllene), monoterpene alcohols (e.g. alpha-terpineol) and diterpenoids (mainly sclareol). In contrast, lower levels of monoterpene hydrocarbons (e.g. myrcene, limonene and the two ocimene isomers) and the principal components (linalyl acetate and linalool) were observed.
A method is presented for measuring the edema induced by injection of 0.05 ml of 1% solution of carrageenin, an extract of Chondrus, into the plantar tissues of the hind paw of the rat. Peak edema develops within the first 3 to 4 hours, and is inhibited by pretreatment of the animals by single oral doses of antiinflammatory agents, steroid or non-steroid. Log dose responses to drugs are linear and parallel, and yield potency ratios with relatively narrow confidence limits. The potency ratios obtained for aspirin, phenylbutazone and hydrocortisone are fairly close to the ratios of their respective daily doses in the treatment of rheumatic disease. A potent antihistaminic-antiserotonin compound, cyproheptadine, is without effect on carrageenin-induced edema.
The hydrodistilled essential oils of the aerial parts of wild-growing Salvia sclarea originated from two localities in Greece were analyzed by GC-MS. Sixty-six compounds, representing 93.26-98.19% of the oils, were identified. Linalyl acetate (19.75-31.05%), linalool (18.46-30.43%), geranyl acetate (4.45-12.1%), and alpha-terpineol (5.08-7.56%) were the main components. The antifungal activity of the oil of one locality and of the main components, linalyl acetate and linalool, was evaluated in vitro against three soil-borne pathogens.
The purpose of the present Perspectives is to present a synopsis of the literature on bacterial "quorum sensing" as a background for the proposal that interference with this communication system offers potential targets for the design of novel antibiotic drugs. Quorum sensing is the recently discovered chemical communication system among bacteria (both Gram-positive and -negative). It is vital for intra- and interbacterial gene regulation and for keeping bacterial colonies ("biofilms") intact, allowing resident bacteria to assume specialized roles that contribute to enhanced survival of the group. There are several processes involved in quorum sensing that are familiar to pharmacologists; i.e., specific signaling molecules bind to and activate receptors that transduce the quorum-sensing signal into intracellular second messenger responses. We highlight herein the similarity between quorum-sensing communication to ligand-receptor interactions, suggesting that inhibitor drugs could be designed using current standard pharmacologic principles. Such drugs would have novel mechanisms of action and might therefore be more effective against antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.
The antimicrobial activities of crude dichloromethane fractions from acetone extracts of Agrobacterium rhizogenes transformed roots and roots of field-grown plants of Salvia sclarea as well as four pure abietane diterpenoids isolated from the hairy root cultures were determined. The growth of Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis) but not Gram-negative ones (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) or pathogenic fungi (Candida albicans) was inhibited by fractions tested at concentrations of 37.5-75.0 microgml(-1). Abietane diterpenoids: salvipisone, aethiopinone, 1-oxoaethiopinone and ferruginol were shown to be bacteriostatic as well as bacteriocidal for the cultures of S. aureus and S. epidermidis strains, regardless of their antibiotic susceptibility profile. This was demonstrated by using simultaneously the optical density measuring method and 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide-reduction assay. The highest activity was shown by salvipisone which demonstrated also a very interesting activity when its effect on 24-h-old staphylococcal biofilm cells viability was examined. It limited the survival of biofilms formed by S. aureus as well as by S. epidermidis, putting this compound to the list of potential anti-biofilm agents, better than most of known antibiotics.
The Lamiaceae is rich in aromatic plant species. Most of these species produce and store essential oils in specialised epidermal oil glands, which are responsible for their specific flavour. Two types of glands producing essential oil and possessing different morphological structure can be found in Salvia sclarea: peltate and capitate glands. The content of single oil glands from different positions on the plant (corolla, calyx and leaf) were sampled using an SPME fibre and analysed by gas chromatography in order to study variability of the essential oil composition. It was found that the composition of terpenoids is quite variable within an individual plant. Capitate oil glands mainly produce three essential oil compounds: the monoterpenes linalool and linalyl acetate, and the diterpene sclareol. Peltate oil glands, however, accumulate noticeable concentrations of sesquiterpenes and an unknown compound (m/z = 354). Furthermore, the oil composition varies within each gland type according to the plant organ. Linalool and linalyl acetate are characteristic substances of flowers, whereas the sesquiterpenes occur in higher proportions in leaves. Even within one gland type on a single leaf, the chemical variability is exceedingly high.
Production of clary sage oil and sclareol in North America
- B M Lawrence
Lawrence BM (1994) Production of clary sage oil and sclareol in North
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Therapy with medicinal plants
- T Baytop
Baytop T (1984) Therapy with medicinal plants (past and present), vol
3255. Istan-bul University Publications, Istanbul