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The Revolution of Mobile Phone-Enabled Services for Agricultural Development (m-Agri Services) in Africa: The Challenges for Sustainability

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The provision of information through mobile phone-enabled agricultural information services (m-Agri services) has the potential to revolutionise agriculture and significantly improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods in Africa. Globally, the benefits of m-Agri services include facilitating farmers’ access to financial services and sourcing agricultural information about input use, practices, and market prices. There are very few published literature sources that focus on the potential benefits of m-Agri services in Africa and none of which explore their sustainability. This study, therefore, explores the evolution, provision, and sustainability of these m-Agri services in Africa. An overview of the current landscape of m-Agri services in Africa is provided and this illustrates how varied these services are in design, content, and quality. Key findings from the exploratory literature review reveal that services are highly likely to fail to achieve their intended purpose or be abandoned when implementers ignore the literacy, skills, culture, and demands of the target users. This study recommends that, to enhance the sustainability of m-Agri services, the implementers need to design the services with the users involved, carefully analyse, and understand the target environment, and design for scale and a long-term purpose. While privacy and security of users need to be ensured, the reuse or improvement of existing initiatives should be explored, and projects need to be data-driven and maintained as open source. Thus, the study concludes that policymakers can support the long-term benefit of m-Agri services by ensuring favourable policies for both users and implementers.
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Sustainability2020,12,485;doi:10.3390/su12020485www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Review
TheRevolutionofMobilePhoneEnabledServices
forAgriculturalDevelopment(mAgriServices)in
Africa:TheChallengesforSustainability
EzinneM.Emeana*,LizTrenchardandKatharinaDehnenSchmutz
CentreforAgroecology,WaterandResilience,CoventryUniversity,CoventryCV83LG,UK;
apy157@coventry.ac.uk(L.T.);ab6340@coventry.ac.uk(K.D.S.)
*Correspondence:emeanae@uni.coventry.ac.uk;Tel.:+447535281953
Received:26November2019;Accepted:2January2020;Published:8January2020
Abstract:Theprovisionofinformationthroughmobilephoneenabledagriculturalinformation
services(mAgriservices)hasthepotentialtorevolutioniseagricultureandsignificantlyimprove
smallholderfarmers’livelihoodsinAfrica.Globally,thebenefitsofmAgriservicesinclude
facilitatingfarmers’accesstofinancialservicesandsourcingagriculturalinformationaboutinput
use,practices,andmarketprices.Thereareveryfewpublishedliteraturesourcesthatfocusonthe
potentialbenefitsofmAgriservicesinAfricaandnoneofwhichexploretheirsustainability.This
study,therefore,explorestheevolution,provision,andsustainabilityofthesemAgriservicesin
Africa.AnoverviewofthecurrentlandscapeofmAgriservicesinAfricaisprovidedandthis
illustrateshowvariedtheseservicesareindesign,content,andquality.Keyfindingsfromthe
exploratoryliteraturereviewrevealthatservicesarehighlylikelytofailtoachievetheirintended
purposeorbeabandonedwhenimplementersignoretheliteracy,skills,culture,anddemandsof
thetargetusers.Thisstudyrecommendsthat,toenhancethesustainabilityofmAgriservices,the
implementersneedtodesigntheserviceswiththeusersinvolved,carefullyanalyse,andunderstand
thetargetenvironment,anddesignforscaleandalongtermpurpose.Whileprivacyandsecurity
ofusersneedtobeensured,thereuseorimprovementofexistinginitiativesshouldbeexplored,
andprojectsneedtobedatadrivenandmaintainedasopensource.Thus,thestudyconcludesthat
policymakerscansupportthelongtermbenefitofmAgriservicesbyensuringfavourablepolicies
forbothusersandimplementers.
Keywords:mAgriservices;cellphones;smallholderfarmers’livelihood;sustainabilitychallenges;
strategiesforimprovement;policyimplications;Africa
1.Introduction
Anextraordinarydigitalrevolutionhashelpedtodriveglobaldevelopmentwithtechnological
progress,pricereduction,andinfrastructuraldeploymentresultinginimprovedaccessand
connectivityformuchoftheworld’spopulace[1].Theimpactofthisdigitalrevolutionisunevenly
distributed,whilemanystudieshighlightthepositiveimpactsandstressthatthesetechnological
changeshavethepotentialtoenhancelivelihoodsintheglobalsouth.InAfrica,forexample[2–6],
somestudiesquestiontheirimpactandsustainability[2,7–11].Digitaltechnologiespopularlyknown
asinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)arecomprisedofvarioustechnologiesthat
areusedtoaidinformationexchangeandcommunication.Thesetechnologiesincludehardware(e.g.,
computersandmobilephones)andsoftware(e.g.,Internetfacilitiesandmediaforinformation
transmission)[12,13].Theuseofinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesfordevelopment
(ICT4D)hascontinuedtoevolve[14–17]withincreasingattentionontheiruseforagricultural
Sustainability2020,12,4852of28
developmentinAfrica[18–23].ICTscontributiontodevelopmentvariesaccordingtothevarious
disciplinesandtheirintendedaim[14,24,25].However,improvingthelongtermimpactofthese
technologiesalsorequiresanunderstandingofhumancomputerinteractions(HCI)[26].HCIfor
development(HCI4D)isasubdisciplineofHCI,whichfocusesspecificallyontherelationship
betweenhumansandcomputersinthecontextofinternationaldevelopment[27].Inessence,while
bothICT4DandHCI4Dareconcernedwithinformationtechnologyandhumandevelopment,ICT4D
isconcernedwiththeprocessoftechnologydevelopmentandimpactaswellasthedesignofthe
technology[14]whereasHCI4Dfocusesontheinteractionbetweenhumansandinformation
technologyandtheimprovementofthisrelationship[27].Hence,thisstudysitsbetweenICT4Dand
HCI4Dandisconcernedwiththesustainabilityandlongtermimpactsoffutureagricultural
developmentprojects.
Farmers’increasingaccesstoagriculturalinformationinsomepartsofAfricahasbeenlinkedto
theevolutionanduptakeofdigitaltechnologies[28–30].Becauseagricultureislocationspecific,itis
importantthatfarmersgettailoredadviceonagriculturalpractices,inputuse,accuratelocalweather
predictions,andrealtimepricesandmarketinformation.HarnessingthegrowthofInternetuseand
associateddigitaltechnologiessuchasthemobilephonecanhelpfarmersretrievetheinformation
theyneedaswellasovercomeconstraintsfacedbythetraditionalagriculturalextensionandadvisory
services.Suchtechnologiescanfacilitatetransformativeagriculturaldevelopmentsuchas
collaborativeagriculturalknowledgeexchangeandlearning[4,31,32].
Thedigitaltechnologyagehasresultedinmanyaccessiblesoftwareapplicationsaimedat
farmersandotherstakeholdersintheagriculturalsector[33].Althoughmanydigitalinnovations
aimedforagriculturaldevelopmentandonesthatcanhelpenhancethelivesofruralpeopleare
developingrapidly,thereisalackofgoodevidencetosupporttheimpactofsuchtechnologieson
development.Whatisneededisholistic,rigorous,andquantitativereportsonthewaysinwhich
theseinitiativesaiddevelopmentandsustainability[32].AccordingtoYonazietal.[34],thestrategic
applicationofICTstoAfrica’sagriculturalsectoroffersthebestopportunityforsocioeconomic
growthofsmallholderfarmers.AlthoughnumerousICTbasedinitiativeshavebeenimplementedin
differentpartsofAfricafortheuptakeandimprovementofagriculturalpractices,thisstudyis
focusedonthemobilephoneenabledapplicationinitiative(s)foragricultureknownasmAgri
services.Inthecontextofthisstudy,‘mAgriservice’isusedtocharacteriseanymobilephone
enabledapplicationtargetedtotheneedsoftheagriculturalsectoranditsstakeholders.Thesem
Agriservicesincludeelectronicinformationand/orfunctionsthatareaccessedthroughmobile
phones(betheyfeatureorsmartphones).Theseservicesmightincludebankingfacilities,social
networkingplatforms,orinformationsuchasmarketprices.Servicescanbedeliveredinavarietyof
formatsincludinggraphics,videos,images,audiorecordings,andtext.Smartphonesspecifically
providefunctionalitiesthatenableuserstoaccessmobileandwebapplications,whichcanfacilitate
activeengagement[35].
Theincreasingpenetrationofmobilenetworksaswellasavailabilityofmobilephonesandtheir
facilitieshavecreatedsignificantimprovementsintheabilitytoreachremote,dispersed,andunder
servedfarmersirrespectiveoftheirenvironmentandsocialstatusbyfacilitatingaccesstoextension
services,agriculturalinformation,andfinancialservices[11,29,31,32,36,37].Awiderangeof
agriculturalinformationcanbeprovidedincludingdataoninputs,bestagriculturalpractices,
transport,andmarketprices[38].Baumüller[36]identifiedtwokeyareasthatcanbeimpactedupon
bymAgriservices.Theseareinformationandlearning(e.g.,throughstakeholdernetworking
platforms)andmobilepayments(e.g.,virtualmarketsandsupplychainmanagement).Variousm
AgriserviceshavebeendevelopedintheAfricanregionwiththesupportofinternationaldonor
agenciessuchastheWorldBank,FoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),
etc.Thesehavetargetedareasthatarecharacterisedbyweakinfrastructure,limitedaccesstomarket
information,andpoortransportationsystems[39].WhilethedevelopersofthesemAgriservicesand
theirfundershaveoftenbelievedthattheseservicesholdgreatpromiseforenhancingtargetusers’
livelihoodsbyhelpingthemtoimproveyieldsandprovidefairmarketpricingopportunities,often
Sustainability2020,12,4853of28
theirfinancialandinfrastructuralstabilityarequestionableandonlyaveryfewareabletostandthe
testoftime[39–41].
Thereasonsandremediesforthisgapareyetunclear,withthefactualevidenceoftheir[mAgri
services]sustainabilityandlongtermusagebythetargetusersstillbeingrare.Althoughmanym
Agriappsarecreated,manyareshortlived,andfewbecomefinanciallyselfsustainingor
widespread[39].Somestudieshavefocussedontheimpact,effectiveness,farmers’attitude,
empowerment,andchallengesfarmersfaceinusingmAgriservice[42–46],whileothersargued
fromthetechnicalorfunders’perspective[39,40,47].Baumüller[40]reportedthatthedevelopers’
failuretounderstandthecontextinwhichthefarmersusethesemAgriservicesresultsin
underutilisationofsuchservices.Danesetal.[39]acknowledgedthatthenumberofsuccessfulm
Agriservicesislimited.Hence,concreteinformationisneededaboutthelessonslearned,toinform
thedesignandtechniquesoffutureefforts[47].Effortstodesign,produce,andevaluateappropriate
mAgriservicesfordevelopingcountriesarenaturallymultidisciplinary.Thus,theresearch
identifiedinthispresentstudywasobtainedfromawiderangeofdisciplinesincludingsustainable
agriculture,internationaldevelopment,andICTfordevelopment(ICT4D)[39,40,48].Furthermore,
Danesetal.[39]recountedthewillingnessamongagriculturalstakeholdersandapplication
developerstocollaboratemoreandexchangeideasonbestpractice.Danesetal.[39]alsopropose
thatdevelopersshouldconsiderprojectswithopensoftware,setuplearningcommunities,develop
indigenousscaledagriculturalcontent,makeexistingdataavailable,andconnectthepoorestto
mobilenetworks.However,addressingthesustainabilitychallengesrequiresaholistic
understandingofthesocial,economic,andenvironmentalimpactand/orsustainabilityofthemAgri
serviceswithafocusonthewiderproblemsofdesigning,developing,anddeployingtheservice(s)
tothedisadvantaged(ruralorunderserved)areas[49].Consideringthisapproach,moreattention
needstobegiventothetargetusers’contextandaspirations(e.g.,theirneeds,socialandphysical
constraints,etc.)[49–51].
Whilesomeotherauthorshavealsoraisedconcernsabouttheenvironmentalsustainability(e.g.,
theenergydemand,materialresourceuse,andemissions)ofsuchinitiatives[48,52],thispresent
reviewexploresthechallengesthatcanimpedethelongtermsustainabilityofmAgriservices,in
termsoftheirlongevity,financialstability,andrelevance,whicharekeyissuestobeaddressedwhen
scalingupfromthepilotstageofpilotprojects[40].Additionally,thereviewidentifiesopportunities
forpolicymakerstoenhancethesustainabledevelopmentofmAgriinitiativesinAfrica.Bydoing
so,thisreviewanswersthefollowingresearchquestions.
WhatarethecurrenttrendsandprogressintheuseofmAgriservicesforenhancingagriculture
andsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodsinAfrica?
Howcanallrelevantstakeholdersinvolvedindesign,development,deploymentanduse,
approachthechallengesofmAgriservice(s)forsustainability?
AretherespecificfunctionalitiesforthemAgriservicesthatcanenhancesustainability?
WhatshouldtheroleofthepolicymakersbeinpromotingmAgrisustainability?
Havingoutlinedthespecificaimandobjectivesofthisreviewstudy,theremainingsections
describetheconceptualbackgroundtothestudyincludingtheconceptofsustainability,the
methodologyadoptedtoidentifyrelevantmaterialsforthereview,asummaryofthekeyfindingsof
theliteraturesurveyed,andconclusions,whichincludesrecommendationsforfuturedesigns.
2.ConceptualisingSustainabilityinThisReview
Sustainabilityisawidelyusedbutcontestedtermthathasgainednotableattentioninrecent
timesespeciallyinsocialandtechnologicalsciencesectorssuchaspolicyorientedresearch,human
computerinteraction,ICTfordevelopment,andbusinessdevelopment[48,49,53–55].Theuseofthe
word‘sustainability’asabroaderconceptimplies‘meetingtheneedsandaspirationsofthepresent
generationwithoutunderminingtheabilityofnaturetoregenerateforfuturegenerations’needs[56].
Inthiscontext,sustainabilityreferstotheenvironmental,social,cultural,technological,political,
institutional,andeconomicconsequenceslinkedwiththewaydevelopmentbasedprojectsare
Sustainability2020,12,4854of28
designedandimplemented[48,49,53,57].Hence,lookingatsustainabilityfromthemAgriservices’
developer,funder,andtargetusers’perspectivesimpliesthatthey[astheactors]mustensureto
enhancethesocioeconomicandenvironmentalsustainabilityofthegivenproject.Additionally,the
continuationofthebenefitsofmAgriservicesaftertheimplementationorlaunchingneedtobe
ensured.Accordingly,fundersshouldbeconcernedabouttheunderlyingcost[social,economic,and
environmental]ofanyintendedmAgriserviceandfundtheservicesthathaveawelldefined
sustainabilityplaninplace.Thismeansthatintegratingsustainabilityprinciplesinanyongoingm
Agriprojectcanbeanefficientwayofensuringalongtermimpact.However,fromtheimplementers
ordevelopers’pointofview,thismeansthattheywillneedtocontinuetoperformanddeliver
servicestothetargetusers(farmersandotheragriculturalstakeholders)evenafterassessingthe
impactoftheproject.Inotherwords,fromtheperspectiveofthisreview,sustainabilityrequiresall
stakeholdersinvolvedtocontinuouslymaintainownershipandhostingofthemAgriservices
especiallyservicesthathaveasignificantpositiveimpactonsmallholderfarmerslivelihoodeven
afterthefundingandotherformsofinterventionhaveended.Atthesametime,ensurethatthe
service(s)lessentheir(smallholderfarmers)burdensandnotcontributetotheirpoverty.
Initially,thisreviewwasconceivedasanoverviewoftheliteratureassociatedwiththe
developmentanduseofmAgriservicesforsustainableagricultureanddevelopingcountriesand
wasconcernedwiththechallengestosustainabilityofmAgriservicesintermsoftheircontinued
functioning,theirlongevity,andusefulness.Theinteractionbetweenhumansandinteractive
technologiesinthedevelopingworldisalsoadisciplineinitsownright,knownashumancomputer
interactionfordevelopment(HCI4D).TheliteratureassociatedwithHCI4DandICT4D(information
andcommunicationtechnologyfordevelopment)inmanyrespectscomestothesameconclusions
regardingtheneedforbettertechnicallyandculturallyappropriatedesignsastheliteratureonm
Agriappsforsustainableagriculture[58].However,italsoraisesfurtherquestionsaboutwhatis
meantbysustainabilityandhowtheimpactsofinteractivetechnologiesonsustainabledevelopment
shouldbeevaluated[38,59].
Inthiscontext,sustainabilitycanbeunderstoodintwodifferentways[51,59].First,isthem
Agriserviceinitselfsustainable?ThisisdescribedbyRemyetal.[59]as‘sustainabilityindesign’
(SiD).ForthemAgriappsidentifiedinthereviewthediscussionofmAgriapp’ssustainabilitywas
oftenframedintermsofitslongevity,financialstability,andoptionsforscalingup[40].Software
suchasmAgriservicescanbedescribedas‘weightless.’Thismeanstheydonotthemselveshavea
directimpactontheenvironment,buttheycanbedesignedtobeefficientforusers,i.e.,towork
offlineinregionswithpoormobilecoverageandpowernetworks[58].Thesecondwayinwhich
sustainabilityshouldbeconsideredistheeffectorimpactthatanmAgriservicecanhaveon
sustainability[48,59].Doesitencouragemoresustainablebehaviours?Isthereanyimpactonthe
sustainabilityofrealworldpracticesintheagriculturalsystemtargeted[51,59]?Thisisdescribedas
‘sustainabilitythroughdesign’(StD)byRemyetal.[59].
Althoughsustainabilityshouldbeevaluatedinaholisticmannerincorporatingenvironmental,
economic,andsocietalimpacts,thisisnotoftenthecase[60].Incorporatingthesethreepillarsintoan
evaluationistimeconsuming,and,moreoftenthannot,evaluationsfocusononepillaronly,and
mostfrequentlyonenvironmentalsustainability[53].AlthoughseveralauthorsincludingToyama
[61]andRemyetal.[59]haveproducedframeworksforevaluatingthesustainabilityofICT
interventions,thereisstillconsiderabledebateontheapproachtoevaluationinahumancomputer
interactionfordevelopment(HCI4D)[51,53,59].Oneofthekeyissueswithevaluatingsustainability
ofICTinthedevelopingworldisthequestionofwhodecideswhichcriteriashouldbeusedfor
evaluationandwhichvaluesareimportant.Ideasandinterpretationsofsustainabilitydependon
cultureandcontext[62].Thismaybewhyevaluationofimpactonsustainabilityisoftenmissingin
HCI4D/ICT4Dresearch[59].Intheirreview,Brynjarsdottiretal.[51]foundthatalmosthalfofthe
HCIstudiesincludednoevaluationwhatsoever.
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3.Methodology
ThisanalysisadoptsascopingreviewmethodologyasdescribedbyArkseyandO’Malley[63]
andfocusesonpublishedliteraturethatrelatestomobilephoneenabledapplicationsforagricultural
developmentandsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodimprovementinAfrica.Thescopingreview
methodislessrestrictivethanasystematicreview.Itallowstheredefinitionoftheliteraturesearch
criteriaastheresearcherbecomesfamiliarwiththeexistingliteratureonthesubjectarea[63].During
thereviewprocess,searchesweremadethroughtheWebofScience,Scopus,AgEcon,JSTOR,Science
Direct,ASSIA,Google,andGoogleScholartoidentifyrelevantpublicationsusingthefollowing
terms.
‘mobilephoneapplication’AND‘agriculturedevelopment’ORdigitalinnovation’;
‘smartphoneapplication’AND‘sustainability’OR‘agriculture’;
‘mobileorsmartphone’AND‘farmers’OR‘smallholderfarmers’livelihood’;
‘agricultureinformation’AND‘farmers’livelihooddevelopment’;
‘smartfarming’AND‘smallholderfarmers’OR‘mAgri’;
‘mobileapplication’AND‘mAgrifinance’AND‘services’;
‘mobileapplication’AND‘mAgri’AND‘challenges’;
‘ICTforsustainability’OR‘ICT4S’AND‘ICTfordevelopment’OR‘ICT4D’;
‘HumanComputerInteractionfordevelopment’OR‘HCI4D’AND‘sustainability’.
Afterskimmingthroughthepublishedtitlesandtheirabstracts,onlyrelevantarticlespublished
inEnglishwithinanAfricancontextwereselectedforfurtherreview.Articlesthatexcludedhuman
interactionandfocusedonnonhumaninvolvementsuchasmanagementofequipmentand
connectingtotheInternetofthingswerenotincludedfordetailedreview.Articlesincludedwere
publishedaftertheyear2000,asthatwaswhenmobileandInternetfacilitiesbegantoexpand
significantlyinAfrica.Furthermore,articlesthatspecificallycovermAgriservicesthatdisseminate
agriculturalinformation,providefinancialservices,andfacilitateaccesstoinputandoutputmarkets
foragriculturalstakeholdersinAfricawereincluded.Inaddition,asnowballstrategybasedona
thoroughreviewofeacharticle’sreferenceswasusedtoidentifyotherrelevantpeerreviewed
literature.However,becauseofthelimitednumberofrelevantpeerreviewedliterature,none
coveredthesustainabilityaspectofthemAgriservices.Greyliteraturewasalsoincluded,which
presentedmAgriservicesthathaveimpactedonfarmers’livelihoods,providedtheywerewithin
theyearofpublicationrangeandgeographiccoverage.
Inreportingthesereviewfindings,theinformationretrievedfromtheliteraturewasgrouped
intothemesthatcorrespondtoansweringtheresearchquestions.Aftertheinclusionandexclusion
exercise,atotalof64relevantartefactswereidentified.Theyinclude26journalarticles,29reports
[greyliterature],and9webpagesaslistedinTable1.Tocomplementthisliteraturesearch,asearch
formAgriservicescurrentlyavailableinAfricawasalsocarriedoutusingthemainiOSandAndroid
appstores.ThisfirstaimedtoauthenticatethemAgriservicesreviewedintheliteraturesearchand
alsoretrievedotherEnglishlanguageapplicationstargetedforfarmersandagriculture.ThemAgri
servicesidentifiedareshowninTable2.Eachapplication’splatformwassearchedtoidentifythe
specificlocationofsuchanapplicationandtheuserreviewswerecheckedtodeterminewhetheror
nottheapplicationwasstillfunctioning.ThosemAgriservicesthatappearedtobefunctionalwere
compiledinTable2withasummaryoftheirpurposeandtheirlocationindicated.Althoughthetwo
mostpopularappstoreswereinvestigated,thislistmaynotbeexhaustiveastheremaybeother
applicationsavailablethatwerenotpresentinthedatabasesaccessed.ExamplesofmAgriservices
fromTable2discussedinthetextareshowninitalics.Table3providesfurtherdataforthoseapps
forwhichthiscouldbefound.Thisincludesthedateofthelaunch,numberofdownloads,and
numberofaveragereviews.Thesedatagiveacrudemeasureoflongevityandusersatisfaction.
WithoutfullaccesstothemAgriservices,itwasnotpossibletoevaluateothermeasuresofquality
andsustainability.
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Table1.Listofmaterialsaccessed.
MaterialsUsed NumberofMaterialsReferences
Peerreviewedjournalarticles26[13,29,36,64–86].
Reports/Greyliterature29[32,35,38,87–112]
Webpages 9[113–121]
Scopingsurvey2018/19.
4.ResultsandDiscussion
ThisreviewexploredtheprogressofmAgriservicesincontributingtotheimprovementof
livelihoodofsmallholderfarmersandthechallengesfortheirsustainabilityinAfrica.Inthissection,
thefindingsthatansweredthefundamentalquestionsthatemergedfromthestudy’saimand
objectivesareoutlinedintofouroverarchingthemesandarediscussedaccordingly.
4.1.AnOverviewofCurrentTrendsinmAgriServices
TheincreasingexpansionanduseofmAgriserviceshavecreatedatrendintheagricultural
digitalecosystem,whichconsistsofsoftwareplatforms,thousandsofdevelopers,andmillionsof
users.SomesuchmAgriservicesareavailableanddistributedthroughplatformssuchastheapp
storesformobileandwebappsanddatabasesforshortmessageandotherrelatedservices.Table2
belowhighlightsexistingfunctionalmAgriservicesintheAfricanregion.Thelistwascorrectatthe
timeofwriting,eventhoughitisacknowledgedthat,inthetimetakenforpublication,someofthe
availableapplicationsmaynolongerbefullyfunctioning.
Sustainability2020,12,4857of28
Table2.SurveyofcurrentlyfunctioningmobilephonebasedmAgriservicesavailableinAfricain2018/19(accessedbetweenJanuary2018andOctober2019).
MobileApps Inventor/FoundersCountry/LocationofUseDescription
iCowKenyanfarmer,SuKahumbuKenya
SMSandvoiceonlymobileapp.Farmersaresentinformationon
thebestdairypractices.Allowsfarmerstoregistertheircows,and
toreceiveindividualisedtextmessagesontheirmobilephones,
includingadviceforveterinarycareandfeedingschedules,sends
promptstofarmerstocollectandstoremilkwithinthedaysofa
cow’scycle,adatabaseofexperts,andupdatedmarketrateson
cattleprices[64,87].
VetAfrica
AScotlandbasedtechcompany—
Cojengo,foundedbyCraigTaylorand
IainCollinsinpartnershipwith
Microsoft
Kenya,Ethiopia,Uganda
andTanzania
Animagebaseduserinterfaceappprovidesdiagnostictoolsand
diseasesurveillancedataforlivestockdiseaseandrecommends
appropriatemedicationsforfarmanimals.Helpsfarmersmonitor
andrecordanimaldata[87].
MFarm
Kenyans:LindaKwamboka,Susan
Oguya,andJamilaAbassareco
founders
KenyaandGhana
Deliverspricetransparencyandaccesstomarkets.Provides
updatestofarmersoncurrentpricesofgoodsacrossthecountry
andanetworkingplatformforfarmerstoselltheirproduce
wholesale.Connectslocalfarmersdirectlytosuppliersand
providesaccessforfarminputs[87].
EsokoAteamoflocalandinternational
professionalinGhanaNineAfricancountries
Connectsprojects,nongovernmentalorganisations(NGOs),
businesses,andthegovernmenttofarmers.Formerlyknownas
TradeNetprovidesagriculturalcontent,marketing,advisory,and
monitoringservicesforfarmersandpotentialinvestors[65–67].
AgroHubAgroHubwasdevelopedbya
CameroonianbusinessventureCameron
AgroHubemployssocialnetwork,shortmessagingservice(SMS),
andtheInternettosource,manageanddisseminateinformationon
allareasofagriculture[65,113]
AgriwalletDodoreKenyaLtd.foundedbyAd
RietbergandSijmendeHooghKenya
Agriwalletisamobilepursethatsmallholderfarmersuseto
managetheirbusinessfinancesandcanborrowmoneytospendon
agriculturalinputssuchasfertiliserandseeds[87].
CocoaLink
DevelopedbyFarmerline,which
promotesentrepreneurshipin
partnershipwithHersheyandWorld
CocoaFoundation
GhanaDeliversfarmingpracticeinformationfromagriculturalexpertsto
farmersinEnglishandlocallanguagesatnocost[13,65].
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KilimoSalama
SyngentaFoundationforSustainable
AgricultureandKenyantelecom
operator,Safaricom
Kenya
Providesuptodateandfullclimateandweatherinformationto
farmersandsustainableagriculturalpracticestoincrease
productivity,ensurefoodsecurity,andprotecttheircropsduring
badweather[68].
KuzaDoctorBackpackfarmersinKenyaKenya
Providesaccesstoinformationoncropgrowth,soil,andanswerto
generalfarmingquestionstohelpfarmersgrowbettercropsby
employingenvironmentallyfriendlypractices[87].
Modisar
AgricSoftwareDevelopmentStartup
CompanylocatedinGaborone,
Botswana
Botswana
Enablefarmerstokeepandaccesstheirfarmrecords,cattleherds,
farmcosts,andsales.Providesadvicetofarmersonanimal
vaccinations,feed,nutrition,andfinance[87].
HellotractorAteamofbusinessentrepreneursNigeriaProvidesaccesstolowcosttractorsthatfarmerscanbuyorrent
usingtheirmobilephones[114].
HallerappHallerfoundationKenyaProvidefarminginstructionstothefarmersonhowtomanagesoil
fertilityandmaintainbeehives[69].
MShambaMshambasocialenterpriseKenya
Provideinformationaboutcropandpoultrymanagementpractices
forthesmallscalefarmers.Allowsfarmerstotrackfarmactivities
suchastheirrevenuesandexpenses[69].
WeFarm
OriginallycreatedbyKennyEwan,
ClaireRhodes,andJimRhodes,and
wasdevelopedasapilotprojectfrom
withintheCafedirectProducers’
Foundation(nowcalledProducers
Direct)
Kenya,Tanzania,and
Uganda
Providesfreecropandlivestockmanagementpractices.Especially
adviceonhowtomanagediseasesandnewpractices[69,115].
MSamakiNodetailsKenyaProvidesadviceonfishfarmingabouthowtomanagepondhealth
andfeedaswellasharvestandmarketing[69].
SenekelaEstablishedbyOrangeMaliMali
Providesadviceonavailableagriculturalproducts,weather
forecast,andmarketprices,whichallowfarmerstomarkettheir
produceinbetterconditionsandimprovetheirproductivity[116].
eWalletEstablishedbytheFederalMinistryof
AgricultureandRuralDevelopmentNigeria
Providesinformationaboutwhereandhowtobuyfertilizerand
theexactamountsold,whichallowsfarmerstocompareprices
[70].
TigoKilimoProvidedmymobilenetworkoperator
TigoTanzania
Anagriculturalvalueaddedservicethatprovidesinformationfor
10cropsthroughunstructuredsupplementaryservicedata(USSD),
SMS,voice,andhelplineforthefarmers.
Sustainability2020,12,4859of28
EZFarmIBMResearch—AfricaDrKalaFlemingKenyaProvidesfarmerswithinformationonfacilitiesforremotefarming
watermanagement.
AgroTech
AprogrammerunbyGrameen
FoundationanditspartnersDigital
Green
Ghana
Enablesthegovernmentandprivatecompanyfieldpersonnelto
understandandanalysefarmers’needsandcrophistoryquickly
andtimely,todeliveragriculturaladvice,andtoprocureloansto
purchasefarmsuppliessuchasfertilisersandseeds.
LimaLinks
SANGONet,aSouthAfricanNGO,and
InternationalDevelopmentEnterprises
(iDE),with$200,000ininitialfunding
fromtheGatesFoundation.
ZambiaProvidesasortof‘live’marketpriceinformationonhorticulture
andconnectionstomarketsforsmallholderfarmers.
AGMIS
(Infotrade)InfotradeUganda
Aggregatesmarketpriceinformationfrom35majordistrictsin
Ugandafor48agriculturalproducts,trends,andpricemovements.
Pricedataiscollectedthreetimesaweek,analysed,and
disseminatedtothefarmers.
Crowdyvest
(Farmcrowdy)
Teamofindividualswithexperience
andexpertiseininformation
technologymanagement,ecommerce
andfinancialmanagementsupported
bySyngentaandASTC(Agricultural
TrainingCentre),VomandPlateau
StateNotoreSeeds
Nigeria
Supportssmallfarmsponsorship,providesimprovedseeds,farm
inputs,trainingonmodernfarmingtechniques,andalsoprovidea
marketforthesaleoffarmproduceforfarmers.
Crop
Monitoring
Service
(CROPMON)
DevelopedbyGeodataforAgriculture
andWaterFacility,Netherlandswith
fourDutchandfiveKenyanpartners
Kenya
CROPMONdevelopsandmakesavailableinformationthathelp
farmerstomakeimprovedfarmmanagementdecisionsduringthe
growingseason.Theinformationgivenisbasedonrealtime
satelliteimageryinformingthemofthegrowthandgrowthstatus
oftheircrops.
FarmDriveRitaKimaniandPerisBosireKenya
Connectssmallholderfarmerstoloansandfinancialmanagement
toolsthroughtheirmobilephones.Closesthecriticaldatagapthat
preventsfinancialinstitutionsfromlendingtocreditworthy
smallholderfarmers.
MyAgro(One
AcreFund)AnushkaRatnayake,OneAcreFundMali,Senegal
Helpsthefarmerssavemoneygraduallyinsmalleramountsto
coverthecostoftheirbasicfarmneedssuchasbuyingseeds,
fertiliser,andtraining.
Fertiliser
Optimiser
Tool(FOT)
CABI’sOFRAprogramme,fundedby
theAllianceforaGreenRevolutionin
Africa(AGRA)
13countriesinAfrica
Providesfreeaccesstoadviceonfertiliseruseforfarmersand
extensionworkers.Theapprunsinanofflinemodeallowingusers
toperformoptimisationcalculationsinthefieldandutilisesdata
Sustainability2020,12,48510of28
oncropsgrown,areaplanted,fertilisercost,management,and
expectedcropsales,etc.tocalculatethemostprofitable
combinationsoffertiliserstouse.
NARObeans,
Common
Cassava
Diseases&
Control,
NAROMaize
Production
NationalAgriculturalResearch
Organisation(NARO)UgandaProvidesinformationon:(1)beancultivation,(2)commoncassava
diseasesandcontrol,and(3)maizeproductionforthefarmers.
PannarSprout
DevelopedbyPannarSeed,aSouth
Africanseedgroupfoundedin1958,
whichisoneofthelargestfieldcrop
seedproducersandsuppliersinAfrica
SouthAfricaandsome
otherAfricannations
Providestechnicaladviceforgrainfarmers.Anewfunctionhas
beenadded,whichisknownasPlantDrforhelpwithcrop
diseases.
KhulaSouthAfricandigitalcompanyin
RandburgSouthAfrica
Providesmentorshipforfarmersandconnectsthemtocustomers,
betteraccesstologistics,andsourceforlowcostfarminputs
throughagrouppurchase.
Agripredict
Developedbythreeindividuals
(PatrickSikalinda,CassandraMtine,
andMwizaSimbeye)
ZambiaProvidesinformationthathelpfarmerstoidentifycropdiseases,
predictpestinfestations,andweatherconditions.
uLimauLimaLimitedKenya
Providesaccesstocropandlivestockmanagementinformation,
weatherandmarketpriceinformation,andcustomisedcropand
livestockcalendarsforfarmers.
AgTagMagazineappSouthAfricaProvideswrittenarticles,videos,andaudiooncrops,livestock,
equipment,water,andsoilmanagementaswellasagroprocessing.
Nuru(Plant
Village)
DevelopedbyPennStateUniversity
researchersincollaborationwithUN
FAOandConsultativeGroupof
InternationalAgriculturalResearch
(CGIAR).Nuruisincorporatedintothe
PlantVillageapp.
ManyAfricancountries
Helpsfarmerstodiagnosecropdiseasesofcropslikecassava,
maize,wheat,andpotatoesinthefieldwithoutanInternet
connection.TheappinterfaceswiththeFAMEWSapptoupload
datacollectedfromthefield.Forexample,theapphelpfarmersto
validatedataonfallarmywormtothenationalfallarmywormfocal
pointsanddatabase.
RiceAdviceDevelopedbyAfricaRiceandCGIAR
underthenameRiceAdvice.22AfricancountriesProvidesfarmerswithfieldspecificcropmanagementguidelines
forriceproduction
AgrixTechNodetailsCameroonDetectscropdiseasesataprimarystageandproposestreatment
withtheuseofartificialintelligence.
Sustainability2020,12,48511of28
Labaroun
Kassoua
LabarounKassouainNigerisoneof
themAgriservicessupportedby
OrangeinAfrica
NigerOffersinformationandadviceonagriculturaltechniques,weather,
andaccesstomarketsandfinancialservicesforfarmers.
mAgri,Côte
d’Ivoire
mAgriinCôted’Ivoireisoneofthe
mAgriservicessupportedbyOrangein
Africa
Côted’IvoireProvidesinformationandadviceonweather,agricultural
approaches,accesstomarkets,andfinancialservices.
NaafaBuuduSupportedbyOrangeinAfricaBurkinaFasoOffersfarmersadviceonweather,marketprices,financialservices,
andagriculturaltechniques.
CowTribeCowtribetechnologycompanybased
inGhanaGhanaProvidessubscriptionbasedandondemandanimalvaccinesand
otherservicestolastmilefarmers.
Connected
Farmer
ProducedbytheConnectedFarmer
Alliance,apublicprivatepartnership
betweenU.S.AgencyforInternational
Development(USAID)andVodafone
Kenya,Tanzania,and
Mozambique
Targetstoaddressthevaluechainmanagementinefficienciesand
increaseproductivityofboththeagribusinessesandthe
smallholderfarmerswhosupplythem.
Survey2018/19.
Table3.Launchdate,userreviews,anddownloadsofmAgriservicesavailableinAfricain2018/2019(accessedbetweenJanuary2018andOctober2019).
MAgriServiceYearLaunched
Appstore/GooglePlayMetrics
OtherData
AverageReviewerScore
(MaxScore=5)
Numberof
Reviews
Numberof
Downloads
Esoko2008nodatanodatanodata
Agrohub20094.771000+
MFarm2010nodata nodatanodata
KilimoSalama20104.7211000+
MShamba20104.938100+Reports685,460farmersreached
iCow20113.65100+
MyAgro2011nodata2011nodataReports45,000downloads
Senekela2014nodatanodatanodataReports37,333users
WeFarm2014nodatanodatanodataReports1.9millionfarmersjoined
Farmdrive20144.25500+
mAgri,Côted’Ivoire2014nodatanodatanodata
HayVokra(HNI) 2014nodatanodatanodata
Bazar.mada 2014nodatanodatanodata
Hellotractor20152.9445000+
MSamaki2015nonenodatanodata
Sustainability2020,12,48512of28
EZFarm2015nodatanodatanodata
PannarSprout20153.7355000+
Crowdyvest(Farmcrowdy)20163.822150,000+Reports25,000users
CowTribe2016nodata2016nodataReports29,000farmersin119communities
FertiliserOptimiserTool(FOT)2016551000+
MurimiUmlimi2017none0nodata
uLima20174.8291000+Reports20,000users
Agriwallet2018nonenodata50+Reports4000farmers,14suppliers,and25buyers
CocoaLink20185165000+
Agripredict2018nodatanodata22,000
PlantVillageNuru20184.4181000+
NARObeans201841100+
CommonCassavaDiseases&Control2018nonenone100+
NAROCageAquaculture2018nonenone500+
NAROMaizeProduction20183.761000+
AgrixTech 2019nodatanodatan/a
LabarounKassoua 2011(SMS)nodatanodatanodata
LimaLinks2011–2013,2016nodatanodatanodataPilotin2011–2013scaledupin2016
CROPMON2015–2019nodatanodatanodata
RiceAdvicec.20164.6231000+Reports20,000+users
Modistarc.2014nodatanodatanodata
AgTagc.20144.5745000+
VetAfricanodata3.5111000+
KuzaDoctornodatanodatanodatanodata
Hallerappnodatanodatanodatanodata
AgroTechnodatanodatanodatanodataReports500,687users
AGMIS(Infotrade)nodatanodatanodatanodata
Khulanodatanodatanodata2000+
nodata=nodatafoundinappstore,Facebook,Twitter,orwebsitesearches.none=noreviewsordownloadsrecordedinappstore.c.Year=indicatesthattheappis
documentedatthisdate,butthelaunchdateisnotknown.
Sustainability2020,12,48513of28
Globally,mAgriservices’contributionhasbeentoenhancetheefficiencyoftheagricultural
valuechain,asinformationdeliveredthroughmAgriservicescanhelpfarmers’accesstonew
technologyorinputsandassessitssuitabilityaswellasfacilitatefarmertofarmer/buyer
relationships,howtomanagefinancialandproductionrisk,andwheretoselltheirproduce[36,38].
Similarly,themAgriservicesidentifiedinthisreviewhadapositivecontributiontoimproved
smallholderfarmers’livelihoodbyfacilitatingtheiraccesstofinancialservices,whichenablesthem
toaccessandsourceagriculturalinformationaswellasinputandmarketingservices[71,72,88,89].
Thus,thefollowingsubsectionshighlightthetrendsandprogressmadeinthesecategories.Thekey
trendsincludemAgrifinancialservices,informationandsharing,andinputandmarketingservices.
Thesearediscussedinmoredetailbelow.
4.1.1.MAgriFinancialServices
AccordingtoMercyCorp[88],thetransitioningtoanduseofmAgrifinancialservicesby
smallholderfarmershasincreasedsafeandconvenienttransactionsinmanyAfricancountries.These
kindsofservicesopenupopportunitiesformanysmallholderfarmerswhoareexcludedfrom
mainstreamfinancialservicessuchasbankingandinsurance.Furthermore,theavailabilityofloans
andrepaymentviasuchplatformsincreasesfarmers’abilitytomanagetheirfinancesandinvestment
inagricultureaswellasimprovetheirrelationshipwithbankersandotherrelevantagricultural
stakeholders[29,73,90].Forinstance,farmersinWesternKenyawiththehelpofOneAcreFundcan
accessAgriWallet,whichisanmAgrifinancialservicethatallowsthemtoborrowmoneytospend
ontheiragriculturalinputsandpaybacktheirloansdigitally.Thus,savingtravellingcoststo
extensionofficesandbanksaswellasimprovingtimemanagementandreducedcashcarrying[91].
Significantly,digitisingagriculturalpaymentsviamobilephoneshasthepotentialtoimprove
security,efficiency,andtransparency.Particularly,thereisanincreasingnumberofinitiatives,which
aimtoenhancethemAgrifinancialservices’valuechain,especiallyinsubSaharanAfricawithmajor
attentioninKenya,Rwanda,Tanzania,andUganda,andotherdynamicmarketssuchasGhanaand
theIvoryCoast[35].ExamplesofmAgrifinanceappsincludeLabarounKassouainNigerand
FarmDriveinKenya.Accordingly,MercyCorps[88]reportedthatmorethan46%offarming
householdsuseanmAgrifinancialserviceproductinUgandaandattestedthatthishadresultedin
anincreaseinhouseholdincomes.Thisservicecansupportthecreationofeconomicidentitiesforthe
farmersthroughthetransactionalreportsandrecordsfromtheirproducesalesaswellasfor
geolocationsandfarmsize,whichcreatesfullfinancialinclusionfortheiraccesstocredit,savings
accounts,andinsurancefacilities[90].
4.1.2.MAgriInformationandKnowledgeSharingServices
AccordingtoBedi[71],mAgriservicesplayasignificantroleinenhancingfarmeraccessto
informationbecauseoftheirabilitytosupporttheretrievalofinformationfromitsrepositoryatthe
farmer’sconvenience.Specifically,informationandknowledgesharingcansupportbetter
agriculturalpracticesandskillsdevelopmentamongfarmers,whichresultsinincreasedproductivity
aswellasenableseasieraccesstoproductcertificationrequirements[74,90].Baumüller[29]pointed
outthatadviceonfarmingpracticesisthemosteasilyprovidedagriculturalinformationforfarmers
throughmobilephoneservices.Inadditiontothis,informationontheweatherforecast,monitoring,
andcropdiseasescanthenbetterequiptheminunderstandingandmanagingrisks.Thus,thishelps
themsaveandimprovetheirproductivity.Forinstance,theSenekelaOrangeinitiativeisaservice
establishedinMalithatprovidesfarmers’accesstoupdatedagriculturaladvicesuchasstock
availability,productmarketprices,andweatherpredictions.Crowdsourcinginformationthrough
mobilephoneapplications,suchasthatprovidedbyNuru,adigitalearlywarningnetworkishelping
farmerstopreventtheoutbreakofcassavadiseasesinTanzania[92].InaCTA(TechnicalCentrefor
AgriculturalandRuralCooperation)report,asimilarserviceallowsfarmerstoaccessrealtime,
location,andspecificinformationregardingtheirfarmingqueriesandprovidingadviceregarding
cropandlivestockmanagementduringthecriticalstagesofdevelopment,whichalsoaidslearning
[93].Trainingisthecornerstoneoffutureagricultureandcapacitybuildingforfarmers,withtraining
Sustainability2020,12,48514of28
informationcontentandresearchcontributingtoariseinagriculturalinnovations.Potentially,
innovationscanbedisseminatedandpromotedamongfarmersmorerapidlythroughmAgri
informationandknowledgesharingplatforms[29,94].InanevaluationofthemAgriserviceTigo
KilimoinTanzania,carriedoutbyGSMA[89],theattitudesandbehaviourofusersoftheappwere
comparedtononusers.TheresultsshowedthatTigoKilimousersweremorewillingtochangetheir
farmingpracticesbyshiftingfromonecroppingsystemtoadoptingdiversificationapproachesin
growingmorevarietiesofcrops.
4.1.3.MAgriInputandMarketingServices
Increasingglobalisationandmarketderegulationindevelopingcountriesoftenresultsin
pressureonsmallholderfarmerstolowertheirprices.Forfarmers,greaterawarenessaboutthe
politicsofagriculturalproducts’pricing,marketing,andtradeallowsthemtobetterdealwiththese
pressures.MAgriservicescanprovidethemwithtimelyaccesstoinformationandbetteraccessto
inputandoutputservices[72].Basically,farmerstendtobemorereceptivewheninformationis
tailoredtospecificcontextstosupporttheirneedswiththeviewofreducingcostaswellasincreasing
efficiencyandproductivity[72,75].MAgriservicescanfacilitatethedisseminationofinformation
aboutinputsuppliersandinputpricesaswellasprovideplatformsforinputtradingandbargaining,
whichcanhelpfarmersevaluatetheprofitabilityandobtainhigherpricesforproduce[29,76].
Furthermore,accesstomarketpricinginformationishelpingfarmersimprovetheirharvestplanning.
Forinstance,theappmfarmhelpsfarmersinKenyatomakeinformeddecisionsaboutthebest
harvest,sellingtimes,andpricing[36].Besidesallowingfarmerstoobtainmarketpriceinformation,
themfarmalsoenablesupplierstopubliciseproductinformationonspecialofferstothefarmers[32].
SomestudiesintheAfricanregionaffirmedthatmAgriinterventionsledtogreatersavings,
increaseinproducesales,increaseinhouseholdincome,farmers’confidenceandtrust,financial
security,farmmanagement,increasedaccesstoinputs,increasedbargainingpower,andsocial
cohesionforsmallholderfarmers[29,36,76–78].However,thetypeofsolutions,range,and
complexityvary,assomeprovidersoffercompleteplatformswithmultiplefunctionalitiesandothers
targetsingleorspecificissueswiththeaimofimprovingsmallholders’livelihoods.Themaintenance
oftheseacclaimedpositiveimpactsrequiresaconsistentandunifiedapproachbytheproject
initiators,servicedevelopers,funders[publicandprivateinvestors],implementers,researchers,
Internetproviders,nongovernmentagencies,policymakers,andthefarmers.Hence,itisimperative
tounderstandthechallengesthataffectsuchinitiativesaswellastocomprehendthestrategiesthat
canimprovetheirsustainability.
4.2.TheChallengesforMAgriServicesinAfrica
Thisreviewfurtherrevealedthat,despitethepositiveimpactsandopportunitiesformAgri
serviceinitiativestowardtheenhancementofsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodinAfrica,therealityis
thatnotallofthesemAgriappsaresustainableoverthelongterm.AccordingtoLaurey’s[92],
lessonsshowthatexaggeratedexpectationsplacedonsuchservicescanleadtofrustrationand
abandonment.Iftheyarenotwelldesigned,clearlyintegratedinto,andadaptedtotheirprospective
users’lifeprocesses,theywillnotsurvive.Furthermore,complementaryinvestmentsinelectricity
andliteracyprogramscanaffectthescalingupofinitiativesforsmallholderfarming.Forexample,
theadoptionanduseoftheeWalletservicethatenablesfarmerstomakemoreinformedfarm
managementdecisions(whereandhowtobuyfertiliserandseeds)inNigeriawasconstrainedbya
poorelectricitysupplyresultinginmanyfarmersabandoningitsuse[70,79].Applicationsthatfailed
toconsidertheirtargetusers’literacylevelwerealsolikelytobeabandoned,wherethetargetfarmers
havealowliteracylevelandstruggletointeractwiththeapp.Atextbasedapplicationmaybe
severelylimitedtosucceeddespitethegoodintentionsifthetargetusersfinditdifficulttoreadand
understandthecontent[89].Anexampleisn’kalôinCôted’Ivoire,whichprovidedmarket
informationtocashewproducers.Thiswasforcedtoclosedowneventuallybecausethetargetusers
founditdifficulttoengagewiththecontent[95].Beyondbasicliteracy,skillssuchastheInternet
skillsneededforsomeofthemAgriservicesaresometimeslacking,whichwasestimatedin2016by
Sustainability2020,12,48515of28
theWorldBankreportingthat7in10peopleinAfricawhodonotfullyutilisetheirInternetaccount
affirmedthattheydonotknowhowtouseiteffectively,whilefourinfivemobilephoneownershave
simplephonesthatarenotcapableofbrowsingtheInternet[32],bearinginmindthatfarmersare
amongthesepeople.
Theonesizefitsallapproachcansometimesbeadistractionthatcancausetheimplementersto
focusmoreonthetechnologyandignorethespecificdemandsandprioritiesoftheproposedusers
[80,96].Forinstance,manyusersofTigoKilimoreportedthattherewaslimitedinformationonawider
varietyofcropsonagronomyinformation.Inaddition,theyechoedthatfinancialinformationshould
beincorporatedintotheservice[89].Theneglectofintegratingthedeepunderstandingofthetarget
users’culturewhendesigningoradaptingmAgriinitiativesispartofthechallengesthataffect
sustainabilityasuserstendtoloseinterestinsuchinitiatives[41,53,70].Scalinguptheinitiativecan
bechallengingwhenthereisalackofrelevanceinthecontentforthetargetusersortheeffectiveness
ofthecommunicationstyle[81].Forexample,theuseofforeignlanguagessuchasEnglishinnon
Englishspeakingcountriesmayneglecttheappropriateculturalcontextofthehostcommunity
[66,69].MAgriservicesmayalsobedoomedtofailiftheimplementersdonotconsiderthecostfor
sustainabilityrightfromthebeginningoftheproject.Servicesprovidedfreeofchargetofarmersin
thepilotstagecouldprovedifficulttocontinueafterthedonorsleftwithoutrevenue.Atypical
exampleistheMKilimo,aKenyanfarmerhelpline(nolongerfunctioning),wheretheserviceis
aimedtoaddresstheweaknessesintheavailabilityofextensionservicesusingavailablenetworksin
Kenya,whichchargedastandardnetworkrate.Theservicewasinitiallysuccessfulafterthefirst
threeyears(2009–2011),butwasabandonedduetothehighcostoftheoperationasfarmersfoundit
difficulttobearthecostforalongertime[93,97].
Trusthasproventobeacriticalfactorindeterminingthesuccessofanygivenproject.The
farmerstendtobeskepticalwithtrustinganexternalorganisationsuchasthegovernmentorthose
intheprivatesector[82].AsBaumüller[36]andAkeretal.[80]pointout,gettingthefarmerstotrust
theinformationprovidedtothemcanbedifficult.Thiscanaffecttheprogressofsuchservicesaswell
asthecontentsandcouldpresentasuspiciousnotioninawaythatiseitherreliableand
understandable.Inaddition,giventhatsmallholderfarmers’incomeisoftenlowespeciallyamong
farmerslivingintheruralareas,suchfarmerscanbeunwillingtopayformAgriservicesaswellas
payforthecostsassociatedwithusingtheapplication[41,80].Acomprehensivebusinessmodelboth
forprofitandnonprofitmAgriservices,whichcanguaranteesuchservicestoexistindependently
ofexternalfundinginthefutureissometimesignored.Bysodoing,itcanaffectthedevelopment
[36].Inaddition,datasecurityandprivacy,i.e.,thefearofdigitalcrimeandidentitytheftcanbea
concernforthefarmersintheircontinuoususeofmAgriinitiatives,especiallywiththeservicesthat
aresupportedbysmartphones,whichgenerallyhavethetendencyofcollectingvariedsensitivedata.
Moreover,poorcommitmentandcollaborativeeffortsofthegovernmentsinimplementingadequate
policiesthatsupportthevariedstakeholdersposesasignificantchallengetosuchinitiatives[98].
Certainly,someofthesechallengestomAgriservicesaremoredifficulttoovercomethan
others.However,manyoftheseissuescanbeaddressedbytakingamoreparticipatoryapproach,in
whichkeystakeholderscombineforcestoidentifyandadoptstrategiesthatcansupportthe
developmentanddesignofmAgriinitiatives.Someofthestrategiesthatwereadoptedbyvarious
mAgriservicestoimprovetheirrelevance,longevity,andsustainabilityarediscussedbelow.
4.3.StrategiesAdoptedbySomeoftheExistingMAgriInitiatives
Althoughagriculturaldevelopmentactivitiescontinuetofocusonmoretechnologically
advancedsystems,whichareknowledgeintensive,thereisalsodemandformoresustainable
initiatives.Forsmallholderfarmerswhoarethetargetusersofmanysuchinterventions,
sustainabilityforthemmeansplacingtheirneedsatthecentreofeverymAgriserviceinitiative
[69,99].SomeofthesemAgriserviceprovidershavealreadybeguntoimplementsomestrategies
thatcanenhancethesustainabilityoftheirproject.Inthesituationswheredigitalliteracymaybelow
amongthetargetusers,thedevelopersandtheirfundersmayhavetoworkdirectlywiththetarget
userstoenhancetheirskillinusingtheapplication.Forinstance,mfarm,whichisaKenyanmAgri
Sustainability2020,12,48516of28
service,cooptedateamofcontentmanagerswhodirectlyworkwiththefarmerswhodonotfully
understandtheuseoftheapplication.Theyactasmentorstothefarmersandteachthemthestep
bystepprocessoftheapplicationsothattheybecomeconversantwithitandareabletouseit
independentlyinthefuture.Wherethemainissueisanunreliableelectricitypowersupply,theOne
AcreFundprovidedthetargetuserswithsolarpoweredphonechargersoncredittohelpaddress
this[117].
Similarly,WeFarm,whichoperatesinKenyaandUganda,adoptedthestrategyofusing
crowdsourcedknowledgethroughamessageservicetogiveremotefarmersaccesstoagricultural
informationwithoutusingInternetfacilities[115].Thismethodhasenabledtheapplicationproviders
toconnecttomorethan1.1millionusersacrossKenyaandUganda.Thisservicealsoallowsthe
farmerstoaskquestionsinanylanguage,and,therefore,directlyaddressesoneofthebarriersto
longtermusagebythefarmers.Thisiswherethefarmersarenotconversantwiththelanguageused
fortheservice.
Thesustainabilityofagivenprojectalsoneedstoconsidertheeconomicaspects.Thequestion
ofwhetherornottochargeendusersfeesisthesubjectofdebateanddependsonthebusinessmodel
[80].ManymAgriservicestakeabusinesstocustomerapproachwithabusinessoriented
perspective,thisiswherechargingtheendusersafeeforagivenserviceseemsreasonableto
maintaintheinitiative.Servicesthatrelyondirectrevenuefromtargetuserscanonlyattainfiscal
sustainabilitybyscale[83,84].SomeofthesemAgriservicesadoptedthisstrategytoenhancethe
sustainabilityoftheirservice.Forexample,theConnectedFarmerthatoperatesinKenya,Tanzania,
andMozambique,whichofferscombinedservicessuchasagronomicinformation,aweather
forecast,andmarketplaceservices,adoptedtheservicebundlemodelthroughthegenerationof
incomefromsellingproductsandservicesforagribusinessesaswellassellingdataandmarket
researchsurvey.Inthiscase,theagribusinessclientspayamonthlychargetoaccessfarmerdata
[100].Similarly,iCowchargesitsusersKES9($0.09)toreceivethreeshortmessageservicetipsper
week.Thismeansthattheservice’sfiscalsustainabilityisensuredwitharegularrecurringrevenue
of$150,000fromitsregularusers[101].Inthiscase,thehigherthenumberofusers,themorethe
servicebecomesfinanciallysustainable.However,thebusinesstocustomerapproachcanbedifficult
toachieveinpracticeasmanyfarmershavelowdisposableincomes.Manytimes,theirabilityand
willingnesstopaydoesnotalwaystranslateintorealpayment[80].Anexampleofsuchadilemma
istheTigoKilimo’sexperiencewhennewusersandrepeatusersoftheserviceincreasedaftertheir
shortmessageservicefeewasremoved.Eventhoughthefarmerswhousedtheserviceexpressed
theirwillingnesstopayasmallamountinasurvey,themajoritydidnotsignupuntilthefeewas
removed[89].
GiventhatmAgriservicescanbeacomplexsystemoftechnologies,itisimportanttoclearly
anddistinctivelydefinethedesignandmanagementofthetechnologies.Itisoftendifficultfor
implementersofthesemAgriservicestounderstandtheexactneedsofthefarmersandtoassess
howbestisbestenoughfortheapplications’everydayuse.Thismay,intheshortterm,leadto
advancesthatfailtotacklethemajorareasoffarmers’needordeliveroverperforminginterventions
thatmaybeunnecessarilyexorbitant[80].Therefore,acloserrelationshipandcontinuous
communicationwiththeendusersandotherkeystakeholderswillhelptoensurethatthevalueis
gainedfromtheinitiative.Thiscanbeachievedbydrawinginsightfromtheprinciplesfordigital
developmentandadaptingtothefollowing<