The Revolution of Mobile Phone-Enabled Services for Agricultural Development (m-Agri Services) in Africa: The Challenges for Sustainability

Abstract

The provision of information through mobile phone-enabled agricultural information services (m-Agri services) has the potential to revolutionise agriculture and significantly improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods in Africa. Globally, the benefits of m-Agri services include facilitating farmers’ access to financial services and sourcing agricultural information about input use, practices, and market prices. There are very few published literature sources that focus on the potential benefits of m-Agri services in Africa and none of which explore their sustainability. This study, therefore, explores the evolution, provision, and sustainability of these m-Agri services in Africa. An overview of the current landscape of m-Agri services in Africa is provided and this illustrates how varied these services are in design, content, and quality. Key findings from the exploratory literature review reveal that services are highly likely to fail to achieve their intended purpose or be abandoned when implementers ignore the literacy, skills, culture, and demands of the target users. This study recommends that, to enhance the sustainability of m-Agri services, the implementers need to design the services with the users involved, carefully analyse, and understand the target environment, and design for scale and a long-term purpose. While privacy and security of users need to be ensured, the reuse or improvement of existing initiatives should be explored, and projects need to be data-driven and maintained as open source. Thus, the study concludes that policymakers can support the long-term benefit of m-Agri services by ensuring favourable policies for both users and implementers.

Full text


Sustainability2020,12,485;doi:10.3390/su12020485www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Review
TheRevolutionofMobilePhone‐EnabledServices
forAgriculturalDevelopment(m‐AgriServices)in
Africa:TheChallengesforSustainability
EzinneM.Emeana*,LizTrenchardandKatharinaDehnen‐Schmutz
CentreforAgroecology,WaterandResilience,CoventryUniversity,CoventryCV83LG,UK;
apy157@coventry.ac.uk(L.T.);ab6340@coventry.ac.uk(K.D.‐S.)
*Correspondence:emeanae@uni.coventry.ac.uk;Tel.:+4‐475‐3528‐1953
Received:26November2019;Accepted:2January2020;Published:8January2020
Abstract:Theprovisionofinformationthroughmobilephone‐enabledagriculturalinformation
services(m‐Agriservices)hasthepotentialtorevolutioniseagricultureandsignificantlyimprove
smallholderfarmers’livelihoodsinAfrica.Globally,thebenefitsofm‐Agriservicesinclude
facilitatingfarmers’accesstofinancialservicesandsourcingagriculturalinformationaboutinput
use,practices,andmarketprices.Thereareveryfewpublishedliteraturesourcesthatfocusonthe
potentialbenefitsofm‐AgriservicesinAfricaandnoneofwhichexploretheirsustainability.This
study,therefore,explorestheevolution,provision,andsustainabilityofthesem‐Agriservicesin
Africa.Anoverviewofthecurrentlandscapeofm‐AgriservicesinAfricaisprovidedandthis
illustrateshowvariedtheseservicesareindesign,content,andquality.Keyfindingsfromthe
exploratoryliteraturereviewrevealthatservicesarehighlylikelytofailtoachievetheirintended
purposeorbeabandonedwhenimplementersignoretheliteracy,skills,culture,anddemandsof
thetargetusers.Thisstudyrecommendsthat,toenhancethesustainabilityofm‐Agriservices,the
implementersneedtodesigntheserviceswiththeusersinvolved,carefullyanalyse,andunderstand
thetargetenvironment,anddesignforscaleandalong‐termpurpose.Whileprivacyandsecurity
ofusersneedtobeensured,thereuseorimprovementofexistinginitiativesshouldbeexplored,
andprojectsneedtobedata‐drivenandmaintainedasopensource.Thus,thestudyconcludesthat
policymakerscansupportthelong‐termbenefitofm‐Agriservicesbyensuringfavourablepolicies
forbothusersandimplementers.
Keywords:m‐Agriservices;cellphones;smallholderfarmers’livelihood;sustainabilitychallenges;
strategiesforimprovement;policyimplications;Africa

1.Introduction
Anextraordinarydigitalrevolutionhashelpedtodriveglobaldevelopmentwithtechnological
progress,pricereduction,andinfrastructuraldeploymentresultinginimprovedaccessand
connectivityformuchoftheworld’spopulace[1].Theimpactofthisdigitalrevolutionisunevenly
distributed,whilemanystudieshighlightthepositiveimpactsandstressthatthesetechnological
changeshavethepotentialtoenhancelivelihoodsintheglobalsouth.InAfrica,forexample[2–6],
somestudiesquestiontheirimpactandsustainability[2,7–11].Digitaltechnologiespopularlyknown
asinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)arecomprisedofvarioustechnologiesthat
areusedtoaidinformationexchangeandcommunication.Thesetechnologiesincludehardware(e.g.,
computersandmobilephones)andsoftware(e.g.,Internetfacilitiesandmediaforinformation
transmission)[12,13].Theuseofinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesfordevelopment
(ICT4D)hascontinuedtoevolve[14–17]withincreasingattentionontheiruseforagricultural

Sustainability2020,12,4852of28
developmentinAfrica[18–23].ICTscontributiontodevelopmentvariesaccordingtothevarious
disciplinesandtheirintendedaim[14,24,25].However,improvingthelong‐termimpactofthese
technologiesalsorequiresanunderstandingofhuman‐computerinteractions(HCI)[26].HCIfor
development(HCI4D)isasub‐disciplineofHCI,whichfocusesspecificallyontherelationship
betweenhumansandcomputersinthecontextofinternationaldevelopment[27].Inessence,while
bothICT4DandHCI4Dareconcernedwithinformationtechnologyandhumandevelopment,ICT4D
isconcernedwiththeprocessoftechnologydevelopmentandimpactaswellasthedesignofthe
technology[14]whereasHCI4Dfocusesontheinteractionbetweenhumansandinformation
technologyandtheimprovementofthisrelationship[27].Hence,thisstudysitsbetweenICT4Dand
HCI4Dandisconcernedwiththesustainabilityandlong‐termimpactsoffutureagricultural
developmentprojects.
Farmers’increasingaccesstoagriculturalinformationinsomepartsofAfricahasbeenlinkedto
theevolutionanduptakeofdigitaltechnologies[28–30].Becauseagricultureislocation‐specific,itis
importantthatfarmersgettailoredadviceonagriculturalpractices,inputuse,accuratelocalweather
predictions,andreal‐timepricesandmarketinformation.HarnessingthegrowthofInternetuseand
associateddigitaltechnologiessuchasthemobilephonecanhelpfarmersretrievetheinformation
theyneedaswellasovercomeconstraintsfacedbythetraditionalagriculturalextensionandadvisory
services.Suchtechnologiescanfacilitatetransformativeagriculturaldevelopmentsuchas
collaborativeagriculturalknowledgeexchangeandlearning[4,31,32].
Thedigitaltechnologyagehasresultedinmanyaccessiblesoftwareapplicationsaimedat
farmersandotherstakeholdersintheagriculturalsector[33].Althoughmanydigitalinnovations
aimedforagriculturaldevelopmentandonesthatcanhelpenhancethelivesofruralpeopleare
developingrapidly,thereisalackofgoodevidencetosupporttheimpactofsuchtechnologieson
development.Whatisneededisholistic,rigorous,andquantitativereportsonthewaysinwhich
theseinitiativesaiddevelopmentandsustainability[32].AccordingtoYonazietal.[34],thestrategic
applicationofICTstoAfrica’sagriculturalsectoroffersthebestopportunityforsocio‐economic
growthofsmallholderfarmers.AlthoughnumerousICT‐basedinitiativeshavebeenimplementedin
differentpartsofAfricafortheuptakeandimprovementofagriculturalpractices,thisstudyis
focusedonthemobilephone‐enabledapplicationinitiative(s)foragricultureknownasm‐Agri
services.Inthecontextofthisstudy,‘m‐Agriservice’isusedtocharacteriseanymobilephone‐
enabledapplicationtargetedtotheneedsoftheagriculturalsectoranditsstakeholders.Thesem‐
Agriservicesincludeelectronicinformationand/orfunctionsthatareaccessedthroughmobile
phones(betheyfeatureorsmartphones).Theseservicesmightincludebankingfacilities,social
networkingplatforms,orinformationsuchasmarketprices.Servicescanbedeliveredinavarietyof
formatsincludinggraphics,videos,images,audiorecordings,andtext.Smartphonesspecifically
providefunctionalitiesthatenableuserstoaccessmobileandwebapplications,whichcanfacilitate
activeengagement[35].
Theincreasingpenetrationofmobilenetworksaswellasavailabilityofmobilephonesandtheir
facilitieshavecreatedsignificantimprovementsintheabilitytoreachremote,dispersed,andunder‐
servedfarmersirrespectiveoftheirenvironmentandsocialstatusbyfacilitatingaccesstoextension
services,agriculturalinformation,andfinancialservices[11,29,31,32,36,37].Awiderangeof
agriculturalinformationcanbeprovidedincludingdataoninputs,bestagriculturalpractices,
transport,andmarketprices[38].Baumüller[36]identifiedtwokeyareasthatcanbeimpactedupon
bym‐Agriservices.Theseareinformationandlearning(e.g.,throughstakeholdernetworking
platforms)andmobilepayments(e.g.,virtualmarketsandsupplychainmanagement).Variousm‐
AgriserviceshavebeendevelopedintheAfricanregionwiththesupportofinternationaldonor
agenciessuchastheWorldBank,FoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),
etc.Thesehavetargetedareasthatarecharacterisedbyweakinfrastructure,limitedaccesstomarket
information,andpoortransportationsystems[39].Whilethedevelopersofthesem‐Agriservicesand
theirfundershaveoftenbelievedthattheseservicesholdgreatpromiseforenhancingtargetusers’
livelihoodsbyhelpingthemtoimproveyieldsandprovidefairmarketpricingopportunities,often

Sustainability2020,12,4853of28
theirfinancialandinfrastructuralstabilityarequestionableandonlyaveryfewareabletostandthe
testoftime[39–41].
Thereasonsandremediesforthisgapareyetunclear,withthefactualevidenceoftheir[m‐Agri
services]sustainabilityandlong‐termusagebythetargetusersstillbeingrare.Althoughmanym‐
Agriappsarecreated,manyareshort‐lived,andfewbecomefinanciallyself‐sustainingor
widespread[39].Somestudieshavefocussedontheimpact,effectiveness,farmers’attitude,
empowerment,andchallengesfarmersfaceinusingm‐Agriservice[42–46],whileothersargued
fromthetechnicalorfunders’perspective[39,40,47].Baumüller[40]reportedthatthedevelopers’
failuretounderstandthecontextinwhichthefarmersusethesem‐Agriservicesresultsin
underutilisationofsuchservices.Danesetal.[39]acknowledgedthatthenumberofsuccessfulm‐
Agriservicesislimited.Hence,concreteinformationisneededaboutthelessonslearned,toinform
thedesignandtechniquesoffutureefforts[47].Effortstodesign,produce,andevaluateappropriate
m‐Agriservicesfordevelopingcountriesarenaturallymultidisciplinary.Thus,theresearch
identifiedinthispresentstudywasobtainedfromawiderangeofdisciplinesincludingsustainable
agriculture,internationaldevelopment,andICTfordevelopment(ICT4D)[39,40,48].Furthermore,
Danesetal.[39]recountedthewillingnessamongagriculturalstakeholdersandapplication
developerstocollaboratemoreandexchangeideasonbestpractice.Danesetal.[39]alsopropose
thatdevelopersshouldconsiderprojectswithopensoftware,setuplearningcommunities,develop
indigenousscaledagriculturalcontent,makeexistingdataavailable,andconnectthepoorestto
mobilenetworks.However,addressingthesustainabilitychallengesrequiresaholistic
understandingofthesocial,economic,andenvironmentalimpactand/orsustainabilityofthem‐Agri
serviceswithafocusonthewiderproblemsofdesigning,developing,anddeployingtheservice(s)
tothedisadvantaged(ruralorunderserved)areas[49].Consideringthisapproach,moreattention
needstobegiventothetargetusers’contextandaspirations(e.g.,theirneeds,socialandphysical
constraints,etc.)[49–51].
Whilesomeotherauthorshavealsoraisedconcernsabouttheenvironmentalsustainability(e.g.,
theenergydemand,materialresourceuse,andemissions)ofsuchinitiatives[48,52],thispresent
reviewexploresthechallengesthatcanimpedethelong‐termsustainabilityofm‐Agriservices,in
termsoftheirlongevity,financialstability,andrelevance,whicharekeyissuestobeaddressedwhen
scalingupfromthepilotstageofpilotprojects[40].Additionally,thereviewidentifiesopportunities
forpolicymakerstoenhancethesustainabledevelopmentofm‐AgriinitiativesinAfrica.Bydoing
so,thisreviewanswersthefollowingresearchquestions.
 Whatarethecurrenttrendsandprogressintheuseofm‐Agriservicesforenhancingagriculture
andsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodsinAfrica?
 Howcanallrelevantstakeholdersinvolvedindesign,development,deploymentanduse,
approachthechallengesofm‐Agriservice(s)forsustainability?
 Aretherespecificfunctionalitiesforthem‐Agriservicesthatcanenhancesustainability?
 Whatshouldtheroleofthepolicymakersbeinpromotingm‐Agrisustainability?
Havingoutlinedthespecificaimandobjectivesofthisreviewstudy,theremainingsections
describetheconceptualbackgroundtothestudyincludingtheconceptofsustainability,the
methodologyadoptedtoidentifyrelevantmaterialsforthereview,asummaryofthekeyfindingsof
theliteraturesurveyed,andconclusions,whichincludesrecommendationsforfuturedesigns.
2.ConceptualisingSustainabilityinThisReview
Sustainabilityisawidelyusedbutcontestedtermthathasgainednotableattentioninrecent
timesespeciallyinsocialandtechnologicalsciencesectorssuchaspolicy‐orientedresearch,human
computerinteraction,ICTfordevelopment,andbusinessdevelopment[48,49,53–55].Theuseofthe
word‘sustainability’asabroaderconceptimplies‘meetingtheneedsandaspirationsofthepresent
generationwithoutunderminingtheabilityofnaturetoregenerateforfuturegenerations’needs[56].
Inthiscontext,sustainabilityreferstotheenvironmental,social,cultural,technological,political,
institutional,andeconomicconsequenceslinkedwiththewaydevelopment‐basedprojectsare

Sustainability2020,12,4854of28
designedandimplemented[48,49,53,57].Hence,lookingatsustainabilityfromthem‐Agriservices’
developer,funder,andtargetusers’perspectivesimpliesthatthey[astheactors]mustensureto
enhancethesocioeconomicandenvironmentalsustainabilityofthegivenproject.Additionally,the
continuationofthebenefitsofm‐Agriservicesaftertheimplementationorlaunchingneedtobe
ensured.Accordingly,fundersshouldbeconcernedabouttheunderlyingcost[social,economic,and
environmental]ofanyintendedm‐Agriserviceandfundtheservicesthathaveawell‐defined
sustainabilityplaninplace.Thismeansthatintegratingsustainabilityprinciplesinanyongoingm‐
Agriprojectcanbeanefficientwayofensuringalong‐termimpact.However,fromtheimplementers
ordevelopers’pointofview,thismeansthattheywillneedtocontinuetoperformanddeliver
servicestothetargetusers(farmersandotheragriculturalstakeholders)evenafterassessingthe
impactoftheproject.Inotherwords,fromtheperspectiveofthisreview,sustainabilityrequiresall
stakeholdersinvolvedtocontinuouslymaintainownershipandhostingofthem‐Agriservices
especiallyservicesthathaveasignificantpositiveimpactonsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodeven
afterthefundingandotherformsofinterventionhaveended.Atthesametime,ensurethatthe
service(s)lessentheir(smallholderfarmers)burdensandnotcontributetotheirpoverty.
Initially,thisreviewwasconceivedasanoverviewoftheliteratureassociatedwiththe
developmentanduseofm‐Agriservicesforsustainableagricultureanddevelopingcountriesand
wasconcernedwiththechallengestosustainabilityofm‐Agriservicesintermsoftheircontinued
functioning,theirlongevity,andusefulness.Theinteractionbetweenhumansandinteractive
technologiesinthedevelopingworldisalsoadisciplineinitsownright,knownashuman‐computer
interactionfordevelopment(HCI4D).TheliteratureassociatedwithHCI4DandICT4D(information
andcommunicationtechnologyfordevelopment)inmanyrespectscomestothesameconclusions
regardingtheneedforbettertechnicallyandculturallyappropriatedesignsastheliteratureonm‐
Agriappsforsustainableagriculture[58].However,italsoraisesfurtherquestionsaboutwhatis
meantbysustainabilityandhowtheimpactsofinteractivetechnologiesonsustainabledevelopment
shouldbeevaluated[38,59].
Inthiscontext,sustainabilitycanbeunderstoodintwodifferentways[51,59].First,isthem‐
Agriserviceinitselfsustainable?ThisisdescribedbyRemyetal.[59]as‘sustainabilityindesign’
(SiD).Forthem‐Agriappsidentifiedinthereviewthediscussionofm‐Agriapp’ssustainabilitywas
oftenframedintermsofitslongevity,financialstability,andoptionsforscalingup[40].Software
suchasm‐Agriservicescanbedescribedas‘weightless.’Thismeanstheydonotthemselveshavea
directimpactontheenvironment,buttheycanbedesignedtobeefficientforusers,i.e.,towork
offlineinregionswithpoormobilecoverageandpowernetworks[58].Thesecondwayinwhich
sustainabilityshouldbeconsideredistheeffectorimpactthatanm‐Agriservicecanhaveon
sustainability[48,59].Doesitencouragemoresustainablebehaviours?Isthereanyimpactonthe
sustainabilityofreal‐worldpracticesintheagriculturalsystemtargeted[51,59]?Thisisdescribedas
‘sustainabilitythroughdesign’(StD)byRemyetal.[59].
Althoughsustainabilityshouldbeevaluatedinaholisticmannerincorporatingenvironmental,
economic,andsocietalimpacts,thisisnotoftenthecase[60].Incorporatingthesethreepillarsintoan
evaluationistime‐consuming,and,moreoftenthannot,evaluationsfocusononepillaronly,and
mostfrequentlyonenvironmentalsustainability[53].AlthoughseveralauthorsincludingToyama
[61]andRemyetal.[59]haveproducedframeworksforevaluatingthesustainabilityofICT
interventions,thereisstillconsiderabledebateontheapproachtoevaluationinahuman‐computer
interactionfordevelopment(HCI4D)[51,53,59].Oneofthekeyissueswithevaluatingsustainability
ofICTinthedevelopingworldisthequestionofwhodecideswhichcriteriashouldbeusedfor
evaluationandwhichvaluesareimportant.Ideasandinterpretationsofsustainabilitydependon
cultureandcontext[62].Thismaybewhyevaluationofimpactonsustainabilityisoftenmissingin
HCI4D/ICT4Dresearch[59].Intheirreview,Brynjarsdottiretal.[51]foundthatalmosthalfofthe
HCIstudiesincludednoevaluationwhatsoever.


Sustainability2020,12,4855of28
3.Methodology
ThisanalysisadoptsascopingreviewmethodologyasdescribedbyArkseyandO’Malley[63]
andfocusesonpublishedliteraturethatrelatestomobilephone‐enabledapplicationsforagricultural
developmentandsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodimprovementinAfrica.Thescopingreview
methodislessrestrictivethanasystematicreview.Itallowstheredefinitionoftheliteraturesearch
criteriaastheresearcherbecomesfamiliarwiththeexistingliteratureonthesubjectarea[63].During
thereviewprocess,searchesweremadethroughtheWebofScience,Scopus,AgEcon,JSTOR,Science
Direct,ASSIA,Google,andGoogleScholartoidentifyrelevantpublicationsusingthefollowing
terms.
 ‘mobilephoneapplication’AND‘agriculturedevelopment’OR‘digitalinnovation’;
 ‘smartphoneapplication’AND‘sustainability’OR‘agriculture’;
 ‘mobileorsmartphone’AND‘farmers’OR‘smallholderfarmers’livelihood’;
 ‘agricultureinformation’AND‘farmers’livelihooddevelopment’;
 ‘smartfarming’AND‘smallholderfarmers’OR‘m‐Agri’;
 ‘mobileapplication’AND‘m‐Agrifinance’AND‘services’;
 ‘mobileapplication’AND‘m‐Agri’AND‘challenges’;
 ‘ICTforsustainability’OR‘ICT4S’AND‘ICTfordevelopment’OR‘ICT4D’;
 ‘HumanComputerInteractionfordevelopment’OR‘HCI4D’AND‘sustainability’.
Afterskimmingthroughthepublishedtitlesandtheirabstracts,onlyrelevantarticlespublished
inEnglishwithinanAfricancontextwereselectedforfurtherreview.Articlesthatexcludedhuman
interactionandfocusedonnon‐humaninvolvementsuchasmanagementofequipmentand
connectingtotheInternetofthingswerenotincludedfordetailedreview.Articlesincludedwere
publishedaftertheyear2000,asthatwaswhenmobileandInternetfacilitiesbegantoexpand
significantlyinAfrica.Furthermore,articlesthatspecificallycoverm‐Agriservicesthatdisseminate
agriculturalinformation,providefinancialservices,andfacilitateaccesstoinputandoutputmarkets
foragriculturalstakeholdersinAfricawereincluded.Inaddition,asnowballstrategybasedona
thoroughreviewofeacharticle’sreferenceswasusedtoidentifyotherrelevantpeer‐reviewed
literature.However,becauseofthelimitednumberofrelevantpeer‐reviewedliterature,none
coveredthesustainabilityaspectofthem‐Agriservices.Greyliteraturewasalsoincluded,which
presentedm‐Agriservicesthathaveimpactedonfarmers’livelihoods,providedtheywerewithin
theyearofpublicationrangeandgeographiccoverage.
Inreportingthesereviewfindings,theinformationretrievedfromtheliteraturewasgrouped
intothemesthatcorrespondtoansweringtheresearchquestions.Aftertheinclusionandexclusion
exercise,atotalof64relevantartefactswereidentified.Theyinclude26journalarticles,29reports
[greyliterature],and9webpagesaslistedinTable1.Tocomplementthisliteraturesearch,asearch
form‐AgriservicescurrentlyavailableinAfricawasalsocarriedoutusingthemainiOSandAndroid
appstores.Thisfirstaimedtoauthenticatethem‐Agriservicesreviewedintheliteraturesearchand
alsoretrievedotherEnglishlanguageapplicationstargetedforfarmersandagriculture.Them‐Agri
servicesidentifiedareshowninTable2.Eachapplication’splatformwassearchedtoidentifythe
specificlocationofsuchanapplicationandtheuserreviewswerecheckedtodeterminewhetheror
nottheapplicationwasstillfunctioning.Thosem‐Agriservicesthatappearedtobefunctionalwere
compiledinTable2withasummaryoftheirpurposeandtheirlocationindicated.Althoughthetwo
mostpopularappstoreswereinvestigated,thislistmaynotbeexhaustiveastheremaybeother
applicationsavailablethatwerenotpresentinthedatabasesaccessed.Examplesofm‐Agriservices
fromTable2discussedinthetextareshowninitalics.Table3providesfurtherdataforthoseapps
forwhichthiscouldbefound.Thisincludesthedateofthelaunch,numberofdownloads,and
numberofaveragereviews.Thesedatagiveacrudemeasureoflongevityandusersatisfaction.
Withoutfullaccesstothem‐Agriservices,itwasnotpossibletoevaluateothermeasuresofquality
andsustainability.


Sustainability2020,12,4856of28
Table1.Listofmaterialsaccessed.
MaterialsUsed NumberofMaterialsReferences
Peer‐reviewedjournalarticles26[13,29,36,64–86].
Reports/Greyliterature29[32,35,38,87–112]
Webpages 9[113–121]
Scopingsurvey2018/19.
4.ResultsandDiscussion
Thisreviewexploredtheprogressofm‐Agriservicesincontributingtotheimprovementof
livelihoodofsmallholderfarmersandthechallengesfortheirsustainabilityinAfrica.Inthissection,
thefindingsthatansweredthefundamentalquestionsthatemergedfromthestudy’saimand
objectivesareoutlinedintofouroverarchingthemesandarediscussedaccordingly.
4.1.AnOverviewofCurrentTrendsinm‐AgriServices
Theincreasingexpansionanduseofm‐Agriserviceshavecreatedatrendintheagricultural
digitalecosystem,whichconsistsofsoftwareplatforms,thousandsofdevelopers,andmillionsof
users.Somesuchm‐Agriservicesareavailableanddistributedthroughplatformssuchastheapp
storesformobileandwebappsanddatabasesforshortmessageandotherrelatedservices.Table2
belowhighlightsexistingfunctionalm‐AgriservicesintheAfricanregion.Thelistwascorrectatthe
timeofwriting,eventhoughitisacknowledgedthat,inthetimetakenforpublication,someofthe
availableapplicationsmaynolongerbefullyfunctioning.


Sustainability2020,12,4857of28
Table2.Surveyofcurrentlyfunctioningmobilephone‐basedm‐AgriservicesavailableinAfricain2018/19(accessedbetweenJanuary2018andOctober2019).
MobileApps Inventor/FoundersCountry/LocationofUseDescription
iCowKenyanfarmer,SuKahumbuKenya
SMSandvoice‐onlymobileapp.Farmersaresentinformationon
thebestdairypractices.Allowsfarmerstoregistertheircows,and
toreceiveindividualisedtextmessagesontheirmobilephones,
includingadviceforveterinarycareandfeedingschedules,sends
promptstofarmerstocollectandstoremilkwithinthedaysofa
cow’scycle,adatabaseofexperts,andupdatedmarketrateson
cattleprices[64,87].
VetAfrica
AScotlandbasedtechcompany—
Cojengo,foundedbyCraigTaylorand
IainCollinsinpartnershipwith
Microsoft
Kenya,Ethiopia,Uganda
andTanzania
Animage‐baseduserinterfaceappprovidesdiagnostictoolsand
diseasesurveillancedataforlivestockdiseaseandrecommends
appropriatemedicationsforfarmanimals.Helpsfarmersmonitor
andrecordanimaldata[87].
M‐Farm
Kenyans:LindaKwamboka,Susan
Oguya,andJamilaAbassareco‐
founders
KenyaandGhana
Deliverspricetransparencyandaccesstomarkets.Provides
updatestofarmersoncurrentpricesofgoodsacrossthecountry
andanetworkingplatformforfarmerstoselltheirproduce
wholesale.Connectslocalfarmersdirectlytosuppliersand
providesaccessforfarminputs[87].
EsokoAteamoflocalandinternational
professionalinGhanaNineAfricancountries
Connectsprojects,non‐governmentalorganisations(NGOs),
businesses,andthegovernmenttofarmers.Formerlyknownas
TradeNetprovidesagriculturalcontent,marketing,advisory,and
monitoringservicesforfarmersandpotentialinvestors[65–67].
Agro‐HubAgro‐Hubwasdevelopedbya
CameroonianbusinessventureCameron
Agro‐Hubemployssocialnetwork,shortmessagingservice(SMS),
andtheInternettosource,manageanddisseminateinformationon
allareasofagriculture[65,113]
Agri‐walletDodoreKenyaLtd.foundedbyAd
RietbergandSijmendeHooghKenya
Agri‐walletisamobilepursethatsmallholderfarmersuseto
managetheirbusinessfinancesandcanborrowmoneytospendon
agriculturalinputssuchasfertiliserandseeds[87].
CocoaLink
DevelopedbyFarmerline,which
promotesentrepreneurshipin
partnershipwithHersheyandWorld
CocoaFoundation
GhanaDeliversfarmingpracticeinformationfromagriculturalexpertsto
farmersinEnglishandlocallanguagesatnocost[13,65].

Sustainability2020,12,4858of28
KilimoSalama
SyngentaFoundationforSustainable
AgricultureandKenyantelecom
operator,Safaricom
Kenya
Providesup‐to‐dateandfullclimateandweatherinformationto
farmersandsustainableagriculturalpracticestoincrease
productivity,ensurefoodsecurity,andprotecttheircropsduring
badweather[68].
KuzaDoctorBackpackfarmersinKenyaKenya
Providesaccesstoinformationoncropgrowth,soil,andanswerto
generalfarmingquestionstohelpfarmersgrowbettercropsby
employingenvironmentally‐friendlypractices[87].
Modisar
AgricSoftwareDevelopmentStart‐up
CompanylocatedinGaborone,
Botswana
Botswana
Enablefarmerstokeepandaccesstheirfarmrecords,cattleherds,
farmcosts,andsales.Providesadvicetofarmersonanimal
vaccinations,feed,nutrition,andfinance[87].
HellotractorAteamofbusinessentrepreneursNigeriaProvidesaccesstolow‐costtractorsthatfarmerscanbuyorrent
usingtheirmobilephones[114].
HallerappHallerfoundationKenyaProvidefarminginstructionstothefarmersonhowtomanagesoil
fertilityandmaintainbeehives[69].
M‐ShambaM‐shambasocialenterpriseKenya
Provideinformationaboutcropandpoultrymanagementpractices
forthesmall‐scalefarmers.Allowsfarmerstotrackfarmactivities
suchastheirrevenuesandexpenses[69].
WeFarm
OriginallycreatedbyKennyEwan,
ClaireRhodes,andJimRhodes,and
wasdevelopedasapilotprojectfrom
withintheCafedirectProducers’
Foundation(nowcalledProducers
Direct)
Kenya,Tanzania,and
Uganda
Providesfreecropandlivestockmanagementpractices.Especially
adviceonhowtomanagediseasesandnewpractices[69,115].
M‐SamakiNodetailsKenyaProvidesadviceonfishfarmingabouthowtomanagepondhealth
andfeedaswellasharvestandmarketing[69].
SenekelaEstablishedbyOrange‐MaliMali
Providesadviceonavailableagriculturalproducts,weather
forecast,andmarketprices,whichallowfarmerstomarkettheir
produceinbetterconditionsandimprovetheirproductivity[116].
e‐WalletEstablishedbytheFederalMinistryof
AgricultureandRuralDevelopmentNigeria
Providesinformationaboutwhereandhowtobuyfertilizerand
theexactamountsold,whichallowsfarmerstocompareprices
[70].
TigoKilimoProvidedmymobilenetworkoperator
TigoTanzania
Anagriculturalvalue‐addedservicethatprovidesinformationfor
10cropsthroughunstructuredsupplementaryservicedata(USSD),
SMS,voice,andhelplineforthefarmers.

Sustainability2020,12,4859of28
EZ‐FarmIBMResearch—AfricaDrKalaFlemingKenyaProvidesfarmerswithinformationonfacilitiesforremotefarming
watermanagement.
AgroTech
AprogrammerunbyGrameen
FoundationanditspartnersDigital
Green
Ghana
Enablesthegovernmentandprivatecompanyfieldpersonnelto
understandandanalysefarmers’needsandcrophistoryquickly
andtimely,todeliveragriculturaladvice,andtoprocureloansto
purchasefarmsuppliessuchasfertilisersandseeds.
LimaLinks
SANGONet,aSouthAfricanNGO,and
InternationalDevelopmentEnterprises
(iDE),with$200,000ininitialfunding
fromtheGatesFoundation.
ZambiaProvidesasortof‘live’marketpriceinformationonhorticulture
andconnectionstomarketsforsmallholderfarmers.
AGMIS
(Infotrade)InfotradeUganda
Aggregatesmarketpriceinformationfrom35majordistrictsin
Ugandafor48agriculturalproducts,trends,andpricemovements.
Pricedataiscollectedthreetimesaweek,analysed,and
disseminatedtothefarmers.
Crowdyvest
(Farmcrowdy)
Teamofindividualswithexperience
andexpertiseininformation
technologymanagement,e‐commerce
andfinancialmanagementsupported
bySyngentaandASTC(Agricultural
TrainingCentre),VomandPlateau
StateNotoreSeeds
Nigeria
Supportssmallfarmsponsorship,providesimprovedseeds,farm
inputs,trainingonmodernfarmingtechniques,andalsoprovidea
marketforthesaleoffarmproduceforfarmers.
Crop
Monitoring
Service
(CROPMON)
DevelopedbyGeodataforAgriculture
andWaterFacility,Netherlandswith
fourDutchandfiveKenyanpartners
Kenya
CROPMONdevelopsandmakesavailableinformationthathelp
farmerstomakeimprovedfarmmanagementdecisionsduringthe
growingseason.Theinformationgivenisbasedonreal‐time
satelliteimageryinformingthemofthegrowthandgrowthstatus
oftheircrops.
FarmDriveRitaKimaniandPerisBosireKenya
Connectssmallholderfarmerstoloansandfinancialmanagement
toolsthroughtheirmobilephones.Closesthecriticaldatagapthat
preventsfinancialinstitutionsfromlendingtocreditworthy
smallholderfarmers.
MyAgro(One
AcreFund)AnushkaRatnayake,OneAcreFundMali,Senegal
Helpsthefarmerssavemoneygraduallyinsmalleramountsto
coverthecostoftheirbasicfarmneedssuchasbuyingseeds,
fertiliser,andtraining.
Fertiliser
Optimiser
Tool(FOT)
CABI’sOFRAprogramme,fundedby
theAllianceforaGreenRevolutionin
Africa(AGRA)
13countriesinAfrica
Providesfreeaccesstoadviceonfertiliseruseforfarmersand
extensionworkers.Theapprunsinanofflinemodeallowingusers
toperformoptimisationcalculationsinthefieldandutilisesdata

Sustainability2020,12,48510of28
oncropsgrown,areaplanted,fertilisercost,management,and
expectedcropsales,etc.tocalculatethemostprofitable
combinationsoffertiliserstouse.
NARObeans,
Common
Cassava
Diseases&
Control,
NAROMaize
Production
NationalAgriculturalResearch
Organisation(NARO)UgandaProvidesinformationon:(1)beancultivation,(2)commoncassava
diseasesandcontrol,and(3)maizeproductionforthefarmers.
PannarSprout
DevelopedbyPannarSeed,aSouth
Africanseedgroupfoundedin1958,
whichisoneofthelargestfieldcrop
seedproducersandsuppliersinAfrica
SouthAfricaandsome
otherAfricannations
Providestechnicaladviceforgrainfarmers.Anewfunctionhas
beenadded,whichisknownasPlantDrforhelpwithcrop
diseases.
KhulaSouthAfricandigitalcompanyin
RandburgSouthAfrica
Providesmentorshipforfarmersandconnectsthemtocustomers,
betteraccesstologistics,andsourceforlowcostfarminputs
throughagrouppurchase.
Agripredict
Developedbythreeindividuals
(PatrickSikalinda,CassandraMtine,
andMwizaSimbeye)
ZambiaProvidesinformationthathelpfarmerstoidentifycropdiseases,
predictpestinfestations,andweatherconditions.
uLimauLimaLimitedKenya
Providesaccesstocropandlivestockmanagementinformation,
weatherandmarketpriceinformation,andcustomisedcropand
livestockcalendarsforfarmers.
AgTagMagazineappSouthAfricaProvideswrittenarticles,videos,andaudiooncrops,livestock,
equipment,water,andsoilmanagementaswellasagro‐processing.
Nuru(Plant
Village)
DevelopedbyPennStateUniversity
researchersincollaborationwithUN
FAOandConsultativeGroupof
InternationalAgriculturalResearch
(CGIAR).Nuruisincorporatedintothe
PlantVillageapp.
ManyAfricancountries
Helpsfarmerstodiagnosecropdiseasesofcropslikecassava,
maize,wheat,andpotatoesinthefieldwithoutanInternet
connection.TheappinterfaceswiththeFAMEWSapptoupload
datacollectedfromthefield.Forexample,theapphelpfarmersto
validatedataonfallarmywormtothenationalfallarmywormfocal
pointsanddatabase.
RiceAdviceDevelopedbyAfricaRiceandCGIAR
underthenameRiceAdvice.22AfricancountriesProvidesfarmerswithfield‐specificcropmanagementguidelines
forriceproduction
AgrixTechNodetailsCameroonDetectscropdiseasesataprimarystageandproposestreatment
withtheuseofartificialintelligence.

Sustainability2020,12,48511of28
Labaroun
Kassoua
LabarounKassouainNigerisoneof
themAgriservicessupportedby
OrangeinAfrica
NigerOffersinformationandadviceonagriculturaltechniques,weather,
andaccesstomarketsandfinancialservicesforfarmers.
mAgri,Côte
d’Ivoire
mAgriinCôted’Ivoireisoneofthe
mAgriservicessupportedbyOrangein
Africa
Côted’IvoireProvidesinformationandadviceonweather,agricultural
approaches,accesstomarkets,andfinancialservices.
NaafaBuuduSupportedbyOrangeinAfricaBurkinaFasoOffersfarmersadviceonweather,marketprices,financialservices,
andagriculturaltechniques.
CowTribeCowtribetechnologycompanybased
inGhanaGhanaProvidessubscriptionbasedandon‐demandanimalvaccinesand
otherservicestolastmilefarmers.
Connected
Farmer
ProducedbytheConnectedFarmer
Alliance,apublic‐privatepartnership
betweenU.S.AgencyforInternational
Development(USAID)andVodafone
Kenya,Tanzania,and
Mozambique
Targetstoaddressthevaluechainmanagementinefficienciesand
increaseproductivityofboththeagribusinessesandthe
smallholderfarmerswhosupplythem.
Survey2018/19.
Table3.Launchdate,userreviews,anddownloadsofm‐AgriservicesavailableinAfricain2018/2019(accessedbetweenJanuary2018andOctober2019).
M‐AgriServiceYearLaunched
Appstore/GooglePlayMetrics
OtherData
AverageReviewerScore
(MaxScore=5)
Numberof
Reviews
Numberof
Downloads
Esoko2008nodatanodatanodata
Agrohub20094.771000+
M‐Farm2010nodata nodatanodata
KilimoSalama20104.7211000+
M‐Shamba20104.938100+Reports685,460farmersreached
iCow20113.65100+
MyAgro2011nodata2011nodataReports45,000downloads
Senekela2014nodatanodatanodataReports37,333users
WeFarm2014nodatanodatanodataReports1.9millionfarmersjoined
Farmdrive20144.25500+
mAgri,Côted’Ivoire2014nodatanodatanodata
HayVokra(HNI) 2014nodatanodatanodata
Bazar.mada 2014nodatanodatanodata
Hellotractor20152.9445000+
M‐Samaki2015nonenodatanodata

Sustainability2020,12,48512of28
EZ‐Farm2015nodatanodatanodata
PannarSprout20153.7355000+
Crowdyvest(Farmcrowdy)20163.822150,000+Reports25,000users
CowTribe2016nodata2016nodataReports29,000farmersin119communities
FertiliserOptimiserTool(FOT)2016551000+
MurimiUmlimi2017none0nodata
uLima20174.8291000+Reports20,000users
Agri‐wallet2018nonenodata50+Reports4000farmers,14suppliers,and25buyers
CocoaLink20185165000+
Agripredict2018nodatanodata22,000
PlantVillageNuru20184.4181000+
NARObeans201841100+
CommonCassavaDiseases&Control2018nonenone100+
NAROCageAquaculture2018nonenone500+
NAROMaizeProduction20183.761000+
AgrixTech 2019nodatanodatan/a
LabarounKassoua 2011(SMS)nodatanodatanodata
LimaLinks2011–2013,2016nodatanodatanodataPilotin2011–2013scaledupin2016
CROPMON2015–2019nodatanodatanodata
RiceAdvicec.20164.6231000+Reports20,000+users
Modistarc.2014nodatanodatanodata
AgTagc.20144.5745000+
VetAfricanodata3.5111000+
KuzaDoctornodatanodatanodatanodata
Hallerappnodatanodatanodatanodata
AgroTechnodatanodatanodatanodataReports500,687users
AGMIS(Infotrade)nodatanodatanodatanodata
Khulanodatanodatanodata2000+
nodata=nodatafoundinappstore,Facebook,Twitter,orwebsitesearches.none=noreviewsordownloadsrecordedinappstore.c.Year=indicatesthattheappis
documentedatthisdate,butthelaunchdateisnotknown.

Sustainability2020,12,48513of28
Globally,m‐Agriservices’contributionhasbeentoenhancetheefficiencyoftheagricultural
valuechain,asinformationdeliveredthroughm‐Agriservicescanhelpfarmers’accesstonew
technologyorinputsandassessitssuitabilityaswellasfacilitatefarmer‐to‐farmer/buyer
relationships,howtomanagefinancialandproductionrisk,andwheretoselltheirproduce[36,38].
Similarly,them‐Agriservicesidentifiedinthisreviewhadapositivecontributiontoimproved
smallholderfarmers’livelihoodbyfacilitatingtheiraccesstofinancialservices,whichenablesthem
toaccessandsourceagriculturalinformationaswellasinputandmarketingservices[71,72,88,89].
Thus,thefollowingsub‐sectionshighlightthetrendsandprogressmadeinthesecategories.Thekey
trendsincludem‐Agrifinancialservices,informationandsharing,andinputandmarketingservices.
Thesearediscussedinmoredetailbelow.
4.1.1.M‐AgriFinancialServices
AccordingtoMercyCorp[88],thetransitioningtoanduseofm‐Agrifinancialservicesby
smallholderfarmershasincreasedsafeandconvenienttransactionsinmanyAfricancountries.These
kindsofservicesopenupopportunitiesformanysmallholderfarmerswhoareexcludedfrom
mainstreamfinancialservicessuchasbankingandinsurance.Furthermore,theavailabilityofloans
andrepaymentviasuchplatformsincreasesfarmers’abilitytomanagetheirfinancesandinvestment
inagricultureaswellasimprovetheirrelationshipwithbankersandotherrelevantagricultural
stakeholders[29,73,90].Forinstance,farmersinWesternKenyawiththehelpofOneAcreFundcan
accessAgri‐Wallet,whichisanm‐Agrifinancialservicethatallowsthemtoborrowmoneytospend
ontheiragriculturalinputsandpaybacktheirloansdigitally.Thus,savingtravellingcoststo
extensionofficesandbanksaswellasimprovingtimemanagementandreducedcashcarrying[91].
Significantly,digitisingagriculturalpaymentsviamobilephoneshasthepotentialtoimprove
security,efficiency,andtransparency.Particularly,thereisanincreasingnumberofinitiatives,which
aimtoenhancethem‐Agrifinancialservices’valuechain,especiallyinsub‐SaharanAfricawithmajor
attentioninKenya,Rwanda,Tanzania,andUganda,andotherdynamicmarketssuchasGhanaand
theIvoryCoast[35].Examplesofm‐AgrifinanceappsincludeLabarounKassouainNigerand
FarmDriveinKenya.Accordingly,MercyCorps[88]reportedthatmorethan46%offarming
householdsuseanm‐AgrifinancialserviceproductinUgandaandattestedthatthishadresultedin
anincreaseinhouseholdincomes.Thisservicecansupportthecreationofeconomicidentitiesforthe
farmersthroughthetransactionalreportsandrecordsfromtheirproducesalesaswellasfor
geolocationsandfarmsize,whichcreatesfullfinancialinclusionfortheiraccesstocredit,savings
accounts,andinsurancefacilities[90].
4.1.2.M‐AgriInformationandKnowledgeSharingServices
AccordingtoBedi[71],m‐Agriservicesplayasignificantroleinenhancingfarmeraccessto
informationbecauseoftheirabilitytosupporttheretrievalofinformationfromitsrepositoryatthe
farmer’sconvenience.Specifically,informationandknowledgesharingcansupportbetter
agriculturalpracticesandskillsdevelopmentamongfarmers,whichresultsinincreasedproductivity
aswellasenableseasieraccesstoproductcertificationrequirements[74,90].Baumüller[29]pointed
outthatadviceonfarmingpracticesisthemosteasilyprovidedagriculturalinformationforfarmers
throughmobilephoneservices.Inadditiontothis,informationontheweatherforecast,monitoring,
andcropdiseasescanthenbetterequiptheminunderstandingandmanagingrisks.Thus,thishelps
themsaveandimprovetheirproductivity.Forinstance,theSenekelaOrangeinitiativeisaservice
establishedinMalithatprovidesfarmers’accesstoupdatedagriculturaladvicesuchasstock
availability,productmarketprices,andweatherpredictions.Crowdsourcinginformationthrough
mobilephoneapplications,suchasthatprovidedbyNuru,adigitalearlywarningnetworkishelping
farmerstopreventtheoutbreakofcassavadiseasesinTanzania[92].InaCTA(TechnicalCentrefor
AgriculturalandRuralCooperation)report,asimilarserviceallowsfarmerstoaccessreal‐time,
location,andspecificinformationregardingtheirfarmingqueriesandprovidingadviceregarding
cropandlivestockmanagementduringthecriticalstagesofdevelopment,whichalsoaidslearning
[93].Trainingisthecornerstoneoffutureagricultureandcapacitybuildingforfarmers,withtraining

Sustainability2020,12,48514of28
informationcontentandresearchcontributingtoariseinagriculturalinnovations.Potentially,
innovationscanbedisseminatedandpromotedamongfarmersmorerapidlythroughm‐Agri
informationandknowledge‐sharingplatforms[29,94].Inanevaluationofthem‐AgriserviceTigo
KilimoinTanzania,carriedoutbyGSMA[89],theattitudesandbehaviourofusersoftheappwere
comparedtonon‐users.TheresultsshowedthatTigoKilimousersweremorewillingtochangetheir
farmingpracticesbyshiftingfromonecroppingsystemtoadoptingdiversificationapproachesin
growingmorevarietiesofcrops.
4.1.3.M‐AgriInputandMarketingServices
Increasingglobalisationandmarketderegulationindevelopingcountriesoftenresultsin
pressureonsmallholderfarmerstolowertheirprices.Forfarmers,greaterawarenessaboutthe
politicsofagriculturalproducts’pricing,marketing,andtradeallowsthemtobetterdealwiththese
pressures.M‐Agriservicescanprovidethemwithtimelyaccesstoinformationandbetteraccessto
inputandoutputservices[72].Basically,farmerstendtobemorereceptivewheninformationis
tailoredtospecificcontextstosupporttheirneedswiththeviewofreducingcostaswellasincreasing
efficiencyandproductivity[72,75].M‐Agriservicescanfacilitatethedisseminationofinformation
aboutinputsuppliersandinputpricesaswellasprovideplatformsforinputtradingandbargaining,
whichcanhelpfarmersevaluatetheprofitabilityandobtainhigherpricesforproduce[29,76].
Furthermore,accesstomarketpricinginformationishelpingfarmersimprovetheirharvestplanning.
Forinstance,theappm‐farmhelpsfarmersinKenyatomakeinformeddecisionsaboutthebest
harvest,sellingtimes,andpricing[36].Besidesallowingfarmerstoobtainmarketpriceinformation,
them‐farmalsoenablesupplierstopubliciseproductinformationonspecialofferstothefarmers[32].
SomestudiesintheAfricanregionaffirmedthatm‐Agriinterventionsledtogreatersavings,
increaseinproducesales,increaseinhouseholdincome,farmers’confidenceandtrust,financial
security,farmmanagement,increasedaccesstoinputs,increasedbargainingpower,andsocial
cohesionforsmallholderfarmers[29,36,76–78].However,thetypeofsolutions,range,and
complexityvary,assomeprovidersoffercompleteplatformswithmultiplefunctionalitiesandothers
targetsingleorspecificissueswiththeaimofimprovingsmallholders’livelihoods.Themaintenance
oftheseacclaimedpositiveimpactsrequiresaconsistentandunifiedapproachbytheproject
initiators,servicedevelopers,funders[publicandprivateinvestors],implementers,researchers,
Internetproviders,non‐governmentagencies,policymakers,andthefarmers.Hence,itisimperative
tounderstandthechallengesthataffectsuchinitiativesaswellastocomprehendthestrategiesthat
canimprovetheirsustainability.
4.2.TheChallengesforM‐AgriServicesinAfrica
Thisreviewfurtherrevealedthat,despitethepositiveimpactsandopportunitiesform‐Agri
serviceinitiativestowardtheenhancementofsmallholderfarmers’livelihoodinAfrica,therealityis
thatnotallofthesem‐Agriappsaresustainableoverthelongterm.AccordingtoLaurey’s[92],
lessonsshowthatexaggeratedexpectationsplacedonsuchservicescanleadtofrustrationand
abandonment.Iftheyarenotwelldesigned,clearlyintegratedinto,andadaptedtotheirprospective
users’lifeprocesses,theywillnotsurvive.Furthermore,complementaryinvestmentsinelectricity
andliteracyprogramscanaffectthescalingupofinitiativesforsmallholderfarming.Forexample,
theadoptionanduseofthee‐Walletservicethatenablesfarmerstomakemoreinformedfarm
managementdecisions(whereandhowtobuyfertiliserandseeds)inNigeriawasconstrainedbya
poorelectricitysupplyresultinginmanyfarmersabandoningitsuse[70,79].Applicationsthatfailed
toconsidertheirtargetusers’literacylevelwerealsolikelytobeabandoned,wherethetargetfarmers
havealowliteracylevelandstruggletointeractwiththeapp.Atext‐basedapplicationmaybe
severelylimitedtosucceeddespitethegoodintentionsifthetargetusersfinditdifficulttoreadand
understandthecontent[89].Anexampleisn’kalôinCôted’Ivoire,whichprovidedmarket
informationtocashewproducers.Thiswasforcedtoclosedowneventuallybecausethetargetusers
founditdifficulttoengagewiththecontent[95].Beyondbasicliteracy,skillssuchastheInternet
skillsneededforsomeofthem‐Agriservicesaresometimeslacking,whichwasestimatedin2016by

Sustainability2020,12,48515of28
theWorldBankreportingthat7in10peopleinAfricawhodonotfullyutilisetheirInternetaccount
affirmedthattheydonotknowhowtouseiteffectively,whilefourinfivemobilephoneownershave
simplephonesthatarenotcapableofbrowsingtheInternet[32],bearinginmindthatfarmersare
amongthesepeople.
Theonesizefitsallapproachcansometimesbeadistractionthatcancausetheimplementersto
focusmoreonthetechnologyandignorethespecificdemandsandprioritiesoftheproposedusers
[80,96].Forinstance,manyusersofTigoKilimoreportedthattherewaslimitedinformationonawider
varietyofcropsonagronomyinformation.Inaddition,theyechoedthatfinancialinformationshould
beincorporatedintotheservice[89].Theneglectofintegratingthedeepunderstandingofthetarget
users’culturewhendesigningoradaptingm‐Agriinitiativesispartofthechallengesthataffect
sustainabilityasuserstendtoloseinterestinsuchinitiatives[41,53,70].Scaling‐uptheinitiativecan
bechallengingwhenthereisalackofrelevanceinthecontentforthetargetusersortheeffectiveness
ofthecommunicationstyle[81].Forexample,theuseofforeignlanguagessuchasEnglishinnon‐
Englishspeakingcountriesmayneglecttheappropriateculturalcontextofthehostcommunity
[66,69].M‐Agriservicesmayalsobedoomedtofailiftheimplementersdonotconsiderthecostfor
sustainabilityrightfromthebeginningoftheproject.Servicesprovidedfreeofchargetofarmersin
thepilotstagecouldprovedifficulttocontinueafterthedonorsleftwithoutrevenue.Atypical
exampleistheM‐Kilimo,aKenyanfarmerhelpline(nolongerfunctioning),wheretheserviceis
aimedtoaddresstheweaknessesintheavailabilityofextensionservicesusingavailablenetworksin
Kenya,whichchargedastandardnetworkrate.Theservicewasinitiallysuccessfulafterthefirst
threeyears(2009–2011),butwasabandonedduetothehighcostoftheoperationasfarmersfoundit
difficulttobearthecostforalongertime[93,97].
Trusthasproventobeacriticalfactorindeterminingthesuccessofanygivenproject.The
farmerstendtobeskepticalwithtrustinganexternalorganisationsuchasthegovernmentorthose
intheprivatesector[82].AsBaumüller[36]andAkeretal.[80]pointout,gettingthefarmerstotrust
theinformationprovidedtothemcanbedifficult.Thiscanaffecttheprogressofsuchservicesaswell
asthecontentsandcouldpresentasuspiciousnotioninawaythatiseitherreliableand
understandable.Inaddition,giventhatsmallholderfarmers’incomeisoftenlowespeciallyamong
farmerslivingintheruralareas,suchfarmerscanbeunwillingtopayform‐Agriservicesaswellas
payforthecostsassociatedwithusingtheapplication[41,80].Acomprehensivebusinessmodelboth
for‐profitandnon‐profitm‐Agriservices,whichcanguaranteesuchservicestoexistindependently
ofexternalfundinginthefutureissometimesignored.Bysodoing,itcanaffectthedevelopment
[36].Inaddition,datasecurityandprivacy,i.e.,thefearofdigitalcrimeandidentitytheftcanbea
concernforthefarmersintheircontinuoususeofm‐Agriinitiatives,especiallywiththeservicesthat
aresupportedbysmartphones,whichgenerallyhavethetendencyofcollectingvariedsensitivedata.
Moreover,poorcommitmentandcollaborativeeffortsofthegovernmentsinimplementingadequate
policiesthatsupportthevariedstakeholdersposesasignificantchallengetosuchinitiatives[98].
Certainly,someofthesechallengestom‐Agriservicesaremoredifficulttoovercomethan
others.However,manyoftheseissuescanbeaddressedbytakingamoreparticipatoryapproach,in
whichkeystakeholderscombineforcestoidentifyandadoptstrategiesthatcansupportthe
developmentanddesignofm‐Agriinitiatives.Someofthestrategiesthatwereadoptedbyvarious
m‐Agriservicestoimprovetheirrelevance,longevity,andsustainabilityarediscussedbelow.
4.3.StrategiesAdoptedbySomeoftheExistingM‐AgriInitiatives
Althoughagriculturaldevelopmentactivitiescontinuetofocusonmoretechnologically
advancedsystems,whichareknowledge‐intensive,thereisalsodemandformoresustainable
initiatives.Forsmallholderfarmerswhoarethetargetusersofmanysuchinterventions,
sustainabilityforthemmeansplacingtheirneedsatthecentreofeverym‐Agriserviceinitiative
[69,99].Someofthesem‐Agriserviceprovidershavealreadybeguntoimplementsomestrategies
thatcanenhancethesustainabilityoftheirproject.Inthesituationswheredigitalliteracymaybelow
amongthetargetusers,thedevelopersandtheirfundersmayhavetoworkdirectlywiththetarget
userstoenhancetheirskillinusingtheapplication.Forinstance,m‐farm,whichisaKenyanm‐Agri

Sustainability2020,12,48516of28
service,co‐optedateamofcontentmanagerswhodirectlyworkwiththefarmerswhodonotfully
understandtheuseoftheapplication.Theyactasmentorstothefarmersandteachthemthestep‐
by‐stepprocessoftheapplicationsothattheybecomeconversantwithitandareabletouseit
independentlyinthefuture.Wherethemainissueisanunreliableelectricitypowersupply,theOne
AcreFundprovidedthetargetuserswithsolar‐poweredphonechargersoncredittohelpaddress
this[117].
Similarly,WeFarm,whichoperatesinKenyaandUganda,adoptedthestrategyofusing
crowdsourcedknowledgethroughamessageservicetogiveremotefarmersaccesstoagricultural
informationwithoutusingInternetfacilities[115].Thismethodhasenabledtheapplicationproviders
toconnecttomorethan1.1millionusersacrossKenyaandUganda.Thisservicealsoallowsthe
farmerstoaskquestionsinanylanguage,and,therefore,directlyaddressesoneofthebarriersto
long‐termusagebythefarmers.Thisiswherethefarmersarenotconversantwiththelanguageused
fortheservice.
Thesustainabilityofagivenprojectalsoneedstoconsidertheeconomicaspects.Thequestion
ofwhetherornottochargeendusersfeesisthesubjectofdebateanddependsonthebusinessmodel
[80].Manym‐Agriservicestakeabusiness‐to‐customerapproachwithabusiness‐oriented
perspective,thisiswherechargingtheendusersafeeforagivenserviceseemsreasonableto
maintaintheinitiative.Servicesthatrelyondirectrevenuefromtargetuserscanonlyattainfiscal
sustainabilitybyscale[83,84].Someofthesem‐Agriservicesadoptedthisstrategytoenhancethe
sustainabilityoftheirservice.Forexample,the‘ConnectedFarmer’thatoperatesinKenya,Tanzania,
andMozambique,whichofferscombinedservicessuchasagronomicinformation,aweather
forecast,andmarketplaceservices,adoptedtheservicebundlemodelthroughthegenerationof
incomefromsellingproductsandservicesforagribusinessesaswellassellingdataandmarket
researchsurvey.Inthiscase,theagribusinessclientspayamonthlychargetoaccessfarmerdata
[100].Similarly,iCowchargesitsusersKES9($0.09)toreceivethreeshortmessageservicetipsper
week.Thismeansthattheservice’sfiscalsustainabilityisensuredwitharegularrecurringrevenue
of$150,000fromitsregularusers[101].Inthiscase,thehigherthenumberofusers,themorethe
servicebecomesfinanciallysustainable.However,thebusiness‐to‐customerapproachcanbedifficult
toachieveinpracticeasmanyfarmershavelowdisposableincomes.Manytimes,theirabilityand
willingnesstopaydoesnotalwaystranslateintorealpayment[80].Anexampleofsuchadilemma
istheTigoKilimo’sexperiencewhennewusersandrepeatusersoftheserviceincreasedaftertheir
shortmessageservicefeewasremoved.Eventhoughthefarmerswhousedtheserviceexpressed
theirwillingnesstopayasmallamountinasurvey,themajoritydidnotsignupuntilthefeewas
removed[89].
Giventhatm‐Agriservicescanbeacomplexsystemoftechnologies,itisimportanttoclearly
anddistinctivelydefinethedesignandmanagementofthetechnologies.Itisoftendifficultfor
implementersofthesem‐Agriservicestounderstandtheexactneedsofthefarmersandtoassess
howbestisbestenoughfortheapplications’everydayuse.Thismay,intheshort‐term,leadto
advancesthatfailtotacklethemajorareasoffarmers’needordeliverover‐performinginterventions
thatmaybeunnecessarilyexorbitant[80].Therefore,acloserrelationshipandcontinuous
communicationwiththeendusersandotherkeystakeholderswillhelptoensurethatthevalueis
gainedfromtheinitiative.Thiscanbeachievedbydrawinginsightfromtheprinciplesfordigital
developmentandadaptingtothefollowing<