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A Thyroid Genetic Classifier Correctly Predicts Benign Nodules with Indeterminate Cytology: Two Independent, Multicenter, Prospective Validation Trials

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Background: Although most thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology are benign, in most of the world surgery remains as the most frequent diagnostic management. We have previously reported a 10-gene thyroid genetic classifier which accurately predicts benign thyroid nodules. The assay is a prototype diagnostic kit suitable for reference laboratory testing and could potentially avoid unnecessary diagnostic surgery in patients with indeterminate thyroid cytology. Methods: Classifier performance was tested in two independent, ethnically diverse, prospective, multicenter trials (TGCT-1/Chile and TGCT-2/USA). A total of 4061 fine-needle aspirations were collected from 15 institutions of which 897 (22%) were called indeterminate. The clinical site was blind to the classifier score and the clinical laboratory blind to pathology report. A matched surgical pathology and valid classifier score was available for 270 samples. Results: Cohorts showed significant differences including; i) clinical site patient source (academic, 43% and 97% for TGCT-1 and 2, respectively), ii) ethnic diversity, with greater proportion of Hispanic (40% vs 3%) for TGCT-1 and greater proportion of African-American (11% vs 0%) and Asian (10% vs 1%) population for TGCT-2, and iii) tumor size, (mean of 1.7 cm and 2.5 cm for TGCT-1 and -2, respectively). Overall, there were no differences in the histopathological profile between cohorts. Forty-one of 155 and 45 of 115 nodules were malignant (cancer prevalence of 26% and 39% for TGCT 1 and 2, respectively). The classifier predicted 37 of 41 and 41 of 45 malignant nodules, yielding a sensitivity of 90% (95% confidence interval CI 77-97%) and 91% (95% CI 79-98%) for TGCTs 1 and 2, respectively. One hundred and one of 114 and 61 of 70 nodules were correctly predicted as benign yielding a specificity of 89% (95% CI 82-94%) and 87% (95% CI 77-94%), respectively. The negative predictive values for TGCT-1 and TGCT-2 were 96% and 94%, respectively, whereas the positive predictive values were 74% and 82%, respectively. The overall accuracy for both cohorts was 89%. Conclusions: Clinical validation of the classifier demonstrates equivalent performance in two independent and ethnically diverse cohorts, accurately predicting benign thyroid nodules that can undergo surveillance as an alternative to diagnostic surgery.
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A Thyroid Genetic Classifier Correctly Predicts
Benign Nodules with Indeterminate Cytology:
Two Independent, Multicenter, Prospective Validation Trials
Mark Zafereo,
1,
*Bryan McIver,
2
Sergio Vargas-Salas,
3
Jose´ Miguel Domı´nguez,
4
David L. Steward,
5
F. Christopher Holsinger,
6
Emad Kandil,
7
Michelle Williams,
8
Francisco Cruz,
9
Soledad Loyola,
9
Antonieta Solar,
10
Juan Carlos Roa,
10
Augusto Leo´n,
3
Nicola´ s Droppelman,
3
Maite Lobos,
11
Tatiana Arias,
12
Christina S. Kong,
13
Naifa Busaidy,
14
Elizabeth G. Grubbs,
15
Paul Graham,
15
John Stewart,
8
Alice Tang,
5
Jiang Wang,
16
Lisa Orloff,
6
Marcela Henrı´quez,
17
Marcela Lagos,
17
Miren Osorio,
18
Dina Schachter,
18
Carmen Franco,
18
Francisco Medina,
18
Nelson Wohllk,
19
Rene´ E. Diaz,
19
Jesu´ s Veliz,
19
Eleonora Horvath,
20
Herna´ n Tala,
20
Pedro Pineda,
21
Patricia Arroyo,
22
Fe´ lix Vasquez,
22
Eufrosina Traipe,
23
Luis Marı´n,
23
Giovanna Miranda,
3
Elsa Bruce,
3
Milagros Bracamonte,
3
Natalia Mena,
3
and Herna´ n E. Gonza´ lez
3,
*
Background: Although most thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology are benign, in most of the world,
surgery remains as the most frequent diagnostic approach. We have previously reported a 10-gene thyroid
genetic classifier, which accurately predicts benign thyroid nodules. The assay is a prototype diagnostic kit
suitable for reference laboratory testing and could potentially avoid unnecessary diagnostic surgery in patients
with indeterminate thyroid cytology.
Methods: Classifier performance was tested in two independent, ethnically diverse, prospective multicenter
trials (TGCT-1/Chile and TGCT-2/USA). A total of 4061 fine-needle aspirations were collected from 15
institutions, of which 897 (22%) were called indeterminate. The clinical site was blind to the classifier score and
the clinical laboratory blind to the pathology report. A matched surgical pathology and valid classifier score was
available for 270 samples.
Results: Cohorts showed significant differences, including (i) clinical site patient source (academic, 43% and
97% for TGCT-1 and -2, respectively); (ii) ethnic diversity, with a greater proportion of the Hispanic population
(40% vs. 3%) for TGCT-1 and a greater proportion of African American (11% vs. 0%) and Asian (10% vs. 1%)
populations for TGCT-2; and (iii) tumor size (mean of 1.7 and 2.5 cm for TGCT-1 and -2, respectively).
Departments of
1
Head and Neck Surgery,
14
Endocrine Neoplasia,
15
Surgical Oncology; and
8
Division of Pathology/Lab Medicine,
Department of Pathology; University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA.
2
Department of Head and Neck–Endocrine Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, USA.
Departments of
3
Surgical Oncology and
4
Endocrinology, Pontificia Universidad Cato
´lica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
5
Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery;
16
Department of Pathology; University of Cincinnati Medical Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
6
Division of Head and Neck Surgery, Department of Otolaryngology;
13
Department of Pathology; Stanford University, Palo
Alto, California, USA.
7
Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
Departments of
9
Radiology,
10
Pathology, and
17
Laboratory Medicine; Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile,
Santiago, Chile.
11
Centro Diagnostico Plaza Italia, Santiago, Chile.
12
Clinica UC San Carlos, Santiago, Chile.
18
Clinica Santa Maria Santiago de Chile;
19
Hospital del Salvador; Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
20
Clı
´nica Alemana de Santiago, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
21
Hospital Clı
´nico Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
22
Hospital San Juan de Dios, Santiago, Chile.
23
Instituto Oncolo
´gico Fundacio
´n Arturo Lo
´pez Pe
´rez, Santiago, Chile.
*These authors contributed equally to this article.
ªMark Zafereo et al. 2020; Published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. This Open Access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
THYROID
Volume 30, Number 5, 2020
Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/thy.2019.0490
704
Overall, there were no differences in the histopathological profile between cohorts. Forty-one of 155 and 45 of
115 nodules were malignant (cancer prevalence of 26% and 39% for TGCT-1 and -2, respectively). The
classifier predicted 37 of 41 and 41 of 45 malignant nodules, yielding a sensitivity of 90% [95% confidence
interval; CI 77–97] and 91% [95% CI 79–98] for TGCT-1 and -2, respectively. One hundred one of 114 and 61
of 70 nodules were correctly predicted as benign, yielding a specificity of 89% [95% CI 82–94] and 87% [95%
CI 77–94], respectively. The negative predictive values for TGCT-1 and TGCT-2 were 96% and 94%, re-
spectively, whereas the positive predictive values were 74% and 82%, respectively. The overall accuracy for
both cohorts was 89%.
Conclusions: Clinical validation of the classifier demonstrates equivalent performance in two independent and
ethnically diverse cohorts, accurately predicting benign thyroid nodules that can undergo surveillance as an
alternative to diagnostic surgery.
Keywords: indeterminate thyroid cytology, gene classifier, clinical validation
Introduction
The prevalence of thyroid nodules in the adult pop-
ulation reaches up to 65% (1). Expanded access to
high-resolution ultrasound has significantly increased the
identification of thyroid nodules and the number of fine-
needle aspiration biopsies performed (2). A current limitation
of cytological evaluation of fine-needle aspiration biopsies is
that *20–25% are reported as indeterminate (3,4). Since
these patients have a 15–25% risk of malignancy (3,4), they
represent a significant challenge for clinical management.
Current guidelines suggest that molecular testing may be
used to supplement malignancy risk assessment in lieu of
proceeding directly with a strategy of either surveillance or
diagnostic surgery (5). The emergence of precision medicine
has provided new options intended to predict the risk of
malignancy of thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology
(6,7). Currently, molecular tests are based on two approaches.
One that rules in malignancy based on detection of specific
DNA mutations and/or chromosomal rearrangements (8) has
demonstrated high specificity and positive predictive value
(PPV) to identify patients who would benefit from surgery
(5). The second rules out malignancy based on genomic se-
quencing analysis, where a high negative predictive value
(NPV) makes it possible to safely recommend surveillance
(9). Tests able to rule in and rule out malignancy have been
described. Such tests can reduce the need for surgery in low-
risk patients while providing guidance for surgery in high-
risk cases (10–12).
Currently, most of the molecular testing for indeterminate
thyroid cytology is offered in the United States through
centralized laboratories, which have in-house laboratory-
developed tests. This significantly limits the access to mo-
lecular testing in the rest of the world where, in the absence of
a diagnostic kit for local reference testing, surgery remains
the most frequent choice for thyroid nodules with indeter-
minate cytology. We have recently reported the development
of a 10-gene thyroid genetic classifier that accurately predicts
benign thyroid nodules with an NPV of 96% and specificity
of 87% and could potentially avoid more than 80% of un-
necessary surgeries (13). The assay is built into a multiplexed
quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) diagnostic kit
format with a level of technical complexity that is suitable for
reference laboratory testing (13). Clearance of a distributable
kit by the Food and Drug Administration requires several
stages of validation, including analytical and clinical studies
to build an appropriate dossier for regulatory approval. In this
study, we present the results of two independent, interna-
tional, prospective, multicenter validation trials demonstrat-
ing a robust and consistent performance of the classifier
across an ethnically diverse population.
Methods
Study population and protocol
Patients undergoing a fine-needle aspiration biopsy for a
thyroid nodule at 15 sites from Chile and the United States
were enrolled in two independent, prospective multicenter
trials (Clinicaltrials.gov. TGCT-1/Chile-NCT03061318 and
TGCT-2/USA-NTC03309631). Protocols were approved by
local institutional ethics committees and enrolled participants
provided written informed consent. Eligible patients (>18
years old with a thyroid nodule size of 10 mm or more) un-
dergoing fine-needle aspiration were recruited from both
community and academic centers. At the time of the proce-
dure, two additional needle passes were collected and placed
in RNAprotect Cell Reagent (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany).
Samples were transported to the laboratory in a temperature-
controlled system. Indeterminate samples underwent RNA
extraction, followed by cDNA synthesis, and were stored at
-20C (Supplementary Data). Data collected included de-
mographics and ultrasound thyroid nodule characteristics
(most importantly location and size). Cytology was reported
according to the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid
Cytopathology (3). For each trial, the surgical pathology re-
port was provided by a central expert pathologist ( J.C.R. and
M.W.) review. Results of the classifier were not communi-
cated to the patient, pathologist, or treating physician. For
final analysis, surgical pathology reports of malignant, non-
invasive, follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nu-
clear features (NIFTP) (14) and follicular or Hu
¨rthle lesion of
undetermined malignant potential were considered as re-
quiring surgical management. The deidentified pathology
reports and classifier scores were independently uploaded to
an electronic capture system to keep the clinical site blind to
the classifier score and the clinical laboratory blind to the
pathology report through a password-protected system. Pa-
thology reports were matched to the corresponding classifier
result by an independent third party. Sequential sample ex-
clusion steps are shown in Figure 1.
CLINICAL VALIDATION WITH A THYROID GENETIC CLASSIFIER 705
FIG. 1. Exclusion process
flowchart. Color images are
available online.
706
Gene expression analysis
Normalization and preprocessing of qPCR data are de-
scribed in the Supplementary Data. The locked classifier al-
gorithm was derived from a training set comprising cases
from Chile (169 samples), including the pooled cohort from
our previous discovery study (13) (120 samples), and 49
randomly selected patients from the TGCT-1 trial (Supple-
mentary Data). Scores from the remaining TGCT-1 set and
all TGCT-2 samples were generated using the previously
locked 10-gene classifier.
Statistical analyses
Sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve were es-
timated by receiver operating characteristic curves. PPVs and
NPVs were estimated by Bayes’ theorem. Multiple compar-
ison tests were performed using Tukey’s range test. Differ-
ences in proportions were evaluated using the z-test, while
continuous variables were assessed for differences by the
Mann–Whitney Utest, and multiple comparisons were per-
formed using the Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc
correction. Two-sided p-values of less than 0.05 were con-
sidered to indicate statistical significance. Confidence inter-
vals (CIs) are reported as two-sided 95%. All statistical
analyses were performed using the SPSS, v15.0, software
(SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL), and plotting was performed using
GraphPad, v7.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA).
Results
Characteristics of patients, thyroid nodules, and gene
expression profiles
The basic demographic and thyroid nodule characteris-
tics are shown in Table 1. The clinical performance of the
classifier was validated by prospectively collecting 4061 fine-
needle aspirations, of which 897 (22.0%) were called inde-
terminate (455 Bethesda III and 442 Bethesda IV) (Fig. 1).
The final validation cohort of 270 cases was not statistically
different from the 897 indeterminate cases initially enrolled—
in age, sex, and thyroid nodule size (Supplementary Table S2).
Furthermore, the composition of the surgical pathology of
the final validation set was not significantly changed by
the different stages of patient exclusion (Supplementary
Table S3). The final validation set included 66% of cases
from academic centers and 34% from community centers
(Table 1). Although, both cohorts had a high proportion of
white subjects (>50%), TGCT-1 had a higher proportion of
Hispanics (40% vs. 3%), while TGCT-2 had a higher pro-
portion of African American (11% vs. 0%) and Asian (10%
vs. 1%) subjects (Table 1).
After a maximum follow-up of 4 months, a total of 441
patients underwent surgical resection (189 Bethesda III and
252 Bethesda IV) (Fig. 1). Of the 441 cases with an available
surgical pathology report, 102 samples did not pass the pre-
analytical (80) and analytical (22) quality control criteria
(Fig. 1). In the first half of the trial, 86.4% of FNA samples
Table 1. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Study Cohorts
Variable
Cohorts
TGCT-1 TGCT-2 Total
Total
Patients 155 115 270
FNAs 155 115 270
Sites
Academic 67 43% 111 97%* 178 66%
Community 88 57% 4 3%* 92 34%
Age, years
Mean 49.4 51.8 50.2
Range 19–80 20–85 18–85
Sex
Male 19 12% 20 21% 39 14%
Female 136 88% 95 79% 231 86%
Race/ethnicity
White 79 51% 84 73%* 163 60%
African American 0 0% 13 11%* 13 5%
Hispanic 62 40% 4 3%* 66 24%
Asian 1 1% 11 10%* 12 4%
Other 13 8% 3 3% 16 6%
Nodules
Median size (cm) 1.7 2.5 2.1
Range size (cm) 1.0–6.1 1.0–8.5 1.0–8.5
1.0–1.99 93 60% 42 37%* 135 50%
2.0–2.99 34 22% 32 28% 66 24%
3.0–3.99 16 10% 15 13% 31 11%
4.0 12 8% 26 23%* 38 14%
*p<0.05 TGCT-1 versus TGCT-2.
CLINICAL VALIDATION WITH A THYROID GENETIC CLASSIFIER 707
had sufficient RNA for testing, which improved up to 95.7%
the sample RNA yield in the second half of the study.
A successful qPCR informative valid classifier score was
achieved in 319 (204 cases in TGCT-1 and 115 cases in
TGCT-2) of 340 (94%) samples that passed preanalytical
quality control (Fig. 1). Before final analysis, 49 samples
(23%) from the TGCT-1 cohort were randomly assigned to
the training set (Fig. 1). The demographics, nodule sizes, and
Bethesda diagnoses of assigned samples were not different
from the validation set (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table S2).
The final validation set comprised 270 cases (155/TGCT-1
and 115/TGCT-2) (Fig. 1).
Comparison of the differential expression for the 10 genes
(CXCR3,CCR3,CXCL10,KRT19,TIMP1,CLDN1,CXADR,
XMOX130,AFAP1L2, and CCR7) (13) between surgically
treated tumors and nonsurgical lesions showed that the sig-
nature followed a similar expression profile for both cohorts
(Supplementary Fig. S1).
Performance of the thyroid genetic classifier
To assess classifier performance, the surgical pathologic
diagnoses were grouped to align with clinical management as
nonsurgical (benign) or surgical (malignant, NIFTP, and
follicular or Hu
¨rthle lesion of undetermined malignant po-
tential) entities based on the final pathologic diagnosis and
central review (Table 3). Classifier analysis of the expression
of 10 genes provided a score for each sample that was cate-
gorized as benign or suspicious for malignancy.
A summary of the classifier performance in the 270 mat-
ched samples (classifier score/surgical pathology) is shown in
Table 2. The classifier predicted 37 of 41 and 41 of 45 sur-
gical samples (sensitivity of 90% [95% CI 77–97] and 91%
[95% CI 79–98], respectively) and 101 of 114 and 61 of 70
nonsurgical samples (specificity of 89% CI, 82–94, and 87%
CI, 77–94, respectively) for the TGCT-1 and TGCT-2 co-
horts, respectively. Overall, the benign call rate for both
cohorts was 63%. In the pooled subset of samples reported as
Bethesda III, the sensitivity was 91% [95% CI 66–100] and
specificity was 92% [95% CI 71–94]. For samples reported as
Bethesda IV, the sensitivity was 91% [95% CI 79–97) and
specificity was 85% [95% CI 76–91]. Cancer prevalence for
Bethesda subcategories III and IV and across all samples
was 28%, 35%, and 32%, respectively, yielding NPVs of
96%, 94%, and 95% and PPVs of 81%, 76%, and 78%, re-
spectively. The classifier incorrectly called 22 false positive
cases, of which 14 were benign follicular nodules (9 fol-
licular hyperplasia and 5 colloid nodules), 5 follicular
adenomas, 2 Hu
¨rthle cell adenomas, and 1 case of chronic
thyroiditis (Table 3). The test correctly predicted a repre-
sentative spectrum of surgical histopathology subtypes
commonly seen in indeterminate cytology, including papil-
lary thyroid cancers (usual type and follicular variants). Other
lesions that were correctly predicted to be surgical included
follicular thyroid and Hu
¨rthle cell carcinoma, metastatic re-
nal carcinoma, NIFTP, and follicular/Hu
¨rthle lesions of un-
determined malignant potential. Due to the absence of
medullary thyroid cancers (MTC) in the final validation sets,
the performance of the classifier was evaluated in a separate
set of FNA samples reported as MTC that were collected in
the TGCT-1 trial, where the classifier predicted 100% of
cases as surgical (Supplementary Table S4). False negative
cases included 5 papillary thyroid carcinomas (2 conven-
tional type and 3 follicular variant—encapsulated), none of
which had aggressive features (lymph node metastasis or
extrathyroidal extension). Other false negatives included 2
follicular carcinomas and 1 Hu
¨rthle cell carcinoma, all of
which were minimally invasive (Supplementary Table S5).
A dot plot of individual scores shows that 8 of 162 (5%)
correctly classified nonsurgical and 0 of 78 (0%) of correctly
classified surgical cases had a score value within the 10%
range of the cutoff score (0.1–0.3) where the highest risk of
misclassification occurs (Fig. 2A). Bayes’ theorem analysis
showed that within a disease prevalence of 20–40%, the
classifier showed a minimum PPV and NPV of 70% and 94%,
respectively (Fig. 2B).
Discussion
This study reports the prospective clinical validation of a
previously described thyroid genetic classifier (13). In two
large, independent multicenter trials, we show that the clas-
sifier predicts benign thyroid nodules with an NPV of 95%
and can identify true negative cases with an 88% specificity
in the intended use population. Our data show strong evi-
dence that the classifier provides the NPV needed to safely
inform the benign nature of an indeterminate nodule while
identifying 88% of avoidable surgeries for histologically
benign cases. A key question addressed in this study is the
generalizability of the classifier given the inherent risk of
genetic heterogeneity between ethnically diverse popula-
tions. In this study, we show equivalent performance of the
classifier in two independent cohorts with different ethnic
population composition. Furthermore, for both cohorts, the
differential gene expression profiles follow the same pattern,
providing evidence of the robustness of the signature (Sup-
plementary Fig. S1). The robust performance of the classifier
is also shown by a dot plot where composite scores are ef-
fectively separated and a very low percent of cases fall close
to the range of the cutoff score, reducing the risk of analytical
uncertainty. Furthermore, despite the significant difference of
disease prevalence between cohorts (26% TGCT-1 and 39%
TGCT-2; Table 2), the NPV remained in the safety limit of
94% in the higher range of disease prevalence and the PPV
remained above 70% in the lower limit of disease prevalence
(Table 2 and Fig. 2B).
The diagnostic performance of the classifier showed high
accuracy in a broad spectrum of cases that require surgical
management, including papillary thyroid carcinomas (con-
ventional and follicular variants), follicular carcinomas,
Hu
¨rthle cell carcinomas, and NIFTP. Accurately predicting
Hu
¨rthle cell lesions has been a challenge for molecular test-
ing. The classifier predicted 7 of 8 (sensitivity of 88%) sur-
gical Hu
¨rthle cell lesions (6 carcinomas and 1 undetermined
malignant potential) and 8 of 10 (specificity of 80%) non-
surgical Hu
¨rthle cell lesions. Although the percent of Hu
¨rthle
cell carcinomas in this study was relative low (8%), the
performance in this tumor subtype is comparable with the
Afirma genomic sequencing classifier and ThyroSeq v3 as-
says, which have reported a sensitivity of 89% and 100% for
surgical lesions and a specificity of 59% and 62% for non-
surgical lesions, respectively (9,12). A limitation of this study
is the absence of MTC, limiting the conclusions that can be
drawn with respect to this subtype of tumors in the
708 ZAFEREO ET AL.
indeterminate setting. However, analysis in four non-
indeterminate fine-needle aspiration samples showed the
ability of the classifier to predict 100% MTC, providing in-
direct evidence of its ability to capture these tumors (Sup-
plementary Table S4). The classifier does not have specific
biomarkers for Hu
¨rthle cell lesions or MTC given that the
classifier was designed to predict benign rather than malig-
nant histology. In fact, the algorithm identifies the interac-
tions in the expression between inflammatory and epithelial
genes composing the signature to generate a robust benign
profile, avoiding the need to depend on a complex and het-
erogeneous malignant gene expression profile (13).
False negative cases in this study did not have worrisome
histopathological features, were pathologically low-risk tu-
mors according to the American Thyroid Association, and
followed a similar pattern of false negatives reported by the
Afirma and ThyroSeq v3 tests (9,12). Therefore, from a
clinical perspective, it can be presumed that the overall risk to
patients associated with false negative diagnoses is low, more
so considering that patients with thyroid nodules will con-
tinue to require a follow-up schedule based on current
guidelines and recommendations (5).
This study has several strengths. First, a meaningful pro-
portion of samples were collected from both academic (66%)
and community (34%) centers, reducing potential selection
bias associated with tertiary academic centers. Second, 8 of
15 sites enrolled more than 10% of cases, where all, except 1,
showed a disease prevalence ranging between 18% and 43%,
Table 2. Performance of Thyroid Genetic Classifier
TGCT-1, Bethesda III and IV (n=155, disease prevalence 26%)
Result Surgical (41) Nonsurgical (114) Test performance, % [95% CI]
Suspicious 37 13 Sensitivity, 90 (77–97)
Specificity, 89 (82–94)
Benign 4 101 NPV, 96 (91–98)
PPV, 74 (63–83)
Accuracy, 89 (83–93)
TGCT-2, Bethesda III and IV (n=115, disease prevalence 39%)
Result Surgical (45) Nonsurgical (70) Test performance, % [95% CI]
Suspicious 41 9 Sensitivity, 91 (79–98)
Specificity, 87 (77–94)
Benign 4 61 NPV, 94 (86–98)
PPV, 82 (71–89)
Accuracy, 91 (75–94)
Bethesda III—TGCT-1 and -2 (n=117, disease prevalence 28%)
Result Surgical (33) Nonsurgical (84) Test performance, % [95% CI]
Suspicious 30 7 Sensitivity, 91 (66–100)
Specificity, 92 (71–94)
Benign 3 77 NPV, 96 (87–100)
PPV, 81 (68–90)
Accuracy, 91 (85–96)
Bethesda IV—TGCT-1 and -2 (n=153, disease prevalence 35%)
Result Surgical (53) Nonsurgical (100) Test performance, % [95% CI]
Suspicious 5 15 Sensitivity, 91 (79–97)
Specificity, 85 (76–91)
Benign 48 85 NPV, 94 (88–98)
PPV, 76 (67–84)
Accuracy, 87 (80–92)
Performance across both cohorts (n=270, disease prevalence 32%)
Result Surgical (86) Nonsurgical (184) Test performance, % [95% CI]
Suspicious 78 22 Sensitivity, 91 (82–96)
Specificity, 88 (82–92)
Benign 8 162 NPV, 95 (91–98)
PPV, 78 (70–84)
Accuracy, 89 (85–92)
CI, confidence interval; NPV, negative predictive value; PPV, positive predictive value.
CLINICAL VALIDATION WITH A THYROID GENETIC CLASSIFIER 709
indicating an appropriate representation of the intended use
population (Supplementary Table S6). Third, the final val-
idation set did not show differences in age, sex, and tumor
size with the initial indeterminate cohort (intent to diag-
nose) that could have introduced selection bias (Supple-
mentary Table S2). In this trial, the cytology reports did not
undergo a centralized review since in most of the world, this
is not a routine practice, therefore keeping the real-world
setting of the enrollment process. The variability in re-
porting thyroid cytopathology has been widely described
(15,16), creating a challenge to validate molecular testing
(17,18). This variability was, at least in part, addressed by
the multicenter nature of this study, which systematically
captures this intrinsic and unavoidable clinical reality. In
addition, centralized and systematic surgical pathology
reading provides evidence that the most frequent histopa-
thology subtypes seen in indeterminate cytology were ap-
propriately represented.
Table 3. Performance Across Histopathological Subtypes
Histopathology subtype Nodules % Classification benign/suspicious
Total cohort 270 100
Nonsurgical 184 68 162/22
Benign
Benign follicular nodule 99 54 85/14
Follicular adenoma 60 33 55/5
Follicular adenoma—Hu
¨rthle cell 10 5 8/2
Chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis 13 7 12/1
Other benign 2 1 2/0
Surgical 86 32 8/78
Malignant
Papillary thyroid carcinoma
Conventional variant 28 33 2/26
Follicular variant 25 29 3/22
Follicular carcinoma 14 16 2/14
Hu
¨rthle cell carcinoma 7 8 1/6
Metastatic renal cell carcinoma (clear cell) 1 1 0/1
Other
Follicular or Hu
¨rthle cell lesion
a
of undetermined malignant potential
3 3 0/3
NIFTP 8 9 0/8
Surgical includes surgical pathology reports of malignant, NIFTP, and follicular or Hu
¨rthle lesion of undetermined malignant potential.
a
Includes 2 follicular lesions and 1 Hu
¨rthle cell lesion of undetermined malignant potential.
NIFTP, noninvasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features.
FIG. 2. Classifier dot plot and Bayes’ theorem predicted values. The thyroid genetic classifier effectively classifies
indeterminate, fine-needle aspiration biopsy samples. (A) Dot plot of classifier scores for nonsurgical (black circles) and
surgical (red circles) gold standard diagnosis are shown. Cutoff score to classify samples as nonsurgical or surgical was 0.2.
Blue lines indicate a 10% range of the cutoff score. (B) Bayes’ theorem PPVs and NPVs are shown for TGCT-1 (blue) and
TGCT-2 (red). The dark horizontal dashed line is set at 70% to represent the lower limit for the PPV, and the light horizontal
dotted line is set at 94% to represent the lower limit for the NPV. NPV, negative predictive value; PPV, positive predictive
value. Color images are available online.
710 ZAFEREO ET AL.
Currently, outside of the United States, there is very lim-
ited access to molecular testing due to the difficulty of
overseas sample shipping and high costs of available tests.
Thus, diagnostic surgery continues to be the most frequent
approach for indeterminate cytology. To the best of the au-
thors’ knowledge, no clinically useful diagnostic kit has been
reported to be available for indeterminate cytology. As a
multianalyte algorithm assay, validation of a kit can be a
challenge given rigorous controls required to guarantee re-
producibility of multiple analytes and the algorithm itself,
which is considered a separate medical device. For breast
cancer, EndoPredict, an eight-gene qPCR classifier in a di-
agnostic kit format, has successfully shown robust analytical
and clinical performance in its respective validation studies
(19,20). In addition, EndoPredict has shown 100% repro-
ducibility in seven laboratories, providing evidence that
multianalyte qPCR gene expression diagnostic kits can be
reliably deployed for local reference laboratory testing (20).
The thyroid genetic classifier, which has the uniqueness that it
only requires 10 genes, was designed in a multiplex qPCR
diagnostic kit format such that its technical simplicity would
provide a diagnostic alternative that can be potentially run on
widely available qPCR diagnostic platforms used in reference
laboratories. Development was performed using highly spe-
cific and sensitive TaqMan multiplexed amplification of tar-
get sequences with two reference genes, reducing the number
of reactions, allowing optimized normalization of biomarker
expression levels and control for an adequate qPCR. The key
components of assay development are the analytical valida-
tion studies. This work is currently in progress, especially to
demonstrate optimal interlaboratory reproducibility.
This study has some limitations. First, in the initial phase
of patient enrollment, the sample RNA yield failure reached
14%, with failure occurring most frequently in clinical sites
that did not have extensive previous experience in routine
sample collection for both cytology and molecular testing.
However, improved sample collection was achieved in the
second half of both trials where sample RNA failure was
reduced to 4% (Supplementary Table S1). Second, the rate of
indeterminate cases undergoing surgery in the TGCT-2 co-
hort was 65%, compared with 43% in the TGCT-1 cohort,
potentially introducing selection bias (Supplementary
Table S1). This is likely due to the fact that most clinical sites
from the TGCT-2 cohort were tertiary academic centers
(97%) compared with the predominantly community center
sites in the TGCT-1 cohort (57%), which was also reflected in
the larger mean tumor size (Table 1) and a higher prevalence
of malignancy in the TGCT-2 cohort (Table 2). However,
despite these meaningful cohort differences, overall perfor-
mance of the classifier proved to be similar. Third, the results
presented in this study may not be fully extrapolated to al-
ternative cytology reporting systems where the cytological
classification criteria may not allow for accurately estimated
predictive values that depend on the disease prevalence as-
sociated with the specific reporting system.
In conclusion, we have validated the clinical performance
of a thyroid genetic classifier built into a diagnostic kit format
in two independent and ethnically diverse multicenter co-
horts. The technical simplicity and high accuracy of the test
should provide accessible and valuable information for cli-
nicians to identify patients who can safely undergo surveil-
lance as an alternative to diagnostic surgery.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Drs. Katherine Tynan and Paul Canon
for their helpful and valuable comments for this study.
Author Disclosure Statement
Drs. Zafereo, McIver, Steward, Holsinger, Kandil, and
Williams received research funding from GeneproDx. Drs.
Gonzalez, Vargas-Salas, Domı
´nguez, Cruz, Loyola, Solar,
Roa, Leo
´n, Droppelman, Henrı
´quez, and Lagos are em-
ployees of the Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile
(PUC). The Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile has
granted GeneproDx a license to market the thyroid genetic
classifier for commercial use. They receive no compensation,
directly or indirectly, related to GeneproDx. Drs. Gonzalez
and Vargas-Salas have intellectual property rights related to
the thyroid genetic classifier and may receive royalties as-
sociated with its commercial use. Dr. Steward received re-
search funding from Rosetta, Veracyte, and GeneproDx. Dr.
Gonzalez holds shares in GeneproDX. No other disclosures
were reported by the remaining authors.
Funding Information
This work was supported by grants provided by the Bio-
medical Research Consortium—Chile (award no.: N13CTI-
21526P2) and Chilean Economic Development Agency
(award nos.: N14IEAT-28672 and 17ITE2-82143) and
funding provided by GeneproDX Chile SpA.
Supplementary Material
Supplementary Data
Supplementary Table S1
Supplementary Table S2
Supplementary Table S3
Supplementary Table S4
Supplementary Table S5
Supplementary Table S6
Supplementary Figure S1
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Address correspondence to:
Herna
´n E. Gonza
´lez, MD, PhD
Department of Surgical Oncology
Pontificia Universidad Cato
´lica de Chile
Diagonal Paraguay 362
Surgery Division, 3rd Floor
Santiago
Chile
E-mail: hgonzale@med.puc.cl
Bryan McIver, MD, PhD
Department of Head and Neck
and Endocrine Oncology
Moffitt Cancer Center
12902 Magnolia Dr
Tampa, FL 33612
USA
E-mail: bryan.mciver@moffitt.org
712 ZAFEREO ET AL.
... The utility of genetic testing in thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology lies in its ability to enhance diagnostic accuracy and risk stratification. Genetic markers and molecular tests can help differentiate between benign and malignant lesions in adult patients, thereby reducing the number of unnecessary surgeries and facilitating more informed and precise clinical decision-making [24]. However, gene expression classifier tools have not yet been widely tested or validated in pediatric populations. ...
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Introduction: Pediatric thyroid nodules exhibit higher malignancy rates compared to adults and are associated with increased incidences of metastases and recurrences. The American Thyroid Association recommends surgery for indeterminate thyroid biopsies in children based on these higher malignancy risks, though this approach may lead to overtreatment. However, there remains a lack of comprehensive pediatric data to inform clinical decisions. This study examines the risk of malignancy (ROM) in pediatric thyroid nodules using the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (TBSRTC) and assesses the diagnostic accuracy of fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNA) compared to histological outcomes. Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional analysis was performed on patients under 19 years with thyroid nodules who underwent FNA and thyroidectomy at a tertiary care center. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and ROM of cytological biopsies were evaluated using TBSRTC criteria, with histology serving as the gold standard. Two analyses were conducted to assess diagnostic accuracy: (a) TBSRTC II as negative and TBSRTC VI as positive, and (b) TBSRTC II as negative with TBSRTC V and VI as positive. For neoplasia detection, TBSRTC II was deemed negative, while TBSRTC IV, V, and VI were considered positive. TBSRTC categories III and I were excluded from the performance analysis and evaluated separately. Follicular neoplasm or lesions suspicious for follicular neoplasm (FN/SFN) were treated as positive outcomes, correlated with the presence of adenoma or carcinoma in the surgical specimen. Results: Of 75 nodules from 73 patients, 28 (37.3%) were benign and 47 (62.6%) malignant. No significant differences in gender or age were noted between groups. The ROM in each TBSRTC were Bethesda I 0/2, 0%; II 0/13, 0%; III 2/7, 29%: IV 6/14, 43%; V 10/10, 100%, and VI 29/29, 100%, respectively. A sensitivity of 78.38% and specificity of 100% for FNA in detecting malignancy was found, with an even higher sensitivity (100%) for detecting neoplasia in TBSRTC IV. Conclusions: This study reveals that indeterminate thyroid nodules in pediatric patients exhibit a higher rate of malignancy compared to adults, yet align with rates previously reported in the pediatric population. These findings highlight the critical need for guidelines tailored specifically to the management of thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer in children.
... No statistical significance (p > 0.05) was observed for miRNA: -199b, -223, -451a, and -21. Among the studied genes, we found no correlation with clinical manifestations of PTC for the following markers: TSHR (the TSH receptor gene playing a pivotal role in controlling the metabolism of thyrocytes) and SLC26A7 (codes for iodine receptor), whose expression is significantly downregulated in patients with anaplastic thyroid cancer [20]; CPQ (carboxypeptidase that plays a certain role in the release of the thyroxine hormone from its precursor, thyroglobulin) and RXRG (retinoic acid receptor), whose expression was found to decrease in patients with follicular thyroid cancer [21,22]; SPATA18 (the key regulator of mitochondrial quality), playing a role in the development of oncocytic cell carcinoma of the thyroid [23]; APOE (apolipoprotein, a protein involved in lipid transport between organelles through plasma and interstitial fluids); ASF1B (a histone chaperone) and TIMP1 (a metalloproteinase inhibitor acting as a growth factor), with a reduction in the overall survival in patients with thyroid cancer [24,25]; AFAP1L2 (transcriptional activator), whose upregulated transcription is associated with thyrocyte apoptosis [26]; ECM1 (extracellular matrix protein stimulating the proliferation of endothelial cells and promoting angiogenesis), whose expression considered to be decreased in patients with advanced forms of PTC [27]; and DIO1 (iodothyronine deiodinase, which is responsible for the deiodination of T4 to T3 and T3 to T2), which is differently expressed in patients with follicular adenoma and thyroid carcinoma [28]. A weak statistical correlation (0.0015 < p < 0.05) was observed for miRNA-31, -375, -551b, -148b, -125b, for mtDNA, and for the following genes: ...
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Molecular genetic events are among the numerous factors affecting the clinical course of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). Recent studies have demonstrated that aberrant expression of miRNA, as well as different thyroid-related genes, correlate with the aggressive clinical course of PTC and unfavorable treatment outcomes, which opens up new avenues for using them in the personalization of the treatment strategy for patients with PTC. In the present work, our goal was to assess the applicability of molecular markers in the preoperative diagnosis of aggressive variants of papillary thyroid cancer. The molecular genetic profile (expression levels of 34 different markers and BRAF mutations) was studied for 108 cytology specimens collected by fine-needle aspiration biopsy in patients with PTC having different clinical manifestations. Statistically significant differences with adjustment for multiple comparisons (p < 0.0015) for clinically aggressive variants of PTC were obtained for four markers: miRNA-146b, miRNA-221, fibronectin 1 (FN1), and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A (CDKN2A) genes. A weak statistical correlation (0.0015 < p < 0.05) was observed for miRNA-31, -375, -551b, -148b, -125b, mtDNA, CITED1, TPO, HMGA2, CLU, NIS, SERPINA1, TFF3, and TMPRSS4. The recurrence risk of papillary thyroid carcinoma can be preoperatively predicted using miRNA-221, FN1, and CDKN2A genes.
... Regarding Thyroid Print, its recent validation from two multicenter and independent clinical trials has given it a specificity of 88%, a negative predictive value of 95%, and a positive predictive value of 78%. Meanwhile, a study reported a positive predictive value of 71% despite a smaller sample [30]. In Chile, Olmos et al. [29] carried out a prospective cohort study using 1272 fine-needle aspirations in a single-health center. ...
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Thyroid cancer diagnosis primarily relies on imaging techniques and cytological analyses. In cases where the diagnosis is uncertain, the quantification of molecular markers has been incorporated after cytological examination. This approach helps physicians to make surgical decisions, estimate cancer aggressiveness, and monitor the response to treatments. Despite the availability of commercial molecular tests, their widespread use has been hindered in our experience due to cost constraints and variability between them. Thus, numerous groups are currently evaluating new molecular markers that ultimately will lead to improved diagnostic certainty, as well as better classification of prognosis and recurrence. In this review, we start reviewing the current preoperative testing methodologies, followed by a comprehensive review of emerging molecular markers. We focus on micro RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and mitochondrial (mt) signatures, including mtDNA genes and circulating cell-free mtDNA. We envision that a robust set of molecular markers will complement the national and international clinical guides for proper assessment of the disease.
... No statistical significance (p > 0.05) was observed for miRNA: -199b, -223, -451a, and -21. Among the studied genes, we found no correlation with clinical manifestations of PTC for the following markers: TSHR (the TSH receptor gene playing a pivotal role in controlling the metabolism of thyrocytes) and SLC26A7 (codes for iodine receptor), whose expression is significantly downregulated in patients with anaplastic thyroid cancer [14]; CPQ (carboxypeptidase that plays a certain role in the release of thyroxine hormone from its precursor, thyroglobulin) and RXRG (retinoic acid receptor) whose expression was found to decrease in patients with follicular thyroid cancer [15,16]; SPATA18 (the key 6 regulator of mitochondrial quality) playing a role in the development of oncocytic cell carcinoma of the thyroid [17]; APOE (apolipoprotein, a protein involved in lipid transport between organelles through plasma and interstitial fluids); ASF1B (histone chaperone) and TIMP1 (metalloproteinase inhibitor acting as a growth factor) with reduction of the overall survival in patients with thyroid cancer [18,19]; AFAP1L2 (transcriptional activator) whose upregulated transcription is associated with thyrocyte apoptosis [20]; ECM1 (extracellular matrix protein stimulating proliferation of endothelial cells and promoting angiogenesis), whose expression considered to be decreased in patients with advanced forms of PTC [21]; and DIO1 (iodothyronine deiodinase, which is responsible for deiodination of T4 to T3 and T3 to T2), which is differently expressed in patients with follicular adenoma and thyroid carcinoma [22]. ...
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Full-text available
Background: Molecular genetic events are among the numerous factors affecting the clinical course of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). Recent studies have demonstrated that aberrant expression of miRNA, as well as different thyroid-related genes, correlate with the aggressive clinical course of PTC and unfavorable treatment outcome, which opens up new avenues for using them in personalization of the treatment strategy for patients with PTC. In the present work, our goal was to assess the applicability of molecular markers in preoperative diagnosis of aggressive variants of papillary thyroid cancer. Methods: The molecular genetic profile (expression levels of 34 different markers and BRAF mutation) was studied for 108 cytology specimens collected by fine-needle aspiration biopsy in patients with PTC having different clinical manifestations. Results: Statistically significant differences with adjustment for multiple comparisons (p < 0.0015) for clinically aggressive variants of PTC were obtained for four markers: miRNA-146b, miRNA-221, FN1, and CDKN2A. Weak statistical correlation (0.0015< р<0.05) was observed for miRNA-31, -375, -551b, -148b, -125b, mtDNA, CITED1, TPO, HMGA2, CLU, NIS, SERPINA1, TFF3, and TMPRSS4. Conclusions: The recurrence risk of papillary thyroid carcinoma can be preoperatively predicted using miRNA-221, the fibronectin and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A genes.
... The overall accuracy for both cohorts was 89%. These findings suggest the potential clinical utility of the genetic classifier in guiding surveillance instead of diagnostic surgery for indeterminate thyroid nodules [41]. ...
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... 11,13 In the recent decade, molecular testing of thyroid FNAs has been introduced to improve the prediction of malignancy, with reported sensitivity and specificity in the ranges of 72%-96% and 68%-91%, respectively. [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] These studies were conducted mainly in North and South American, Mediterranean, and Chinese populations. A parallel randomized clinical trial based in a US population comparing the two most widely used molecular tests-the ThyroSeq v3 Genomic Classifier (Sonic Healthcare USA) and the Afirma Genomic Sequencing Classifier-had similar sensitivity of 96.9% and 100%, respectively, and similar specificity of 84.8% and 79.6%, respectively. ...
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Chapter
Repeating fine-needle aspiration biopsy (RFNA) is the usual recommendation for nodules with an atypia/follicular lesion of undetermined significance (category III of the Bethesda system); however, it should only be done whenever the cytological result might modify clinical management. RFNA reliably reclassifies 50% of the aspirates as benign (false negative rate less than 4%); 15% into a higher suspicion category, thus increasing their estimated risk of malignancy; and one-third remain in the same diagnostic category. Thus, RFNA diagnostic performance on A/FLUS specimens is similar to that of current multigene oncogene panels. There is, however, wide variation in the performance of RFNA, making it necessary to evaluate outcomes institutionally. Key factors contributing to the observed heterogeneity of RFNA outcomes are the type of atypia of the A/FLUS aspirate; the training and experience of the pathologist interpreting thyroid cytopathology; and, the pathologist’s threshold for nuclear atypia among follicular pattern lesions.
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Thyroid cancer is the most frequent endocrine malignancy, and its incidence is increasing. A current limitation of cytological evaluation of thyroid nodules is that 20-25% are reported as indeterminate. Therefore, an important challenge for clinicians is to determine whether an indeterminate nodule is malignant, and should undergo surgery, or benign, and should be recommended to follow-up. The emergence of precision medicine has offered a valuable solution for this problem, with four tests currently available for the molecular diagnosis of indeterminate nodules. However, efforts to critically analyze the quality of the accumulated evidence are scarce. This review and meta-analysis is aimed to contribute better knowledge about the four available molecular tests, their technical characteristics, clinical performance, and ultimately to help clinician to make better decisions to provide the best care options as possible. For this purpose, we address three critical topics: i) the proper theoretical accuracy, considering the intended clinical use of the test (rule-in versus rule-out) and the impact on clinical decisions; ii) the quality of the evidence reported for each test; iii) and how accurate and effective have the tests proved to be after their clinical use. Together with the upcoming evidence, this work provides significant and useful information for health-care system decision-makers to consider the use of molecular testing as a public health need, avoiding unnecessary surgical risks and costs.
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Background: In most of the world, diagnostic surgery remains as the most frequent approach for indeterminate thyroid cytology. Although several molecular tests are available for central-lab testing in the US, there are no available kits for local laboratory testing. The aim of this study was to develop a prototype in-vitro diagnostic (IVD) gene classifier for diagnosis of indeterminate thyroid cytology. Methods: In a first stage, the expression of 18 genes was determined by qPCR in a broad histopathological spectrum of fresh tissue biopsies (114). Expression data was used to train several classifiers by supervised machine learning approaches. Classifiers were tested in an independent set of 139 samples. In a second stage, the best classifier was chosen as a model to develop a multiplexed-qPCR IVD prototype assay, which was tested in a prospective multicenter cohort of fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsies. Results: In tissue biopsies, the best classifier, using only 10 genes, reached an optimal and consistent performance in the 9-fold cross-validated testing set (sensitivity 93% and specificity 81%). In the multicenter cohort of FNA samples, the 10-gene signature, built into a multiplexed-qPCR IVD prototype showed an area under the curve of 0.96, a positive predictive value (PPV) of 87% and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 98%. By Bayes theorem, the IVD prototype is expected to achieve a PPV of 78%-90% and a NPV of 96%-99% in patients with a cancer prevalence range of 20%-40%. Conclusions: We report a new multiplexed-qPCR IVD prototype that accurately classifies thyroid nodules and may provide a future solution suitable for expanded local reference laboratory testing.
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Importance: Although growing evidence points to highly indolent behavior of encapsulated follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma (EFVPTC), most patients with EFVPTC are treated as having conventional thyroid cancer. Objective: To evaluate clinical outcomes, refine diagnostic criteria, and develop a nomenclature that appropriately reflects the biological and clinical characteristics of EFVPTC. Design, setting, and participants: International, multidisciplinary, retrospective study of patients with thyroid nodules diagnosed as EFVPTC, including 109 patients with noninvasive EFVPTC observed for 10 to 26 years and 101 patients with invasive EFVPTC observed for 1 to 18 years. Review of digitized histologic slides collected at 13 sites in 5 countries by 24 thyroid pathologists from 7 countries. A series of teleconferences and a face-to-face conference were used to establish consensus diagnostic criteria and develop new nomenclature. Main outcomes and measures: Frequency of adverse outcomes, including death from disease, distant or locoregional metastases, and structural or biochemical recurrence, in patients with noninvasive and invasive EFVPTC diagnosed on the basis of a set of reproducible histopathologic criteria. Results: Consensus diagnostic criteria for EFVPTC were developed by 24 thyroid pathologists. All of the 109 patients with noninvasive EFVPTC (67 treated with only lobectomy, none received radioactive iodine ablation) were alive with no evidence of disease at final follow-up (median [range], 13 [10-26] years). An adverse event was seen in 12 of 101 (12%) of the cases of invasive EFVPTC, including 5 patients developing distant metastases, 2 of whom died of disease. Based on the outcome information for noninvasive EFVPTC, the name "noninvasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features" (NIFTP) was adopted. A simplified diagnostic nuclear scoring scheme was developed and validated, yielding a sensitivity of 98.6% (95% CI, 96.3%-99.4%), specificity of 90.1% (95% CI, 86.0%-93.1%), and overall classification accuracy of 94.3% (95% CI, 92.1%-96.0%) for NIFTP. Conclusions and relevance: Thyroid tumors currently diagnosed as noninvasive EFVPTC have a very low risk of adverse outcome and should be termed NIFTP. This reclassification will affect a large population of patients worldwide and result in a significant reduction in psychological and clinical consequences associated with the diagnosis of cancer.
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Molecular testing for oncogenic mutations or gene expression in fine-needle aspirations (FNAs) from thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology identifies a subset of benign or malignant lesions with high predictive value. Evaluate a novel diagnostic algorithm combining mutation detection and miRNA expression to improve the diagnostic yield of molecular cytology. Surgical specimens and preoperative FNAs (n=638) were tested for 17 validated gene alterations using the miRInform Thyroid test and with a 10-miRNA gene expression classifier generating positive (malignant) or negative (benign) results. Cross-sectional sampling of thyroid nodules with AUS/FLUS or FN/SFN cytology (n=109) was conducted at 12 endocrinology centers across the United States. Qualitative molecular results were compared to surgical histopathology to determine diagnostic performance and model clinical impact. Mutations were detected in 69% of nodules with malignant outcome. Among mutation-negative specimens, miRNA testing correctly identified 64% of malignant cases and 98% of benign cases. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the combined algorithm was 89% (95% confidence intervals (CI): 73-97%) and 85% (95% CI: 75-92%), respectively. At 32% cancer prevalence, 61% of the molecular results were benign with a negative predictive value of 94% (95% CI: 85-98%). Independently of variations in cancer prevalence, the test increased the yield of true benign results by 65% relative to mRNA-based gene expression classification and decreased the rate of avoidable diagnostic surgeries by 69%. Multi-platform testing for DNA, mRNA and miRNA can accurately classify benign and malignant thyroid nodules, increase the diagnostic yield of molecular cytology, and further improve the preoperative risk-based management of benign nodules with AUS/FLUS or FN/SFN cytology.
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Importance Use of next-generation sequencing of RNA and machine learning algorithms can classify the risk of malignancy in cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules to limit unnecessary diagnostic surgery. Objective To measure the performance of a genomic sequencing classifier for cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules. Design, Setting, and Participants A blinded validation study was conducted on a set of cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules collected by fine-needle aspiration biopsy between June 2009 and December 2010 from 49 academic and community centers in the United States. All patients underwent surgery without genomic information and were assigned a histopathology diagnosis by an expert panel blinded to all genomic information. There were 210 potentially eligible thyroid biopsy samples with Bethesda III or IV indeterminate cytopathology that constituted a cohort previously used to validate the gene expression classifier. Of these, 191 samples (91.0%) had adequate residual RNA for validation of the genomic sequencing classifier. Algorithm development and independent validation occurred between August 2016 and May 2017. Exposures Thyroid nodule surgical histopathology diagnosis by an expert panel blinded to all genomic data. Main Outcomes and Measures The primary end point was measurement of genomic sequencing classifier sensitivity, specificity, and negative and positive predictive values in biopsies from Bethesda III and IV nodules. The secondary end point was measurement of classifier performance in biopsies from Bethesda II, V, and VI nodules. Results Of the 183 included patients, 142 (77.6%) were women, and the mean (range) age was 51.7 (22.0-85.0) years. The genomic sequencing classifier had a sensitivity of 91% (95% CI, 79-98) and a specificity of 68% (95% CI, 60-76). At 24% cancer prevalence, the negative predictive value was 96% (95% CI, 90-99) and the positive predictive value was 47% (95% CI, 36-58). Conclusions and Relevance The genomic sequencing classifier demonstrates high sensitivity and accuracy for identifying benign nodules. Its 36% increase in specificity compared with the gene expression classifier potentially increases the number of patients with benign nodules who can safely avoid unnecessary diagnostic surgery.
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Thyroid nodules affect nearly two-thirds of the world population. Fine-needle biopsy with cytologic evaluation remains the diagnostic test of choice to distinguish benign from malignant thyroid nodules yet fails to discriminate as benign or malignant in up to one-third of cases. This review discusses the limitation of current cytopathologic evaluation, the development of thyroid molecular testing, and the strengths and limitations of commercially available tests. Initial cytomolecular testing sought to identify specific gene mutations associated with thyroid cancer. Although the presence of a mutation was strongly associated with cancer, the likelihood of identifying a mutation was low; therefore, the test had low sensitivity. Subsequent tests developed have sought to improve the accuracy of cytomolecular testing for thyroid fine-needle aspirations, both to reassure patients and providers when malignancy may be absent and to confirm the malignancy when present. The development of cytomolecular testing for thyroid nodules has informed and improved current understanding of thyroid nodule formation and progression. When used appropriately and with clear understanding of the advantages and disadvantages, cytomolecular testing has the potential to improve patient care in the setting of indeterminate thyroid nodules by helping to guide both the need for and the extent of thyroid surgery. Cancer 2017.
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Background: Thyroid nodules are a common clinical problem, and differentiated thyroid cancer is becoming increasingly prevalent. Since the American Thyroid Association's (ATA's) guidelines for the management of these disorders were revised in 2009, significant scientific advances have occurred in the field. The aim of these guidelines is to inform clinicians, patients, researchers, and health policy makers on published evidence relating to the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Methods: The specific clinical questions addressed in these guidelines were based on prior versions of the guidelines, stakeholder input, and input of task force members. Task force panel members were educated on knowledge synthesis methods, including electronic database searching, review and selection of relevant citations, and critical appraisal of selected studies. Published English language articles on adults were eligible for inclusion. The American College of Physicians Guideline Grading System was used for critical appraisal of evidence and grading strength of recommendations for therapeutic interventions. We developed a similarly formatted system to appraise the quality of such studies and resultant recommendations. The guideline panel had complete editorial independence from the ATA. Competing interests of guideline task force members were regularly updated, managed, and communicated to the ATA and task force members. Results: The revised guidelines for the management of thyroid nodules include recommendations regarding initial evaluation, clinical and ultrasound criteria for fine-needle aspiration biopsy, interpretation of fine-needle aspiration biopsy results, use of molecular markers, and management of benign thyroid nodules. Recommendations regarding the initial management of thyroid cancer include those relating to screening for thyroid cancer, staging and risk assessment, surgical management, radioiodine remnant ablation and therapy, and thyrotropin suppression therapy using levothyroxine. Recommendations related to long-term management of differentiated thyroid cancer include those related to surveillance for recurrent disease using imaging and serum thyroglobulin, thyroid hormone therapy, management of recurrent and metastatic disease, consideration for clinical trials and targeted therapy, as well as directions for future research. Conclusions: We have developed evidence-based recommendations to inform clinical decision-making in the management of thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. They represent, in our opinion, contemporary optimal care for patients with these disorders.
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Background: Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytology is a common approach to evaluating thyroid nodules, although 20% to 30% of FNAs have indeterminate cytology, which hampers the appropriate management of these patients. Follicular (or oncocytic) neoplasm/suspicious for a follicular (or oncocytic) neoplasm (FN/SFN) is a common indeterminate diagnosis with a cancer risk of approximately 15% to 30%. In this study, the authors tested whether the most complete next-generation sequencing (NGS) panel of genetic markers could significantly improve cancer diagnosis in these nodules. Methods: The evaluation of 143 consecutive FNA samples with a cytologic diagnosis of FN/SFN from patients with known surgical outcomes included 91 retrospective samples and 52 prospective samples. Analyses were performed on a proprietary sequencer using the targeted ThyroSeq v2 NGS panel, which simultaneously tests for point mutations in 13 genes and for 42 types of gene fusions that occur in thyroid cancer. The expression of 8 genes was used to assess the cellular composition of FNA samples. Results: In the entire cohort, histologic analysis revealed 104 benign nodules and 39 malignant nodules. The most common point mutations involved the neuroblastoma RAS viral oncogene homolog (NRAS), followed by the Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS), the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene, and the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) gene. The identified fusions involved the thyroid adenoma associated (THADA) gene; the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARG) gene; and the neurotrophic tyrosine kinase, receptor, type 3 (NTRK3) gene. Performance characteristics were similar in the retrospective and prospective groups. Among all FN/SFN nodules, preoperative ThyroSeq v2 performed with 90% sensitivity (95% confidence interval [CI], 80%-99%), 93% specificity (95% CI, 88%-98%), a positive predictive value of 83% (95% CI, 72%-95%), a negative predictive value of 96% (95% CI, 92%-100%), and 92% accuracy (95% CI, 88%-97%). Conclusions: The current results indicate that comprehensive genotyping of thyroid nodules using a broad NGS panel provides a highly accurate diagnosis for nodules with FN/SFN cytology and should facilitate the optimal management of these patients.
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To provide population-based estimates of trends in thyroid nodule fine-needle aspirations (FNA) and operative volumes, we used multiple claims databases to quantify rates of these procedures and their association with the increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States. Private and public insurance claims databases were used to estimate procedure volumes from 2006 to 2011. Rates of FNA and thyroid operations related to thyroid nodules were defined by CPT4 codes associated with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision Clinical Modification codes for nontoxic uni- or multinodular goiter and thyroid neoplasms. Use of thyroid FNA more than doubled during the 5-year study period (16% annual growth). The number of thyroid operations performed for thyroid nodules increased by 31%. Total thyroidectomies increased by 12% per year, whereas lobectomies increased only 1% per year. In 2011, total thyroidectomies accounted for more than half (56%) of the operations for thyroid neoplasms in the United States. Thyroid operations became increasingly (62%) outpatient procedures. Thyroid FNA and operative procedures have increased rapidly in the United States, with an associated increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer. The more substantial increase in number of total versus partial thyroid resections suggests that patients undergoing thyroid operation are perceived to have a greater risk of cancer as determined by preoperative assessments, but this trend could also increase detection of incidental microcarcinomas.