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Native American tribal governments, cross-sectoral climate policy, and the role of intertribal networks
Abstract
Complex policy problems such as climate change that spill over multiple issue areas or jurisdictions often require new policy approaches because sectoral (or territorial) policies are not designed to tackle the issue of policy spillovers. Yet, cross-sectoral policies upset the status quo and invite a political backlash from departments and individuals who fear erosion of their power, authority, budgets, or status. We offer one of the first studies to systematically examine conditions under which tribal governments develop cross-sectoral climate plans. Drawing on an original dataset of 239 tribes, our statistical analysis shows that tribal governments embedded in cross-tribal networks are more likely to develop cross-sectoral climate plans. While developing such policies is costly, the availability of monetary resources does not change tribes’ odds of developing cross-sectoral climate plans. Thus, the role of embeddedness in networks, as opposed to financial capacity, motivates tribes to adopt new policy approaches that are risky and yet more suitable to solve a problem with cross-sectoral spillovers.
... The scholarship examining the climate change responses of indigenous nations has provided some insights into whether the factors present in the public choice literature apply to tribal governments. This literature includes factors such as indigenous peoples' and governments' awareness of climate change, sustainability-based values, technical capacity for natural resource management, and strong external scientific networks Evans et al., 2020). Since these works typically consider a single tribe or particular resource, less is known about how and why tribal governments adapt to climate change or more general explanations for how tribes respond to climate challenges. ...
... Some scholars of indigenous governance and policy are examining the specific ways in which tribal governments are taking adaptive actions (Grossman, 2008;Evans et al., 2020). Grossman (2008) shows that tribal governments are helping tribal members adaption to climate change through inter-tribal cooperation and working with local and national governments. ...
... Of the scholarship that does engage with this question, the studies focus on a single or small number of indigenous nations' approaches to climate change adaption or examine a large number of indigenous nations employing a single type of adaptive policy or program. For example, Evans et al. (2020) examines the impacts of Native American tribes belonging to intertribal networks on the creation of cross-sectoral climate plans. Here they examine one type of adaptive action across 239 Native American tribes. ...
The public choice literature has long considered the political economy of environmental regulation and has examined a variety of national and subnational governments’ environmental policies aimed at adaption to climate change. However, there has been little attention paid to the determinants of environmental adaptive actions taken by indigenous governments. Given many indigenous peoples’ heightened vulnerability to issues caused by climate change, it is important to understand when and why they take action to adapt to climate change and what obstacles may stand in the way. I argue that natural resource abundance, informational resource access, population vulnerability, and reliance on natural resources will impact whether indigenous governments enact policies to respond to climate change. Using an original dataset of tribal actions addressing climate change for 574 federally recognized tribal governments, I find that the amount of land, educational attainment, broadband access, and proportion of tribal members working in the natural resource industries are positively associated with the tribal government’s responses to climate change.
... 171 Inter-Tribal organizations and networks serve as resources for enhancing Tribes' climate change planning. 172,173 For example, the Intertribal Timber Council, Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission, and Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission are leading innovative climate adaptation research in their regions and inspiring cross-cultural scientific collaborations with non-Indigenous researchers, scientists, and organizations. 144,174,175,176,177 Other organizations such as the National Congress of American Indians, United South and Eastern Tribes, and Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians support Tribes in their efforts to build climate resilience. ...
Climate change continues to negatively affect the livelihoods, health, and cultural practices of Indigenous Peoples, as well as the ecological resilience of their territories. Self-determination is key to implementing effective resilience strategies that meet the needs of Indigenous communities. Indigenous Peoples are leading climate adaptation and mitigation actions guided by Indigenous Knowledge and values.
Indigenous Peoples in the United States represent more than 700 communities and Tribal Nations. They are culturally and politically unique and self-determining societies in North America, Hawaiʻi, American Sāmoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands (Figure 16.1), encompassing diverse ecosystems. They differ in their relationships with federal, state, territorial, and local governments but have similarly endured genocide and land dispossession (Figure 16.2). Indigenous Peoples’ origins begin millennia ago, long before the United States. Many Indigenous persons are scientists of the environment, holding holistic understandings of the interconnected drivers of climate change and evidence of climate-related changes and strategies for adaptation (Figure 16.3; KMs 26.1, 27.6, 30.2, 30.5). For generations, Indigenous Peoples have centered their knowledge of climate change in their cultures, political organizations, and arts. Many Indigenous persons closely track natural cycles and assemblages of plants and animals, making them keenly aware of environmental disruptions.
... In other words, factors like economy, education and stability act as mediators affecting intertribal practices. Among these practices are the use of the substance (i.e., overuse of alcohol, drugs and mediations) by American Indians causing health problems (Baldwin et al., 2020), collaborative intertribal activities and networks in the US (Evans et al., 2020), collaborative intertribal activities and projects to protect food traditions with the integration of modern life aspects in the US (Frank-Buckner, 2019). The common concept of territoriality is used in research to describe the emergence of intertribal conflicts-each tribe intends to protect its area, keep it untouchable, and possibly show a feeling of more superiority to other neighbouring ones (Bayham et al., 2019). ...
This article focuses on the inter-tribal conflict impacts the education of Yemen.
... This can improve the quality of climate policies in the stages of policy target formulation, the determination of detailed policy rules, and policy implementation [29]. As a result, cross-sectoral climate policies may be more helpful in addressing climate change issues [38]. In China, climate policy mainly involves the departments of ecology and environment, energy, finance, and the Development and Reform Commission (DRC), while the essence of cross-sectoral climate policy is a synergistic process in the above departments. ...
This paper examines the impact of cross-sectoral climate policy on forest carbon sinks. Due to the complexity of the climate change issue and the professional division of labor among government departments, cross-sectoral cooperation in formulating climate policy is a desirable strategy. Forest carbon sinks play an important role in addressing climate change, but there are few studies focusing on forest carbon sinks and cross-sectoral climate policies. Thus, based on the panel data of 30 provinces and cities in China from 2007 to 2020, this paper establishes a benchmark regression model and a spatial panel model to analyze the impact of cross-sectoral climate policies on forest carbon sinks. We find that cross-sectoral climate policies positively impact forest carbon sinks. Under the influence of the “demonstration effect”, we find that cross-sectoral climate policies have a positive impact not only on the forest carbon sinks in the region but also on those in the neighboring region. Further analysis shows that for provinces with less developed forestry industry and small forest areas, the positive effect of cross-sectoral climate policies on forest carbon sinks is more obvious. Overall, this paper can serve as an important reference for local governments to formulate climate policies and increase the capacity of forest carbon sinks.
... Of these studies, only 5% were systematic literature reviews (n = 10) (e.g., Shaffril et al. 2020). Examples of specific methods include the review of secondary data ( (Renwick et al. 2014), and statistical analysis of tribal government websites (Evans et al. 2020). Qualitative methodologies were 2.12 times more likely to partially or fully incorporate Indigenous governance concepts than quantitative or mixed methods (p < 0.05). ...
While Indigenous peoples have governed their territories for millennia, mainstream climate governance literature underrepresents Indigenous governance roles in climate governance. The objective of this study is to systematically document the extent to which Indigenous governance concepts are incorporated into the climate governance literature. Using a systematic scoping search and screening process, we identified 195 references. To be included, references had to be published between 2010 and 2020, in English, explicitly mention Indigenous peoples, have a substantial focus on human responses to experienced or anticipated effects of climate change and governance, and be based on primary data or a review of primary data. Relevant references were analyzed using a data extraction questionnaire. Our results indicate that despite the growing number of publications, only two-fifths fully incorporated Indigenous governance concepts. We found that Indigenous governance concepts were more likely to be incorporated in references that included an author affiliated with an Indigenous organization, used qualitative methods, and focused on protected areas or climate transformation. Finally, most references incorporated Indigenous Knowledge systems, but this did not correspond to greater attention to Indigenous governance. Based on our findings, we make three recommendations for the climate governance literature: (i) follow Indigenous research protocols, (ii) move beyond a narrow focus on the “supplemental value” of Indigenous Knowledge systems to acknowledge the “governance value,” and (iii) engage with transformational climate responses that address the systemic inequalities created by historical and ongoing colonialism.
... Casino revenues are proprietary information and not available publicly, but other indicators on the of scale of casino operations are accessible. Evans et al. (2020) compiled the square footage of all tribally-owned casinos, available from the National Indian Gaming Association at http://indiangaming.com/ home/ and we include their compilation in this paper with their permission. For the average observation, tribal casinos covered 66,891 square feet. ...
We draw on new and original data to examine both partisan and systemic inequities that have fueled the spread of COVID-19 in Native America. We show how continued political marginalization of Native Americans has compounded longstanding inequalities and endangered the lives of Native peoples. Native nations have experienced disproportionate effects from prior health epidemics and pandemics, and in 2020, Native communities have seen greater rates of infection, hospitalization, and death from COVID-19. We find that Native nations have more COVID-19 cases if they are located in states with a higher ratio of Trump supporters and reside in states with Republican governors. Where there is longstanding marginalization, measured by lack of clean water on tribal lands and health information in Native languages, we find more COVID-19 cases. Federal law enables non-members to flout tribal health regulations while on tribal lands, and correspondingly, we find that COVID-19 cases rise when non-members travel onto tribal lands. Our findings engage the literatures on Native American politics, health policy within U.S. federalism, and structural health inequalities, and should be of interest to both scholars and practitioners interested in understanding COVID-19 outcomes across Tribes in the United States.
American Indians are among the most underrepresented, yet heavily regulated, groups in national politics. While Indian nations maintain statuses as sovereign nations, they, and their people, remain affected by national policies addressing their treaty, land, resource, and civil and political rights. Theories of American Indian political incorporation suggest that Indian nations thus deploy interest group tactics to maintain or achieve favorable policy outcomes. We argue that coalition building , a ubiquitous lobbying strategy, enhances tribal policy advocacy and that “Native‐dominant” coalitions—those in which Native interests constitute a majority of members—are more influential than their non‐Native‐dominant counterparts. We test these claims using data from administrative rulemaking and find support for our hypotheses. We conclude that the unique particularities of tribal advocacy distinguish Native coalitions from those of other groups, and that their strategic lobbying choices may help to mediate representational disparities in policymaking by the executive branch.
We examine predictors of COVID-19 cases in Native nations during the early months of the pandemic. We find that where Native American representation and Native American political power in state politics were greater, COVID-19 cases on tribal lands were fewer. We expand the literatures on descriptive representation and on tribal-state relations by demonstrating consequences of powerful Native American voices in the statehouse. We find that Native American voices on tribal lands are also vital. Tribal lands that had extensive networks of community-based health facilities and tribally controlled health facilities recorded fewer COVID-19 cases. The broader lesson here is that if Native nations are to protect their citizens, they need outside governments that support, not thwart. Our findings draw on unique, original quantitative analysis.
The current political conflict and economic crisis have impacted all aspects of life in Yemen, especially intertribal conflict, which plays a significant role in hindering educational development. In this study, we measure the impact of this conflict on the educational infrastructure, students and teachers' behaviour, and educational development as perceived by students, teachers and administrators. We collected data from 384 respondents: 162 teachers, 163 students and 59 administrative staff in the Aden and Taiz governorates. We also conducted 18 structured interviews with stakeholders from local authorities. The results indicate that: (1) educational infrastructure in Yemen has changed from a poor to a damaged status because of the intertribal conflict; (2) educational development in Yemen is going backward because of the current political conflict and economic crisis; (3) violence being exercised during this conflict has transferred to high school students, teachers and administration staff; and (4) the educational infrastructure is either bombed and attacked by the Arab (international) coalition or used as military bases by the different parties of the conflict.
A growing body of literature examines the vulnerability, risk, resilience, and adaptation of indigenous peoples to climate change. This synthesis of literature brings together research pertaining to the impacts of climate change on sovereignty, culture, health, and economies that are currently being experienced by Alaska Native and American Indian tribes and other indigenous communities in the United States. The knowledge and science of how climate change impacts are affecting indigenous peoples contributes to the development of policies, plans, and programs for adapting to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This report defines and describes the key frameworks that inform indigenous understandings of climate change impacts and pathways for adaptation and mitigation, namely, tribal sovereignty and self-determination, culture and cultural identity, and indigenous community health indicators. It also provides a comprehensive synthesis of climate knowledge, science, and strategies that indigenous communities are exploring, as well as an understanding of the gaps in research on these issues. This literature synthesis is intended to make a contribution to future efforts such as the 4th National Climate Assessment, while serving as a resource for future research, tribal and agency climate initiatives, and policy development.
It is likely that climate change communications and media coverage will increasingly stress the importance of adaptation, yet little is known about whether or how this may affect attitudes towards mitigation. Despite concerns that communicating adaptation could undermine public support for mitigation, previous research has found it can have the opposite effect by increasing risk salience. It is also unclear whether people respond differently to information about mitigation and adaptation depending on whether action is framed as an individual or government responsibility. Using an experimental design, this study sought to examine how public attitudes towards mitigation are influenced by varying climate change messages, and how this might interact with prior attitudes to climate change. UK-based participants (N = 800) read one of four texts in a 2 × 2 design comparing adaptation versus mitigation information and personal versus governmental action. No main effect was found for adaptation versus mitigation framing, nor for individual action versus government policy, but we did observe a series of interaction effects with prior attitudes to climate change. Mitigation and adaptation information affected participants’ responses differently depending on their pre-existing levels of concern about climate change, suggesting that mitigation framings may be more engaging for those with high levels of concern, whereas adaptation framings may be more engaging for low-concern individuals. Government mitigation action appears to engender particularly polarised attitudes according to prior concern. Implications for climate change communications are considered.
While both international and national efforts are being made to assess climate change and mitigate effects, primary impacts will likely be regional. The US Great Plains region is home to a mosaic of unique ecosystems which are at risk from climate change. An exploratory survey of over 900 Great Plains government officials shows concerns for specific natural resources but not global climate change. Local government decision-makers are important sources of initiation for environmental policy; however, less than 20 % of jurisdictions surveyed have developed plans for adapting to or mitigating potential climate change impacts. The continental extremes of seasonal and annual climate variability of the Great Plains can mask the effects of global climate change and likely influences its’ residents lack of concern. The study findings indicate a need to reframe the discussion away from climate change skepticism, toward a focus on possible impacts within current resource management priorities such as drought, so that proactive planning can be addressed.
This article presents lessons from the rich adoption literature for the nascent research on adaptation. Individuals' adoption choices are affected by profit and risk considerations and by credit and biophysical constraints. New technologies spread gradually, reflecting heterogeneity among potential adopters, processes of learning and technological improvement, and policies and institutions. Adaptation is the response of economic agents and societies to major shocks. We distinguish between reactive and proactive adaptation. The latter is important in the context of climate change and consists of mitigation, reassessment, and innovation that aim to affect the timing and location of shocks. Adaptation strategies also include adoption of innovation and technology transfer across locations, insurance and international trade, and migration and invasions. Recent research emphasizes multidisciplinary collaborations; historical analysis; and the roles of returns to scale of key technologies, social networks, behavioral economics, path dependency, and ex ante adjustment in explaining patterns of adoption and adaptation.
This article presents lessons from the rich adoption literature for the nascent research on adaptation. Individuals' adoption choices are affected by profit and risk considerations and by credit and biophysical constraints. New technologies spread gradually, reflecting heterogeneity among potential adopters, processes of learning and technological improvement, and policies and institutions. Adaptation is the response of economic agents and societies to major shocks. We distinguish between reactive and proactive adaptation. The latter is important in the context of climate change and consists of mitigation, reassessment, and innovation that aim to affect the timing and location of shocks. Adaptation strategies also include adoption of innovation and technology transfer across locations, insurance and international trade, and migration and invasions. Recent research emphasizes multidisciplinary collaborations; historical analysis; and the roles of returns to scale of key technologies, social networks, behav...
American Indian tribes and people have contributed very little to the causes of global warming, yet for geographic, cultural, and demographic reasons, they stand to suffer disproportionately from global warming's negative effects. A recent study, Native Communities and Climate Change, prepared by the Natural Resources Law Center at the University of Colorado Law School, documents that these effects include, among others, threats to traditional hunting and gathering, destruction of tribal villages in Alaska, increased pressure on tribal reserved rights to water in the arid Southwest, and inundation of reservation lands in Florida. The disproportion between tribal contributions to global warming and the negative impacts on tribes qualifies this as an environmental justice issue. As the Native Communities and Climate Change Report suggests, a complex of legal rights, in conjunction with Congress's moral obligation to tribes, provides the foundation and incentive for the federal government to take action to address these impacts. Yet as important as it is to highlight its environmental justice aspects, global warming's spatial and temporal dispersions render it a global and intergenerational collective action problem that is not susceptible to typical environmental justice solutions. Addressing the disparate effects warming will have on tribes and other disadvantaged communities leads us into these potentially tragic features of climate change, and requires us to articulate an ethical framework that would support global efforts to mitigate (i.e. reduce and eventually eliminate) human contributions to global warming, as well as to assist tribal communities in the already inevitable need to adapt to a warming world. Ultimately, solutions, if they are to take seriously environmental justice claims as well as the impacts at large, lie in the realm of sustainability. This brings us to the significant problem that, despite decades of discussion about sustainability and what it means, we have done relatively little to implement or achieve it. Why, then, should anyone bother to try? The answer lies in the kinds of lives we want to lead, the norms we want to aspire to, and the virtues we want to cultivate, irrespective of whether we will ever have any certainty that either the specific injustices suffered by American Indians or the broader effects that everyone will endure as a result of climate change will be redressed or avoided. Not coincidentally, a philosophical worldview that we might turn to for instruction as we navigate this new terrain is that embraced by many American Indian tribes. Attachment to place and community, and the daily rituals that entails, may be key not only to understanding the disproportionate effects of climate change on American Indian tribes, but also to formulating an ethic for all of us to live by in a world requiring skills, flexibility, and engagement of a kind that we can only barely imagine. This article explores these themes by examining the distinct effects of climate change on the four American Indian tribes discussed in the Native Communities and Climate Change report, then delving into the difficulties surrounding achieving a global solution to climate change, and finally circling back to the ethic embraced by many American Indian tribes that might provide a blueprint for behavior in a warming world.
There is no integrated regime governing efforts to limit the extent of climate change. Instead, there is a regime complex: a loosely coupled set of specific regimes. We describe the regime complex for climate change and seek to explain it, using functional, strategic, and organizational arguments. This institutional form is likely to persist; efforts to build a comprehensive regime are unlikely to succeed, but narrower institutions focused on particular aspects of the climate change problem are already thriving. Building on this analysis, we argue that a climate change regime complex, if it meets specified criteria, has advantages over any politically feasible comprehensive regime, particularly with respect to adaptability and flexibility. Adaptability and flexibility are particularly important in a setting, such as climate change policy, in which the most demanding international commitments are interdependent yet governments vary widely in their interest and ability to implement them.
An emerging topic in current climate negotiations is the political momentum for recognising adaptation to climate change as a crucial part of a comprehensive climate policy. However, there are a number of arguments and doubts raised by politicians, negotiators and environmentalists alike with regard to the necessity of implementing adaptation in parallel with mitigation. The first aim of this article is to analyse possible contradictions and synergies between these two strategies and analyse the implications for developing countries and sustainable development targets. We then use Vietnam as a case study to demonstrate how to integrate mitigation and adaptation strategies that can provide additional benefits to the social welfare. This empirical analysis provides a basic understanding of how to address thorny questions in a nascent process of designing public climate policy in Vietnam. Lessons drawn from this research should be replicable in other developing countries having similar circumstances.
Similarity breeds connection. This principle--the homophily principle--structures network ties of every type, including marriage, friendship, work, advice, support, information transfer, exchange, comembership, and other types of relationship. The result is that people's personal networks are homogeneous with regard to many sociodemographic, behavioral, and intrapersonal characteristics. Homophily limits people's social worlds in a way that has powerful implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience. Homophily in race and ethnicity creates the strongest divides in our personal environments, with age, religion, education, occupation, and gender following in roughly that order. Geographic propinquity, families, organizations, and isomorphic positions in social systems all create contexts in which homophilous relations form. Ties between nonsimilar individuals also dissolve at a higher rate, which sets the stage for the formation of niches (localized positions) within social space. We argue for more research on: (a) the basic ecological processes that link organizations, associations, cultural communities, social movements, and many other social forms; (b) the impact of multiplex ties on the patterns of homophily; and (c) the dynamics of network change over time through which networks and other social entities co-evolve.
Advances in the science and observation of climate change are providing a clearer understanding of the inherent variability of Earth's climate system and its likely response to human and natural influences. The implications of climate change for the environment and society will depend not only on the response of the Earth system to changes in radiative forcings, but also on how humankind responds through changes in technology, economies, lifestyle and policy. Extensive uncertainties exist in future forcings of and responses to climate change, necessitating the use of scenarios of the future to explore the potential consequences of different response options. To date, such scenarios have not adequately examined crucial possibilities, such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, and have relied on research processes that slowed the exchange of information among physical, biological and social scientists. Here we describe a new process for creating plausible scenarios to investigate some of the most challenging and important questions about climate change confronting the global community.
Social scientists have sketched four distinct theories to explain a phenomenon that appears to have ramped up in recent years, the diffusion of policies across countries. Constructivists trace policy norms to expert epistemic communities and international organizations, who define economic progress and human rights. Coercion theorists point to powerful nation-states, and international financial institutions, that threaten sanctions or promise aid in return for fiscal conservatism, free trade, etc. Competition theorists argue that countries compete to attract investment and to sell exports by lowering the cost of doing business, reducing constraints on investment, or reducing tariff barriers in the hope of reciprocity. Learning theorists suggest that countries learn from their own experiences and, as well, from the policy experiments of their peers. We review the large body of research from sociologists and political scientists, as well as the growing body of work from economists and psychologists, pointing to the diverse mechanisms that are theorized and to promising avenues for distinguishing among causal mechanisms. Government Sociology Version of Record
Indigenous sciences are foundationally based in relationships, reciprocity, and responsibilities. These sciences constitute systems of knowledge developed through distinct perspectives on and practices of knowledge creation and decision-making that not only have the right to be pursued on their own terms but may also be vital in solving critical twenty-first-century challenges. “Science” is often treated as if it were a single entity, free of cultural influences and value-neutral in principle. Western science is often seen as instantiating and equivalent to this idealized, yet problematic, view of science. We argue for engagement with multiple perspectives on science in general, and increased engagement with Indigenous sciences in particular. As scholars focused on human learning and development, we share empirical examples of how Indigenous sciences, sometimes in partnership with Western science, have led to new discoveries and insights into human learning and development.
How does strength of domestic NGOs influence participation in
the Covenants of Mayors program? Launched by the European
Commission in 2008, this program invites local and regional
authorities to voluntarily commit to implementing EU climate
change and energy policies. We focus on the transitional
countries of Eastern Europe and Eurasia to examine whether
the strength of their domestic NGOs correlates with cities’
decisions to participate in this transnational program. To operationalize
NGO strength, we suggest thinking of it as a stock
variable that cumulates over time, instead of a single-year, flow
variable. With country year as the unit of analysis, we examine
the percentage of urban population covered by the Covenant
across a panel of 26 transitional economies for the period
2008–2014. We find that the key variable of interest, cumulative
NGO strength, is a statistically significant predictor of
program participation, even after controlling for domestic
and international factors, including the salience of international
NGOs and the years since the country began the formal
process to join the European Union.
This latest Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) will again form the standard reference for all those concerned with climate change and its consequences, including students, researchers and policy makers in environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, ecology, atmospheric chemistry and environmental policy.
Climate change is one of the most significant global challenges facing the world today. It is also a critical issue for the world's cities. Now home to over half the world's population, urban areas are significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions and are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
Similarity breeds connection. This principle - the homophily principle - structures network ties of every type, including marriage, friendship, work, advice, support, information transfer, exchange, comembership, and other types of relationship. The result is that people's personal networks are homogeneous with regard to many sociodemographic, behavioral, and intrapersonal characteristics. Homophily limits people's social worlds in a way that has powerful implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience. Homophily in race and ethnicity creates the strongest divides in our personal environments, with age, religion, education, occupation, and gender following in roughly that order. Geographic propinquity, families, organizations, and isomorphic positions in social systems all create contexts in which homophilous relations form. Ties between nonsimilar individuals also dissolve at a higher rate, which sets the stage for the formation of niches (localized positions) within social space. We argue for more research on: (a) the basic ecological processes that link organizations, associations, cultural communities, social movements, and many other social forms; (b) the impact of multiplex ties on the patterns of homophily; and (c) the dynamics of network change over time through which networks and other social entities co-evolve.
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