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Psychiatric symptoms and entrepreneurial intention: The role of the behavioral activation system
Abstract
Both the scientific literature and the popular press have recently started to associate entrepre-neurship with symptoms of mental disorders. In addition, there is an emerging stream of literature devoted to the non-intendedly rational logic of entrepreneurs. Despite the high co-occurrence rate of psychiatric symptoms, prior research has only examined the independent effects of psychiatric symptoms. Furthermore, the two emerging literature streams remain largely independent. In the present study, we investigate the independent and joint association of four psychiatric symptoms (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity, narcissism, and hypomania) and entrepreneurial intention. Drawing on the reinforcement sensitivity theory, we explore whether the relationship between psychiatric symptoms and entrepreneurial intention is mediated by the behavioral activation system (BAS). Using the survey responses of 182 university students, our results show differential findings between the independent and joint effects of psychiatric symptoms on entrepreneurial intention. Importantly, we find support for the mediating role of BAS. Overall, our results suggest that BAS may serve as a unifying theoretical construct that helps to understand the relationship between multiple psychiatric symptoms and entrepreneurial intention.
... No doubt that the domain of entrepreneurship had witnessed an influx of research endeavours. Some of which studied Universities supporting students' entrepreneurship tendency (Adelekan and Tijani, 2017;Ahmed et al., 2020;Leung et al., 2020), entrepreneurial alertness for opportunity identification (Kevin, 2016), career adaptability in predicting entrepreneurial intention including those with special needs (Laramie et al., 2014;Leung et al., 2020). Related work in this domain was done by Michael and Doris (2001), who examined personal initiative (PI) as an active performance concept for work in the 21st century. ...
... No doubt that the domain of entrepreneurship had witnessed an influx of research endeavours. Some of which studied Universities supporting students' entrepreneurship tendency (Adelekan and Tijani, 2017;Ahmed et al., 2020;Leung et al., 2020), entrepreneurial alertness for opportunity identification (Kevin, 2016), career adaptability in predicting entrepreneurial intention including those with special needs (Laramie et al., 2014;Leung et al., 2020). Related work in this domain was done by Michael and Doris (2001), who examined personal initiative (PI) as an active performance concept for work in the 21st century. ...
The growing population of new graduates and the increasing scarcity of employment opportunities have made entrepreneurship an unavoidable option for employment and self-sustenance. This study investigates the effect of the initiative in moderating the relationship between intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurship intention through the integrated framework of theory of planned behaviour, self-determination, and humanism. This study contributes insights to how these factors moderated by initiative influence entrepreneurial intention among graduating students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. This study adopted a cross-sectional design to examine the moderating role of initiative on the relationship between intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intention among Nigerian graduates. A total number of 688 graduate students, including 266 (38.6%) males and 422 (61.4%) females with a mean age of 24.30 years (SD = 3.69), participated in the study. Participants responded to a self-report questionnaire containing Initiative, Intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intention scales. Results showed that all the variables correlated positively with entrepreneurial intention. Furthermore, initiative moderated the relationship between self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention [value and start-ups/operations (OPS)], such that high self-efficacy with high initiative showed higher entrepreneurial intention (value). While to those with low self-efficacy and low initiative, high self-efficacy with high initiative showed higher entrepreneurial intention (OPS) compared to low self-efficacy and low initiative. The study highlighted the role of initiative in transforming young graduates' entrepreneurial intention into full-fledged entrepreneurs.
... Scholars are striving to learn more about how ADHD symptoms may be adapted to the business venture context (e.g. Leung et al., 2020;Wiklund et al., 2017;Yu et al., 2019). Also, Hunt and Lerner (2018) argue that explanatory frameworks of business venture formation behavior, as well as the performance that consists of a rational, less-deliberative and even impulsive antecedents of entrepreneurship is widely building (e.g. ...
... hThus, examining an actual ADHD diagnosis can bolster the current understanding significantly and contribute to the ADHD and entrepreneurship literature. Finally, the recent study only considered the entrepreneurial intention; psychiatric symptoms that are examined as an asset in one business venture aspect might be a liability in other aspects (Leung et al., 2020). So, it would be worthwhile to extend this research model by exploring the intention and actual behavior link or expand this model to business venture outcomes. ...
Purpose
This study aims to integrate predictions from clinical psychology and UPPS impulsivity with the theory of planned behaviors (TPB) to draw a conceptual framework and test the prediction that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, impulsivity would contribute to the prediction of the reasoned cognitive process of entrepreneurship over and above key predictors from an extended TPB model.
Design/methodology/approach
This study utilized a sample of 2,482 students from 14 universities/institutes in Vietnam; confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test the validity and reliability. Then, regression analysis with PROCESS macro approach (5,000 bootstrap sample and 95% confidence interval) was employed to estimate the association paths and multiple mediators.
Findings
The study reveals that ADHD symptoms and impulsivity substantially contribute to the exploration of an entrepreneurial intention throughout TPB predictors, with those higher in ADHD symptoms and impulsivity having higher intentions to engage in business venturing. Moreover, UPPS impulsiveness might valuably be incorporated with TPB predictors while predicting behaviors that are often examined as the process of rational cognitive strategies business venturing.
Practical implications
This study showed that a start-up business can be seen as a career choice for students who exhibit extensive ADHD symptoms to use their talents effectively, thus contributing to creating value for society and improving personal well-being.
Originality/value
This article stood to make contributions to entrepreneurship literature by investigating the effects of ADHD symptoms, four impulsivity traits on an entrepreneurial intention via three precursors in TPB, including attitude toward entrepreneurship, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control.
... Some studies have connected entrepreneurial intention to macro effects, such as the Dark Triad (Hmieleski and Lerner, 2016), the Dark Tetrad (Cai et al., 2021) or the behavioural action system (Leung et al., 2020). A person's entrepreneurial confidence leads them to believe they have the right skills to successfully start a company (Köllinger et al., 2005). ...
Purpose
Recent years have seen a meteoric rise in the study of narcissism in entrepreneurship, although little consolidation has occurred in this area. The purpose of this paper is the development of an integrative framework to harmonise the academic discussion and serve as a structured foundation for future research.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted an artificial intelligence-aided, structured literature review focused on content analysis of concepts and contexts to map out current findings and research gaps in startup narcissism research.
Findings
According to the findings of this study, narcissistic tendencies have the potential to positively influence startup success early on in an entrepreneur's journey, but after a certain point in the process, the influence of narcissism on success becomes predominantly negative.
Research limitations/implications
The research field is currently not very harmonised regarding research measures, research subjects and key research terms. Further research must use a standardised approach to add value to the research body.
Practical implications
Narcissism is a two-sided sword for founders. In the early stages of a company, many of the founder’s tasks can benefit from narcissistic tendencies. In the later stages of a company, that might shift to overwhelmingly negative effects of narcissism.
Originality/value
Methodically, this study is the first one to establish an artificial intelligence component to add value to the results of a review paper to the best of the authors’ knowledge. The results of this study provide a clear framework of entrepreneurial intention, entrepreneurial activity and entrepreneurial performance to give researchers the opportunity of a more differentiated way of organising work.
... Asociación positiva con el rasgo de inteligencia emocional (Frenzel, 2020). El conocimiento es necesario para competir tecnológicamente (Deligianni et al., 2019) y genera una activación conductual (Leung et al., 2020). La resiliencia como capacidad del individuo para hacer frente, adaptarse y recuperarse de experiencias adversas (Yulita et al., 2020). ...
Al emprendimiento se le ha relacionado con el crecimiento económico regional por lo que en las universidades se forman emprendedores continuamente. Se pretende descubrir cuáles son los elementos clave y generar un modelo de emprendimiento. Para ello, se realizó una búsqueda de documentos en las bases de datos de WOS, Scopus, SD, DOAJ, REDIB y ERIC, y se aplicó la cartografía conceptual de Tobón et al. (2015). Los resultados mostraron que el emprendimiento tiene tres dimensiones iniciales que son la intención, la orientación y el comportamiento emprendedor, los cuales formaron la base de nuestro modelo antropológico de emprendimiento universitario propuesto.
... 相关。该系统对积极信号、奖励和避免惩罚敏感, 它的激活能调节目标行为。因此, 它与希望和满 足等积极情绪有关 (Corr, 2004)。 许多研究自恋与 BIS/BAS 的文献发现 (Collison et al., 2018;Leung et al., 2020;Miles et al., 2019;Spencer et al., 2018;Subramanian et al., 2020) ...
... Over the last two decades, scholars have growingly investigated the psychological factors of nascent entrepreneurs to have better understanding of mechanisms underlying the influence of these psychological problems on entrepreneurial activities (Gorgievski et al., 2010). Nevertheless, almost all previous studies either examine the relationship between psychological disorders, such as psychiatric symptoms (Leung et al., 2020) and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms (Yu et al., 2019), and entrepreneurship, or focus on exploring psychological distress, such as stress and anxiety about financial problems (Gorgievski et al., 2010), or general anxiety (Thompson et al., 2020) and business venture. However, there is a dearth of literature found to explore the fear and anxiety of Covid-19 on entrepreneurial activities (Hernández-Sánchez et al., 2020), while this information is really important and necessary for both scholars and practitioners (Giones et al., 2020). ...
Objective: The major objectives of the article were to explore the effects of the fear and anxiety of Covid-19 and business opportunity recognition on start-up self-efficacy, entrepreneurial intention, and behaviour, as well as to test entrepreneurial intention-behaviour association. Research Design & Methods: The study was performed by means of an online survey questionnaire con-ducted on 405 students at a Vietnamese university. The survey questionnaire was developed based on prior research. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was utilised to test the research model and hypotheses. Findings: The results illustrated that the fear and anxiety of Covid-19 have a negative impact on start-up self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention, while business opportunity recognition is strongly and positively correlated with entrepreneurial self-efficacy, entrepreneurial intention, and behaviour. In addition, entrepreneurial intention is found to be the most important antecedent to predict actual start-up behaviour whereas entrepreneurial intention significantly mediates the association between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial behaviour. Implications & Recommendations: The study offers practical contributions for both universities and policymakers to foster youths’ entrepreneurial activities and manage the negative outcome of Covid-19 on students’ mental health. Contribution & Value Added: This research contributes to the entrepreneurship literature by addressing the notable gap when testing the linkages between entrepreneurial intention and behaviour. Furthermore, the finding confirms that the fear and anxiety of Covid-19 can decrease entrepreneurial self-efficacy, intention, and behaviour, while business opportunity recognition fosters entrepreneurial activities.
... Since it was identified as the best predictor of entrepreneurial behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), entrepreneurial intention continues to attract entrepreneurship researchers' attention (Leung et al., 2020;Bazan et al., 2020). In fact, any planned behaviour, including starting up a new business venture, cannot take place without the intention of doing business (Ajzen, 1991). ...
In this article, we theoretically and empirically examine why and how social identity and overwork/workaholism represent pathways to convey the effect of dark triad traits – Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy – on venture performance. By analyzing the data of 569 university students with their own businesses in the Global University Entrepreneurial Spirit Students’ Survey, we show that compulsive overwork and Darwinian social identity partially mediate the positive effect of narcissism on venture performance. Thus, our study extends the narcissism literature by exploring the mechanism of the positive impact of narcissism on venture performance and implies that narcissism is not necessarily an adverse personality characteristic in an entrepreneurial context.
The intersection of entrepreneurship and mental health has spurred many novel lines of scholarly inquiry. In this editorial, we summarize 23 such studies that have been published in Journal of Business Venturing Insights over the last seven years. In doing so, we emphasize both the differences and similarities among studies in this emerging body of research. Our work illustrates a variety of silos emerging in this growing research domain, as well as potential opportunities for greater theoretical extensions and cumulative knowledge building. We offer several proposals that establish entrepreneurship as a bridging context for mental health inquiries, a context with the potential to unify previously siloed discoveries and shift the knowledge frontier upwards. We conclude with a note for practitioners on the potential virtuous cycle that awaits.
College students are the group with the most entrepreneurial vitality and potential. How to cultivate their entrepreneurial and innovative ability is one of the important and urgent issues facing this current social development. This paper proposes a reliable, intelligent prediction model of entrepreneurial intentions, providing theoretical support for guiding college students’ positive entrepreneurial intentions. The model mainly uses the improved crow search algorithm (CSA) to optimize the kernel extreme learning machine (KELM) model with feature selection (FS), namely CSA-KELM-FS, to study entrepreneurial intention. To obtain the best fitting model and key features, the gradient search rule, local escaping operator, and levy flight mutation (GLL) mechanism are introduced to enhance the CSA (GLLCSA), and FS is used to extract the key features. To verify the performance of the proposed GLLCSA, it is compared with eight other state-of-the-art methods. Further, the GLLCSA-KELM-FS model and five other machine learning methods have been used to predict the entrepreneurial intentions of 842 students from the Wenzhou Vocational College in Zhejiang, China, in the past five years. The results show that the proposed model can correctly predict the students’ entrepreneurial intention with an accuracy rate of 93.2% and excellent stability. According to the prediction results of the proposed model, the key factors affecting the student’s entrepreneurial intention are mainly the major studied, campus innovation, entrepreneurship practice experience, and positive personality. Therefore, the proposed GLLCSA-KELM-FS is expected to be an effective tool for predicting students’ entrepreneurial intentions.
One of the most important models of motivational approach and avoidance, in recent decades, is the model of behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) presented by Gray. The present study aimed at comparing the group metacognitive therapy (MCT) and group mindfulness acceptance and commitment therapy (MAC) on BAS and BIS of anxious professional football players in the U-19 league in Tehran. Participants in this study were 60 football players in professional football leagues in Tehran. These participants were entered into the assessment stage, and after obtaining informed consent, they were randomly assigned to one of the three experiment groups of MCT, MAC, and WL. The participants completed Jackson’s revised 5-scale of rewarded sensitivity theory in pretest, posttest, and three months follow-up stages. The results of the present study demonstrate that MCT and MAC can make some changes in BAS and BIS among anxious football players. MCT has been more affecting on BIS than both other groups. According to these findings, it would ensure that football players affected by anxiety can take the opportunity to gain advantages from such third-wave interventions.
Purpose
The purpose of our study is to examine the direct and mediating effects of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking (UPPS) impulsivity traits on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention as well as to test the moderation impact of ADHD symptoms in the link between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and start-up intention.
Design/methodology/approach
The stratified random sampling was approached to recruit the data from 2,566 university students in Vietnam. Cronbach’s alpha and confirmatory factor analysis were used to test the reliability and validity of scales. Then, Pearson correlation analysis was utilized to test direct effects, while PROCESS macro was approached to test moderation and mediation impacts.
Findings
The study found evidence that ADHD symptoms, sensation seeking, lack of premeditation and lack of perseverance are significantly and directly conducive to the formation of entrepreneurial intention. Yet, ADHD symptoms might weaken the link between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy was also found to partially mediate the link between sensation seeking, lack of premeditation, and lack of perseverance and intention to become an entrepreneur.
Practical implications
The findings provide constructive recommendations for policymakers and educators to nurture and foster university students’ entrepreneurial activities as well as to restrain the negative effects of ADHD symptoms on youths.
Social implications
Understanding the impacts of psychiatric symptoms, such as ADHD and UPPS impulsivity, on entrepreneurial activities provide useful insights to individuals with ADHD symptoms, the community and the society to restrain the detrimental impacts of psychological disorder symptoms and consider entrepreneurship as a career choice.
Originality/value
The study is expected to have a significant contribution to psychological entrepreneurship literature by broadening our horizons of the links between psychiatric symptoms and entrepreneurial intentions. Especially, this study reveals that ADHD symptoms and UPPS impulsive traits are significantly correlated with intention to become entrepreneurs and the link between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention become weaker when the degree of ADHD symptoms is high.
Our study proposed a research model in which opportunity recognition mediates the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits and entrepreneurial intentions, and locus of control moderates the influence of opportunity recognition on entrepreneurial intentions based on the theory of planned behavior. To test the model, we used data collected from a sample of 962 undergraduate students who were enrolled in nine Vietnamese universities. The results show that opportunity recognition mediates the effects of the Dark Triad traits, namely Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism, on entrepreneurial intentions. In addition, the influence of opportunity recognition on entrepreneurial intentions was positively moderated by internal locus of control and negatively moderated by external locus of control. Our results cast light on the mediation and moderation mechanisms of the relationships between Dark Triad traits and entrepreneurial intentions and provide empirical evidence supporting the theory of planned behavior. Furthermore, the study proposes implications for educators to motivate students’ intentions to start a business venture.
Our study aims to explore the influences of trait competitiveness and entrepreneurial alertness on the cognitive process of entrepreneurship in the cross-cultural context of Vietnam and Poland, two emerging nations with different levels of economic and social development. To achieve this research goal, two student questionnaire surveys were carried out at universities and institutes in Vietnam and Poland. Structural equation modelling (SEM) with a bootstrapping approach was utilised to test the proposed hypotheses and conceptual model. Eight hypotheses were statistically supported by the Vietnamese dataset, confirming the significant and positive effects of both trait competitiveness and entrepreneurial alertness on the cognition process of entrepreneurship. However, for the Polish data, trait competitiveness was not found to be associated with an entrepreneurial attitude, perceived behaviour control, or entrepreneurial intention, while entrepreneurial alertness was positively related to perceived behavioural control. Our study has significantly contributed to the entrepreneurship literature by increasing the knowledge about the central role of trait competitiveness and entrepreneurial alertness on the cognitive process of business ventures in two emerging countries, where to the best of our knowledge, few studies related to our topic have been researched. Moreover, practical contributions are also offered for educational institutions and practitioners to stimulate university students' business venturing activities.
Purpose
This study aims to develop a conceptual framework that integrated insights from Shapero and Sokol (1982)’s model of entrepreneurial event, Bandura (1977)’s social learning theory and clinical psychology to empirically test and discover the underlying mechanism of how attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) symptoms can influence student entrepreneurial intention.
Design/methodology/approach
The study uses structural equation modeling with a sample of 2,218 students from 14 universities in Vietnam.
Findings
The research reveals that although ADHD symptoms are not found to have the direct role in shaping student perceived feasibility entrepreneurial intention, these psychiatric symptoms have more influences and significances in the growth of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and perceived desirability. Also, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and perceived desirability are found to be full mediators in ADHD symptoms and entrepreneurial intention linkage. Besides, both perceived desirability and perceived feasibility partially mediate the entrepreneurial self-efficacy effect on entrepreneurial intention.
Practical implications
The findings provide policymakers and universities with important insights into how to nurture intention to become entrepreneurs among college students, especially those individuals.
Originality/value
The present study offers a new insight about the linkage between ADHD symptoms and entrepreneurial intention. Also, the model of entrepreneurial event and the social learning theory are shown to be unifying theoretical construct of the relationship between psychiatric symptoms and entrepreneurial intention among Vietnamese students.
We use the 2012-2018 China Family Panel Studies data to examine the relationship between household energy poverty and an individual's probability of becoming an entrepreneur. Consistent with the theory of underdog entrepreneurship that negative personal circumstances can foster self-reliance, resourcefulness and other skills and personality traits conducive to entrepreneurship, we find that spending a higher share of household income on energy consumption or being energy poor increases the probability of being an entrepreneur. The results are robust to various checks, including alternative measures of energy poverty, non-linear effects of the share of energy spending in household income, past entrepreneurial experience, alternative estimation methods and potential omitted variable bias. We also explore the channels through which energy poverty influences whether one chooses to become an entrepreneur. We find that cognitive functions, mental health and self-confidence negatively mediate, while self-belief, extroversion and openness positively mediate, the relationship between energy poverty and entrepreneurship.
While entrepreneurial behaviour is generally seen to arise from a reasoned, judgement-then-action pathway, evidence of an alternative is emerging. Yet, this alternative – an unreasoned, impulse-driven pathway remains to be empirically explored. We develop a novel measure to capture this unreasoned pathway and test a mediation model explaining how multidimensional trait impulsivity impacts entrepreneurial behaviour via this pathway. Employing structural equation modelling with longitudinal survey data from owner-managers and several robustness tests, we find compelling support for our model. We demonstrate a lack of reasoning, exhibited through placing more salience on an entrepreneurial opportunity’s desirability than feasibility, as a critical pathway explaining how impulsivity encourages entrepreneurial behaviour and overcomes the inhibitory effects of uncertainty in entrepreneurial pursuits. These results advance a rapidly unfolding scholarly debate regarding whether all entrepreneurial behaviour ought to be ascribed a reasoned, intendedly rational role, the implications of which extend to theories of entrepreneurial behaviour and the inclusion of an unreasoned pathway within them.
This study advances research on mental health and entrepreneurship through the examination of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-like symptoms, associated with hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention. We examine the impact of these symptoms at age 10 on entrepreneurial performance as an adult. We find that while ADHD-like symptoms in childhood may have a positive impact on entrepreneurial selection, they negatively impact on survival and performance, with a variant effect by each symptom, predominantly among males. We find that high levels of inattention predict business failure and lower take-home income, while high levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity contribute to overall negative earnings' growth.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of family business exposure on individuals' entrepreneurial intentions (EIs). By applying the institutional framework at the micro level, this study proposed the mediation of three types of institutional forces (coercive, normative and mimetic) between the relationship of family business exposure and EIs.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 367 university students in Pakistan. The survey design was used for the data collection. The measurement and hypothesized models were tested using the structural equation modeling technique in Mplus 7.0.
Findings
The findings of this study revealed that family business exposure positively influenced the institutional forces (coercive, normative and mimetic) which further developed the individuals' EIs. However, family business exposure did not affect the EIs directly that showed the full mediation of institutional forces between the relationship of family business exposure and EIs.
Originality/value
This is the first study in its nature which applied institutional theory from the macro level to the micro level within the context of family business. The results revealed the institutional forces as the underpinning mechanism which explains the relationship between family business exposure and EIs.
The driving factors behind the exploration and search for entrepreneurial intention (EI) are critical to entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial practice. To reveal in depth the influence of personality traits on EI, our study introduces the opposite of proactive personality-the dark triad that consists of narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Our study used the MBA students of Tianjin University as a sample to analyze the relationship between the dark triad, entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) and EI. A total of 334 MBA students aged 24-47 years participated and the participation rate is 95.71%. The data collection was largely concentrated in the period from May 15 to June 5, 2018. From the overall perspective of the dark triad, the results show that the dark triad positively predicts EI, and ESE has a partial mediating effect on the dark triad and EI. From the perspective of the three members of the dark triad, the study found that narcissism/psychopathy has a negative effect on ESE and EI; narcissism/psychopathy has a non-linear effect on EI; Machiavellianism has a positive effect on ESE and EI; and ESE has a mediating effect on the three members of the dark triad and EI. In short, our research reveals that the three members of the dark triad have different effects on EI in different cultural contexts, and the research findings have certain reference value for further improvement of entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial practice.
A growing conversation has emerged linking ostensibly dark or pathological individual-level characteristics to entrepreneurship. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is among the most central and emblematic. Recent studies have made great strides—articulating the theoretical relevance of ADHD-type behavior in entrepreneurship and suggesting a positive link consistent with narratives in the popular press. However, quantitative studies have yet to empirically examine ADHD in line with its theoretical roots and definition—as a clinical disorder. The present paper contributes by providing a theoretically–empirically aligned test of the connection between the condition of ADHD and entrepreneurial intention and action. Based on a large-scale data collection effort (N = 9869) and cross-sectional methodology, the results find a positive connection between clinical ADHD and entrepreneurial intentions as well as entrepreneurial action. This grounds prior research on ADHD and entrepreneurship, indicating that individuals with ADHD are indeed more likely to not just espouse entrepreneurial intentions, but also to initiate business venturing. Considering the design, it suggests a self-selection toward entrepreneurship in individuals with ADHD (before potentially being a choice of last resort).
Psychiatric conditions and sub-threshold psychiatric temperaments may influence entrepreneurs’ affect, cognition, energy, motivation, circadian rhythms, activity levels, self-concept, creativity, and interpersonal behaviors in ways that influence business outcomes. We used a self-report survey to examine the prevalence and co-occurrence of five psychiatric conditions among 242 entrepreneurs and 93 comparison participants. Mental health differences directly or indirectly affected 72% of the entrepreneurs in this sample, including those with a personal mental health history (49%) and family mental health history among the asymptomatic entrepreneurs (23%). Entrepreneurs reported experiencing more depression (30%), ADHD (29%), substance use (12%), and bipolar disorder (11%) than comparison participants. Furthermore, 32% of the entrepreneurs reported having two or more mental health conditions, while 18% reported having three or more mental health conditions. Asymptomatic entrepreneurs (having no mental health issues) with asymptomatic families constituted only 24% of the entrepreneur participants. Entrepreneurs’ psychiatric issues can affect their functioning and that of their ventures. Therefore, integrating knowledge about psychiatric conditions with research on personality traits can broaden the understanding of how mental health-related traits, states, and family history can influence entrepreneurial outcomes. We discuss methodological limitations as well as implications of our findings for entrepreneurship research and practice.
Develops integrated perspective on the dualism of ADHD in entreprenurship, both across the extended entrepreneurial process and within particular stages/activites.
Mental disorders are prevalent, place considerable burden on the economy and lead to suffering for those with the disorders and their loved ones. However, there is a flipside. Evidence suggests that people with mental disorders can flourish and productively contribute to society through entrepreneurship. This paper explores the relationship between mental disorders and entrepreneurship. It builds a research agenda to propose that researchers explore the role of mental disorders in the entrepreneurial context. We show how such research will advance this new field of research, but also how it can develop novel insights and theories in entrepreneurship and contribute to theories on the psychology of work, career choice, and clinical psychology.
Mediation analysis has become one of the most popular statistical methods in the social sciences. However, many currently available effect size measures for mediation have limitations that restrict their use to specific mediation models. In this article, we develop a measure of effect size that addresses these limitations. We show how modification of a currently existing effect size measure results in a novel effect size measure with many desirable properties. We also derive an expression for the bias of the sample estimator for the proposed effect size measure and propose an adjusted version of the estimator. We present a Monte Carlo simulation study conducted to examine the finite sampling properties of the adjusted and unadjusted estimators, which shows that the adjusted estimator is effective at recovering the true value it estimates. Finally, we demonstrate the use of the effect size measure with an empirical example. We provide freely available software so that researchers can immediately implement the methods we discuss. Our developments here extend the existing literature on effect sizes and mediation by developing a potentially useful method of communicating the magnitude of mediation.
Entrepreneurial action is central to entrepreneurship theory, and is broadly seen to arise as a consequence of intendedly rational logics (whether causal or effectual), reflecting reasoned judgment. But, is this always the case? While entrepreneurial action may often be the result of a judgmental decision (between alternative courses of action/inaction), the presumption that reasoned judgment encompasses all the motives, modes and mechanisms leading to entrepreneurial outcomes seems dubious. Building on an emerging literature that seeks to address the boundaries of reasoned entrepreneurial action, we develop the notion that non-deliberative impulse-driven behavioral logics can also be the basis for business venturing. Our framework offers a complementary perspective to the intendedly-rational, deliberate logics perspective, opening novel pathways for future research and theory-building.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the adult population is frequently associated with comorbid psychiatric diseases that complicate its recognition, diagnosis and management.
The prevalence of ADHD in the general adult population is 2.5% and it is associated with substantial personal and individual burden. The most frequent comorbid psychopathologies include mood and anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, and personality disorders. There are strong familial links and neurobiological similarities between ADHD and the various associated psychiatric comorbidities. The overlapping symptoms between ADHD and comorbid psychopathologies represent challenges for diagnosis and treatment. Guidelines recommend that when ADHD coexists with other psychopathologies in adults, the most impairing condition should generally be treated first.
Early recognition and treatment of ADHD and its comorbidities has the potential to change the trajectory of psychiatric morbidity later in life. The use of validated assessment scales and high-yield clinical questions can help identify adults with ADHD who could potentially benefit from evidence-based management strategies.
Impulsive individuals are attracted to uncertain contexts, such as entrepreneurship, and are more likely to act despite this uncertainty. Thus, impulsivity may represent an asset in entrepreneurship. This paper outlines a conceptual framework and develops detailed propositions for the multifaceted influence of impulsivity on entrepreneurial action. It moves beyond entrepreneurship as a deliberate cognitive process to sufficiently account for how uncertainty influences action. In so doing, this paper constitutes a counterweight to the extensive examinations of positive personal attributes in entrepreneurship research. It also suggests a context in which a common trait with strong negative connotations may be advantageous.
Keywords:
Impulsivity; entrepreneurship; uncertainty
This article discusses the current and potential application of experimental methods to the study of entrepreneurship phenomena. Drawing on a review of experimental studies in entrepreneurship research, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of experimental research designs for entrepreneurship research as a primer for those interested but not overly familiar with these methods. To advance research agendas and theory in the field, we introduce a typology of experimental manipulations that highlight alternative design choices based on the nature of their participant impact and realism of context. Finally, we provide an overview of areas of opportunity within the entrepreneurship literature for application of methods best suited to provide greater insight into the causal mechanisms at play. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1094428116685613
Background:
This study aimed to test the validity of using the Hypomania Checklist-16 [HCL-16] to measure hypomania in a British adolescent community sample. Limited research is available concerning the characterization of hypomania among community adolescent samples, particularly in the UK, despite its potential importance for early intervention policy development.
Method:
To explore the structure and characterization of hypomania in a British adolescent nonclinical cohort, over 1400 17 year olds (Mean=17.05 years; SD=0.88) completed the HCL-16 along with measures of different psychological and psychopathological dimensions.
Results:
Principal components analysis revealed a 2-component solution for the HCL-16, described as active-elated and irritable/risk-taking. Hypomanic symptoms were significantly correlated with many psychopathological dimensions. There were distinct correlation patterns for the two HCL-16 subscales, with the irritability/risk-taking subscale showing significantly stronger associations with psychotic-like experiences, internalizing and externalizing problems, and reduced life satisfaction relative to the active-elated dimension. Adolescents at 'high-risk' for bipolar disorder reported more psychopathology relative to the comparison group.
Limitations:
Absence of the clinical diagnosis of bipolar disorder in the sample means that the classification of the 'high-risk' group cannot be confirmed.
Conclusions:
The structure of the HCL-16 in this UK adolescent sample mirrored that observed in adult and clinical cohorts. The observed links between the HCL-16 and psychopathological dimensions that have been previously associated with both hypomania and bipolar disorder lend support to the HCL-16's validity as a hypomania instrument for adolescents. Better understanding of hypomania prior to adulthood has considerable potential for informing early intervention approaches.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity (ADHD) symptoms have been associated with the decision to become self-employed. Although these symptoms are generally regarded as disadvantageous, there may also be a bright side. To our knowledge, however, there has been no systematic, epidemiological evidence to support this claim. This paper examines the association between ADHD symptoms and self-employment in a population-based sample from the STAGE cohort of the Swedish Twin Registry (N = 7208). For replication, we used a sample of Dutch students who participated in the Global University Entrepreneurial Spirit Students' Survey (N = 13,112). In the Swedish sample, we found a positive association with self-employment for both general ADHD symptoms [odds ratio (OR) 1.13; 95 % confidence intervals (CI) 1.04-1.23] and hyperactivity symptoms [OR 1.19; 95 % CI 1.08-1.32], whereas no association was found for attention-deficit symptoms [OR 0.99; 95 % CI 0.89-1.10]. The positive association between hyperactivity and self-employment was replicated in the Dutch student sample [OR 1.09; 95 % CI 1.03-1.15]. Our results show that certain aspects of ADHD, in particular hyperactivity, can have a bright side, as they are positively associated with self-employment.
We propose the use of Twitter analysis as an alternative source of data to document weekly trends in emotion and stress, and attempt to use the method to estimate the work recovery effect of weekends. On the basis of 2,102,176,189 Tweets, we apply Pennebaker's linguistic inquiry word count (LIWC) approach to measure daily Tweet content across 18 months, aggregated to the US national level of analysis. We derived a word count dictionary to assess work stress and applied p-technique factor analysis to the daily word count data from 19 substantively different content areas covered by the LIWC dictionaries. Dynamic factor analysis revealed two latent factors in day-level variation of Tweet content. These two factors are: (a) a negative emotion/stress/somatic factor, and (b) a positive emotion/food/friends/home/family/leisure factor, onto which elements of work, money, achievement, and health issues have strong negative loadings. The weekly trend analysis revealed a clear “Friday dip” for work stress and negative emotion expressed on Twitter. In contrast, positive emotion Tweets showed a “mid-week dip” for Tuesday-Wednesday-Thursday and “weekend peak” for Friday through Sunday, whereas work/money/achievement/health problem Tweets showed a small “weekend dip” on Fridays through Sundays. Results partially support the Effort-Recovery theory. Implications and limitations of the method are discussed.
In this review of the psychology of entrepreneurship, we first present meta-analytic findings showing that personality dimensions, such as (general) self-efficacy and need for achievement, and entrepreneurial orientation are highly associated with entrepreneurship (business creation and business success). We then discuss constructs that were developed within entrepreneurship research, such as entrepreneurial alertness, business planning, financial capital as resources, and entrepreneurial orientation, and how they can be better understood by taking a psychological perspective. Next, we elaborate how traditional psychological constructs have been utilized in entrepreneurship and how this may enhance our knowledge in industrial and organizational psychology (with respect to, for example, knowledge, practical intelligence, cognitive biases, goals and visions, personal initiative, passion, and positive and negative affect). Finally, we provide an overall framework useful for the psychology of entrepreneurship, and implications for future research.
Little is known about the relation between entrepreneurship and the extent of psychiatric symptoms. Validated psychiatric symptom scores are seldom used for non-clinical reasons. One prevalent symptom that deserves our interest is Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a developmental disorder characterized by inattentiveness and hyperactivity that has been linked to occupational choice and performance. Building on the person–environment fit literature, we hypothesize that individuals who exhibit behavior associated with ADHD are more likely to have entrepreneurial intentions. Using a sample of 10,104 students enrolled in higher education, we can confirm our prediction that students with a higher level of ADHD-like behavior are more likely to have entrepreneurial intentions. Additionally, we show that risk taking propensity is a mediator that partly explains this positive effect. Our study points to the importance of behavioral tendencies associated with developmental disorders, when making entrepreneurship decisions. Our study contributes to the literature on the determinants of entrepreneurship, which so far has largely neglected the effects of psychiatric symptoms on entrepreneurship.
A set of meta-analyses were conducted to examine the relationship of personality to outcomes associated with two different stages of the entrepreneurial process: entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial performance. A broad range of personality scales were categorized into a parsimonious set of constructs using the Five Factor model of personality. The results show that four of the Big Five personality dimensions were associated with both dependent variables, with agreeableness failing to be associated with either. Multivariate effect sizes were moderate for the full set of Big Five personality variables on entrepreneurial intentions (multiple R = .36) and entrepreneurial performance (multiple R = .31). Risk propensity, included as a separate dimension of personality, was positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions but was not related to entrepreneurial performance. These effects suggest that personality plays a role in the emergence and success of entrepreneurs.
Self-reports figure prominently in organizational and management research, but there are several problems associated with their use. This article identifies six categories of self-reports and discusses such problems as common method variance, the consistency motif, and social desirability. Statistical and post hoc remedies and some procedural methods for dealing with artifactual bias are presented and evaluated. Recommendations for future research are also offered.
The role of personality traits in the decision to start a business and to maintain it successfully is discussed controversially in entrepreneurship research. Our meta-analysis builds upon and extends earlier meta-analyses by doing a full analysis of personality traits that includes a comparison of different traits from a theoretical perspective and by analysing a full set of personality predictors for both start-up activities as well as success. Theoretically, our article adds to the literature by matching traits to the tasks of entrepreneurs. The results indicate that traits matched to the task of running a business produced higher effect sizes with business creation than traits that were not matched to the task of running an enterprise, corrected r = .247, K = 47, N = 13,280, and corrected r = .124, K = 20, N = 3975, respectively. Moreover, traits matched to the task produced higher correlations with success, corrected r = .250, K = 42, N = 5607, than traits not matched to the task of running a business, corrected r = .028, K = 13, N = 2777. The traits matched to entrepreneurship significantly correlated with entrepreneurial behaviour (business creation, business success) were need for achievement, generalized self-efficacy, innovativeness, stress tolerance, need for autonomy, and proactive personality. These relationships were of moderate size in general and, moreover, heterogeneity suggested that future research should analyse moderator variables.
J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Baron and Kenny's procedure for determining if an independent variable affects a dependent variable through some mediator is so well known that it is used by authors and requested by reviewers almost reflexively. Many research projects have been terminated early in a research program or later in the review process because the data did not conform to Baron and Kenny's criteria, impeding theoretical development. While the technical literature has disputed some of Baron and Kenny's tests, this literature has not diffused to practicing researchers. We present a nontechnical summary of the flaws in the Baron and Kenny logic, some of which have not been previously noted. We provide a decision tree and a step-by-step procedure for testing mediation, classifying its type, and interpreting the implications of findings for theory building and future research. (c) 2010 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Short of studying actual new venture launches, what could possibly be more potent than understanding the preconditions that
enable entrepreneurial activity? Early research focused unsurprisingly on behavior (the “what?” and the “how?” even somewhat
the “where?” and the “when?”) and since entrepreneurs were obviously special people, on the entrepreneurial person (the “who?”).
Intentions are classically defined as the cognitive state temporally and causally prior to action (e.g., Dennett 1989; Krueger
2000). Here that translates to the working definition of the cognitive state temporally and causally prior to the decision
to start a business. The field has adopted and adapted formal models of entrepreneurial intentions that are based on strong,
widely accepted theory and whose results appear not only empirically robust but of great practical value. But do we have what
we think we have? Or have we also opened the door to a much broader range of questions that will advance our theoretical understanding
of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs? We offer here a glimpse of the remarkably wide array of fascinating questions for entrepreneurship
scholars.
This study examined the reliability, factor structure, and convergent validity of the Dutch version of C. S. Carver and T. L. Whites (1994) Behavioral Approach System and Behavioral Inhibition System Scales (BIS/BAS Scales). For this purpose, the BIS/BAS Scales, a shortened version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), and the Dickman Impulsivity Inventory (DII) were administered to 246 undergraduate students in The Netherlands. The internal consistency of the BIS/BAS Scales was sufficient. Further, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the Dutch BIS/BAS Scales have a factor structure similar to the English version. Finally, BIS/BAS Scales were found to correlate in a theoretically meaningful way with extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, and impulsivity.
Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation levels have been theorized to relate to a broad range of psychopathologies. To date, however, studies have focused on a single diagnosis, and the measures used to assess different psychopathologies have varied greatly. This study assessed how levels of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation relate to lifetime diagnoses of depression, anxiety, drug abuse and dependence, alcohol abuseand dependence, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and conduct disorder. A representative community sample of 1,803 individuals between the ages of 19 and 21 in the Miami area was surveyed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and the Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation Scales (BIS/BAS; C. S. Carver & T. White, 1994). Results supported the role of BIS as a vulnerability factor for depression and anxiety and of BAS Fun Seeking for drug abuse and noncomorbid alcohol diagnoses. Other models were not supported. Goals in understanding BIS and BAS are described, including the need for prospective studies with a broader array of behavioral indices.
The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and tolerance are both widely used measures of the degree of multi-collinearity of the
ith independent variable with the other independent variables in a regression model. Unfortunately, several rules of thumb
– most commonly the rule of 10 – associated with VIF are regarded by many practitioners as a sign of severe or serious multi-collinearity
(this rule appears in both scholarly articles and advanced statistical textbooks). When VIF reaches these threshold values
researchers often attempt to reduce the collinearity by eliminating one or more variables from their analysis; using Ridge
Regression to analyze their data; or combining two or more independent variables into a single index. These techniques for
curing problems associated with multi-collinearity can create problems more serious than those they solve. Because of this,
we examine these rules of thumb and find that threshold values of the VIF (and tolerance) need to be evaluated in the context
of several other factors that influence the variance of regression coefficients. Values of the VIF of 10, 20, 40, or even
higher do not, by themselves, discount the results of regression analyses, call for the elimination of one or more independent
variables from the analysis, suggest the use of ridge regression, or require combining of independent variable into a single
index.
Drawing on the theory of planned behaviour, this study tests the effect of entrepreneurship programmes on the entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions of science and engineering students. This is necessary in order to confirm (or disconfirm) conventional wisdom that entrepreneurship education increases the intention to start a business. The results show that the programmes raise some attitudes and the overall entrepreneurial intention and that inspiration (a construct with an emotional element) is the programmes' most influential benefit. The findings contribute to the theories of planned behaviour and education and have wider implications for a theory of entrepreneurial emotions and also for the practice of teaching entrepreneurship.
Cross-sectional studies of attitude-behavior relationships are vulnerable to the inflation of correlations by common method variance (CMV). Here, a model is presented that allows partial correlation analysis to adjust the observed correlations for CMV contamination and determine if conclusions about the statistical and practical significance of a predictor have been influenced by the presence of CMV. This method also suggests procedures for designing questionnaires to increase the precision of this adjustment.
Recently, entrepreneurship scholars have started to show interest in how " negative " traits associated with mental disorders such as ADHD may have positive implications in entrepreneur-ship. While this research has the potential of producing important and counter-intuitive results, it is still in its infancy and the causal mechanisms that drive those individuals to be attracted to entrepreneurship have received limited attention. Consequently, we draw on the person-environment fit literature and propose that individuals are attracted to, and engage in, entrepreneurship because the task environment of entrepreneurship which favors speed of action is aligned with the traits of those individuals. We develop and test a model which suggests that ADHD influences entrepreneurship through the multifaceted trait of impulsivity. We find that inattention is negatively but hyperactivity is positively associated with entrepre-neurship. We also find that sensation seeking and lack of premeditation generally positively influences entrepreneurship, whereas urgency has the opposite influence. Taken together, this suggests complex, multifaceted implications of ADHD and impulsivity in entrepreneurship. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. Research on entrepreneur personality has been mostly associated with positive traits, such as self-efficacy and achievement motivation. However, most traits are not universally positive or negative and what is functional or dysfunctional depends on context (Judge et al., 2009). Entre-preneurship is characterized by uncertainty, which indices anxiety, worry, procrastination and inaction among most people (McMullen and Shepherd, 2006; Paulus, 2007). However, it is also a vocation that grants more autonomy in terms of job design and task allocation, which may be attractive to individuals who need more leeway in designing their own tasks. Acknowledging the high uncertainty and autonomy in entrepreneurship, we argue that ADHD symptoms, which are associated with negative consequences in many areas of life, may have positive implications in the context of entrepreneurship because ADHD is characterized by traits such as sensation seeking, a focus on action with little premeditation, and a desire for autonomy. We employ person-environment fit theory (e.g., Holland, 1997) to argue that ADHD symptoms influence entrepreneurial preferences and behavior through the multi-dimensional traits of im-pulsivity. Specifically, ADHD symptoms are related to higher levels of sensation seeking, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and urgency. These traits in turn influence the perceived attractiveness of entrepreneurship and the probability of starting a business. We conducted surveys on a sample of MBA alumni from a school that is consistently ranked as one of the top fifty public MBA programs, who by virtue of their degree tend to have viable job opportunities and were thus less likely to be pushed into entrepreneurship. We find that ADHD symptoms have a complicated relationship with entrepreneurial preferences and action, with the pathway through sensation seeking and lack of premeditation being mostly positive while the pathway through urgency being negative. Further, hyperactive symptoms seem to mainly result in positive outcomes while inattention symptoms lead to negative ones. Our findings demonstrate that entrepreneurship is indeed a unique area where negative traits, such as ADHD, may represent valuable assets. Previous research has mostly associated ADHD with negative job-related outcomes (Barkley et al., 2006). Our research indicates that certain aspects of ADHD symptoms, such as sensation seeking and lack of premeditation, could lead individuals to be attracted to entrepreneurship and to start their own businesses. This suggests a contextualized view of personality traits, as well as boundary conditions to existing theories. Second, we develop and empirically test a model that links ADHD symptoms to entrepreneur-ship through the multi-dimensional traits of impulsivity, which provides a more nuanced and theoretically interesting understanding of the ADHD—entrepreneurship relationship. The same can be said about our findings of the differential influences of inattention and hyperactivity symptoms. Thus, this paper contributes to previous research on ADHD and entrepreneurship that has mostly examined the bivariate relationship between the two (e.g., Veryheul et al., 2015; Thurik et al., 2016). Finally, our post-hoc analyses showed that the effects of ADHD symptoms on entrepreneurship are more pronounced under highly uncertain environments. This is consistent with our theorizing, suggesting that individuals with ADHD symptoms are more likely to harness advantages associated with ADHD rather than suffer from associated disadvantages in highly uncertain and dynamic environments such as entrepreneurship. There are at least two important practice implications of our results. First, our results imply that individuals with ADHD symptoms may be empowered to craft their own jobs to fit their special needs. Second, our findings suggest that people with ADHD symptoms and impul-sivity will tend to prefer action speed over action accuracy and that this may be functional in the context of entrepreneurship.
This study examined relationships of the dark triad personality characteristics (i.e., narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) with entrepreneurial intentions and motives. Results from samples of business undergraduates (N = 508) and MBA students (N = 234) found narcissism to be positively related to entrepreneurial intentions. In addition, results from subgroups of business undergraduates and MBA students high in entrepreneurial intentions (i.e., early-stage nascent entrepreneurs) indicated differences in motives for engaging in the startup process. Specifically, we found all facets of the dark triad to be positively associated with unproductive entrepreneurial motives, and observed differential associations of the dark triad characteristics with productive entrepreneurial motives.
We document the predictive relevance of the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) in a novel domain of societal importance: entrepreneurship. Based on structural equation models, Study 1 (N=320) reveals that BAS Reward Responsiveness (BAS-RR) has a negative and BAS Fun Seeking (BAS-FS) has a positive association with entrepreneurial intent. Similar results emerge for Study 2 (N=470): BAS-RR is negatively and BAS Drive (BAS-D) is positively related to entrepreneurial intent. Additionally, Study 2 includes entrepreneurial experience, which is negatively related with BAS-RR and positively with BAS-D. We do not find any significant relationship between BIS and entrepreneurial intent or experience. Our results support the multidimensionality of the BAS, with the subscales being differently associated with both entrepreneurial intent and experience. Finally, by simultaneously including intent and experience, Study 2 makes a methodological contribution related to the validity of student samples when analyzing entrepreneurial intent.
While the personality of entrepreneurs can be cast in positive and negative lights, it is essential that researchers understand the complex process through which personalities shape behavior and influence outcomes. Building on Miller's observations on downsides of entrepreneurs' personalities, we present five broad lines of inquiry derived from the organizational behavior literature to guide future research on the role of personality in entrepreneurial phenomena. These streams of research have implications for how personality is conceptualized in the entrepreneurship literature, and we urge researchers to examine interactions among different personality traits, and between traits and contextual and affective variables which play a critical role in personality-outcome relationships. Finally, we encourage scholars to consider the personality of new venture team members, and how some traits may serve important resource-conservation roles.
We advance a model that highlights contingent linkages between overconfidence and narcissism, entrepreneurial entry, and the successful realization of venture opportunities. Overall, our proposals point to a paradox in which entrepreneurs high in overconfidence and narcissism are propelled toward more novel venture contexts-where these qualities are most detrimental to venture success-and are repelled from more familiar venture contexts-where these qualities are least harmful and may even facilitate venture success. To illuminate these patterns of misalignment, we attend to the defining characteristics of alternative venture contexts and the focal constructs of overconfidence and narcissism.
Popular literature suggests a relationship between entrepreneurship and manic tendencies, yet little scientific research has evaluated whether manic tendencies foster entrance into entrepreneurial roles, intent to become an entrepreneur, or success as an entrepreneur.Methods
In study 1, 225 undergraduates and business school students/affiliates took an online survey to assess engagement and intent as entrepreneurs, as well as manic tendencies, including family diagnoses as reported on the Family Index of Risk for Mania, subsyndromal manic tendencies as assessed with the Hypomanic Personality Scale, and self-reported diagnoses. In study 2, the sample of entrepreneurs identified in study 1 was enriched by recruiting a larger group of established entrepreneurs from the community. Entrepreneurs (n=210) completed items concerning their success in entrepreneurship, and we examined whether the three measures of manic tendencies were related to success.ResultsThere was no evidence that those vulnerable to mania, regardless of definition, were more likely to be entrepreneurs, to intend to become entrepreneurs, or to succeed as entrepreneurs.LimitationsThe studies were limited by self-report measures and relatively small samples.Conclusions
More nuanced models may explain the frequent clinical observations of manic traits among entrepreneurs.
Increasing interest in the development of entrepreneurial intentions has elevated the importance of theories that predict and explain individuals' propensity to start a firm. The purpose of this study is to meta-analytically test and integrate the theory of planned behavior and the entrepreneurial event model. We summarize the findings of 98 studies (123 samples, n = 114,007) and utilize meta-analytic structural equation modeling to examine the empirical fit of the competing theories and the integrated model. Our results demonstrate support for the competing theories and indicate the moderating role of contextual boundary conditions in the development of entrepreneurial intent. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the integrated model provides additional explanatory power and a fuller understanding of the process through which entrepreneurial intent develops.
Questionnaires are the most commonly used method of data collection infield research (Stone, 1978). Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on questionnaires has often led to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research (Cook, Hepworth, Wall & Wart-, 1981; Schriesheim, Powers, Scandura, Gardiner & Lankau, 1993). This article reviews scale development procedures for 277 measures used in 75 articles published in leading academic journals from 1989 to 1994. It points out some of the problems encountered and provides examples of what could be considered “best practices “in scale development and reporting. Based on the review, recommendations are made to improve the scale development process.
Disinhibition has received considerable recognition as a primary deficit in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactiv-ity Disorder (AD/HD). The goal of the present study was to investigate claims that Gray's Behavioral Approach System (BAS) is linked to a disinhibitory deficit and can account for hyperactive-impulsive AD/HD behaviors. A sample of 184 undergraduates responded to measures of Gray's and other personality dimensions. BAS scores were positively related to and were significant predictors of hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, and also appeared to be related to inattentive AD/HD symptoms in females. Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) scores did not predict hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, suggesting that it is not a primary deficit for hyperactive-impulsive behaviors. Other disinhibitory pathways along Gray's model, such as a response modulation deficit, were supported. Overactive BAS functioning is offered as a contributor to hyperactive-impulsive symptoms in adults.
Research on personality aspects of entrepreneurship, recently summarized in five meta-analyses, has intensified during the past two decades. Internationally, entrepreneurship has been recognized as highly important for socio-economic prosperity. After discussing a few basic concepts relating task and context of entrepreneurship to personality characteristics the main results of the meta-analyses are reported. In the system of the Big Five, personality traits make a difference when entrepreneurs are compared with managers (C+, O+, E+, N−, A−). They are also relevant in predicting entrepreneurial intention (C+, O+, N−, E+) and entrepreneurs’ performance (C+, O+, E+, N−). For other more specific scales that have frequently enough been used and could therefore be included in meta-analyses (e.g., readiness for innovation, proactive personality, generalized self-efficacy, stress tolerance, need for autonomy, locus of control) have also been reported significant correlations with business creation and business success. Risk propensity supports business foundation, but not necessarily business success. Achievement motivation is favourable both for business foundation and business success. The effect sizes are mostly small, some moderate. Complementing the results of the meta-analyses, some recent single studies on mediator or moderator effects are briefly reviewed.
The relationships between gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intentions were examined for two sample groups: adolescents and adult master of business administration (MBA) students. Similar gender effects on entrepreneurial self-efficacy are shown for both groups and support earlier research on the relationship between self-efficacy and career intentions. Additionally, the effects of entrepreneurship education in MBA programs on entrepreneurial self-efficacy proved stronger for women than for men. Implications for educators and policy makers were discussed, and areas for future research outlined.
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
This article uses Ajzen's theory of planned behavior to build an entrepreneurial intention questionnaire (EIQ) and analyzes its psychometric properties. The entrepreneurial intention model is then tested on a 519-individual sample from two rather diverse countries: Spain and Taiwan. EIQ and structural equation techniques have been used to try to overcome previous research limitations. The role of culture in explaining motivational perceptions has been specifically considered. Results indicate EIQ properties are satisfactory and strong support for the model is found. Relevant insights are derived about how cultural values modify the way individuals in each society perceive entrepreneurship.
This meta-analysis investigated the relationships between person–job (PJ), person–organization (PO), person–group, and person–supervisor fit with preentry (applicant attraction, job acceptance, intent to hire, job offer) and postentry individual-level criteria (attitudes, performance, withdrawal behaviors, strain, tenure). A search of published articles, conference presentations, dissertations, and working papers yielded 172 usable studies with 836 effect sizes. Nearly all of the credibility intervals did not include 0, indicating the broad generalizability of the relationships across situations. Various ways in which fit was conceptualized and measured, as well as issues of study design, were examined as moderators to these relationships in studies of PJ and PO fit. Interrelationships between the various types of fit are also meta-analyzed. 25 studies using polynomial regression as an analytic technique are reviewed separately, because of their unique approach to assessing fit. Broad themes emerging from the results are discussed to generate the implications for future research on fit.
Individual differences in approach and seeking-related constructs such as sensation seeking, novelty seeking and impulsivity are generally found to be most convincingly associated with substance use in young adults. One set of personality traits that may be particularly relevant to substance use is concerned with Gray’s two-dimensional factors that represent approach and avoidance sensitivity. The current study investigated whether Gray’s BIS and BAS personality characteristics are associated with drug and/or alcohol use in a sample of non-clinical college students (n = 276). Results indicated that college students’ drug and alcohol use was positively correlated with BAS and, to some extent, negatively to BIS personality characteristics. The most substantial correlations were found between BAS Fun Seeking and the number of illegal substances one had used, the quantity of alcohol use, and the frequency of binge drinking. These results suggest that BIS/BAS personality characteristics make a significant contribution to college students’ substance use.
Following Gray's theory of personality, the aim of the study was to examine the role of the personality dimensions, behavioural inhibition and activation, in mediating event-related potentials (ERPs) and the level of anticipatory heart rate (HR) deceleration response during two visual-stimulus recognition tasks. In the first task ERPs and anticipatory HR changes were elicited by feedback words informing the subjects about the quality of their response (‘correct’, ‘incorrect’). In the second task ERPs and HR responses were elicited from 62 women by feedback words (‘losing’, ‘winning’) indicating losing or winning, of amounts of money. The Gray-Wilson Personality Questionnaire (GWPQ), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the I7 questionnaire were used to measure variables which refer to the function of the activation and inhibition system. The N200, P300, N400, P650 and N800 peak amplitudes of the ERPs and the level of anticipatory HR deceleration response to the feedback signals were measured. Personality and physiological responses were first analysed by using a split-plot ANOVA design and second by examining multiple relationships with factor analysis. Separate ANOVAs were performed across Ss selected from the total group (n = 62) on the basis of extreme scores (high or low) on Approach (APPR), Passive Avoidance (PASS.AV), Extinction (EXTI), Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N) and Impulsiveness (I). In line with Gray's prediction, high APPR Ss exhibited larger P600 peak amplitudes to signals indicating winning and low APPR Ss exhibited larger P600 amplitudes to signals indicating losing. Neurotic Ss produced larger N800 peak amplitudes to stimuli indicating losing as compared with stimuli indicating winning. Stable Ss, in contrast, did not display differences between feedback stimuli. Heart-rate deceleration response to feedback signals was successful in distinguishing high and low N Ss as well as Introverts and Extraverts. Neurotic Ss, compared with Stable ones, showed a more pronounced anticipatory HR slowing for both of the feedback signals. Introverts displayed more pronounced HR decelerations for punishment compared with reward signals. Extraverts, in contrast, showed greater HR decelerations for reward compared with punishment signals. These results were all in line with predictions that can be derived from Gray's theory. However, in the opposite direction was the relationship between PASS.AV and N200 peak: High PASS.AV Ss displayed greater N200 peak amplitudes to winning signals compared with signals indicating a correct response. Results from factor analysis gave rise to a three-factor solution wherein personality dimensions sensitive to signals of reward and that sensitive to signals of punishment were loading together with different physiological factors.
Narcissism is typically viewed as a dimensional construct in social psychology. Direct evidence supporting this position is lacking, however, and recent research suggests that clinical measures of narcissism exhibit categorical properties. It is therefore unclear whether social psychological researchers should conceptualize narcissism as a category or continuum. To help remedy this, the latent structure of narcissism—measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)—was examined using 3895 participants and three taxometric procedures. Results suggest that NPI scores are distributed dimensionally. There is no apparent shift from “normal” to “narcissist” observed across the NPI continuum. This is consistent with the prevailing view of narcissism in social psychology and suggests that narcissism is structured similar to other aspects of general personality. This also suggests a difference in how narcissism is structured in clinical versus social psychology (134 words).