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PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING: 3
Contemporary
Language Motivation
Theory
60 Years Since Gardner
and Lambert (1959)
Edited by
Ali H. Al-Hoorie and Peter D. MacIntyre
MULTILINGUAL MATTERS
Bristol • Blue Ridge Summit
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Names: MacIntyre, Peter D., 1965-editor. | Al-Hoorie, Ali H., 1982-editor.
Title: Contemporary Language Motivation Theory: 60 Years Since Gardner and
Lambert (1959)/Peter MacIntyre, Ali Al-Hoorie.
Description: Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters, 2019. | Series:
Psychology of Language Learning and Teaching: 4 | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: ‘This book unites
chapters from the leaders of the language learning motivation field and
demonstrates how Gardner’s work can still be related to a wide range of
theoretical issues underlying the psychology of language. It deals with
contemporary and cutting-edge topics, providing a wealth of information
for both students and established scholars’ – Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019021982 (print) | LCCN 2019981396 (ebook) | ISBN
9781788925198 (hardback) | ISBN 9781788925181 (paperback) | ISBN
9781788925228 (kindle edition) | ISBN 9781788925211 (epub) | ISBN
9781788925204 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Second language acquisition. | Motivation in education. |
Gardner, Robert C. – Criticism and interpretation.
Classification: LCC P118.2 .C656 2019 (print) | LCC P118.2 (ebook) | DDC
401/.93 – dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019021982
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019981396
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-519-8 (hbk)
ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-518-1 (pbk)
Multilingual Matters
UK: St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.
USA: NBN, Blue Ridge Summit, PA, USA.
Website: www.multilingual-matters.com
Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters
Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com
Copyright © 2020 Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Peter D. MacIntyre and the authors of individual
chapters.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any
means without permission in writing from the publisher.
The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that
are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable
forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy,
preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification.
The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has
been granted to the printer concerned.
Typeset by Riverside Publishing Solutions
Printed and bound in the UK by Short Run Press Ltd.
Printed and bound in the US by NBN
A true test of any theoretical formulation is not only its ability to explain
and account for phenomena which have been demonstrated, but also
its ability to provide suggestions for further investigations, to raise new
questions, to promote further developments and open new horizons. This
model has those capabilities and, hopefully as a result of the account
given here, they will be realized.
(Gardner, 1985: 166)
1
Integrative Motivation:
60 Years and Counting
Ali H. Al-Hoorie and Peter D. MacIntyre
Individual difference research, in fact, pre-dated the onset of mainstream
SLA, as a rich tradition investigating such constructs as language aptitude
and motivation was already in existence well before the 1960s.
(Ellis, 2008: xix)
Some 60 years ago, Gardner and Lambert’s (1959) seminal paper,
‘Motivational variables in second language acquisition’, was published
in the Canadian Journal of Psychology. The paper totaled seven pages
with 20 references, yet its impact on the study of motivation in second
language learning has been immeasurable. The 1959 paper represents the
beginning of the work on the socioeducational model and its centerpiece,
the integrative motive. In introducing this festschrift, we pause to reflect
on the contributions the work has inspired and its place in the body of
motivation research. This volume also stands as a tribute to Robert (Bob)
C. Gardner – the father of language motivation – as a teacher, researcher
and scholar of language. Few scholars in the area can match the intensity
of his research productivity over six decades.
Gardner and Lambert’s (1959) paper launched innumerable studies of
the social psychology of second language acquisition. For decades now,
it has been almost unimaginable to ignore the impact of other people
and the context in which learning occurs when discussing motivation for
second language acquisition. Why has this research program had such
an impact? MacIntyre (2010: 375) offers three significant ways in which
Gardner’s work influenced the field:
First, Gardner & Lambert (1959) showed that attitudes and motivation
MATTER in second language acquisition, taking their place alongside
aptitude and intelligence as factors contributing to language learning
success, and setting the stage for the social psychological approach to
studying second language acquisition. Second, the research tradition has
combined affective and cognitive factors in a single motivational frame,
describing a uniquely human motive. The model developed at moments
in history when animal learning models (e.g. instincts) or ‘cold cognition’
2 Contemporary Language Motivation Theory
(i.e. without contribution from emotion) dominated discussions of motiva-
tion in psychology. By considering the multiple social, cognitive, and affec-
tive forces that produce both linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes, which
feedback on each other, the socio-educational model could plausibly be
proposed in the current zeitgeist as a brand new way to do research. Third,
the research tradition initiated by Gardner & Lambert (1959) employed
cutting edge statistical analysis, including regression techniques and struc-
tural equation modeling that have become widely used in our field.
With the 60th anniversary of the Gardner and Lambert (1959) paper
upon us, this festschrift both celebrates these contributions and extends
the model into new territory. We also celebrate Gardner’s contribution
as a teacher over five decades at the University of Western Ontario (now
Western University).
Generations of psychology students, as well as some brave souls from
other disciplines, took Gardner’s course in research design at Western.
As might be gleaned from his publications, Gardner is gifted in statisti-
cal analysis. Students will fondly recall his energetic description of the
general linear model and its applications from simple t-tests to complex
multiple regression, his derivation of various types of correlation from a
single equation, or Bob defying gravity by stretching out from a corner of
the room to demonstrate the third dimension in a factor analysis.
Bob’s enthusiasm for the measurement and data analytic side of
research produced the Attitudes and Motivation Test Battery, which set
a gold standard for test design, reliability and validity. Future generations
of researchers would do well to emulate his concern for measurement.
This has not always been the case in our field and we can note with more
than passing concern that when the quality of measurement is sacrificed
for convenience, research invariably suffers. Gardner’s work showed that
the deft application of powerful data analysis techniques, including his
pioneering work with factor analysis and structural equation modelling,
could coax a meaningful story out of a reluctant data set. Again, future
generations of researchers would do well to emulate his concern for
finding powerful analytic techniques that dig deep into the available data.
In preparing this anthology, we invited contributions from Gardner’s
colleagues and former students, along with their current students. To our
delight as editors, everyone we approached agreed to write something.
In addition to the written text, we proposed three seminars to major
conferences: American Association of Applied Linguistics in Chicago,
Psychology of Language Learning in Tokyo, and International Conference
on Language and Social Psychology in Edmonton. To our delight as
conveners, all proposed symposia were accepted and the sessions well
attended. The resulting talks and chapters reflect both a vibrant research
area and continuing contributions in the Gardnerian tradition. Although
some authors have presented Gardner’s work as limited to a specific
Integrative Motivation: 60 Years and Counting 3
period (e.g. the 1990s: see Dörnyei, 2005) or a specific place (e.g. Canada:
Crookes & Schmidt, 1991), the work continues to advance. Across the
chapters in this present volume readers will find dozens of new research
ideas waiting to be explored.
Some 10 years ago, MacIntyre (2010: 376) noted that the 50th anniver-
sary of Gardner and Lambert’s paper provided an ‘opportunity to reflect
on the work it continues to inspire, and the ways in which language learn-
ing attitudes and motivation interact with individual, social, cultural,
and historical trends’. But with the 60th anniversary, a renewed vibrancy
has developed. With so much left to learn about the social psychology of
language, the motivation process and how people think about themselves
within the larger frame of language, culture and relationships, there might
be a need for anthologies at the 70th, 80th, 90th and even the 100th anni-
versary of Gardner and Lambert (1959).
A Note on the Review Process
As editors, we strongly believe in the need for clarity relating to the
review process of edited anthologies; therefore, we wish to outline the
steps we have taken in this manuscript, prior to submission to the pub-
lisher for external peer review. First, invitations were sent to researchers
with an established research record and/or possessing expertise in a par-
ticular topic relevant to the present anthology. Second, we developed a
systematic review process that was applied to all chapters (except those
originally invited to serve as discussants). The chapters were then reviewed
by three reviewers as follows:
(1) one external double-blind peer reviewer;
(2) one internal (i.e. another chapter author) or a second external peer
reviewer; and
(3) one of the editors.
Double-blinding was observed as much as possible, although in some
cases (especially for chapters with a self-reflective nature), it was not diffi-
cult to guess the author – which attests to the authority and stature of the
author(s). The authors received the three anonymized reviews and revised
their contributions accordingly; by the end of the process, all of the chap-
ters were accepted. External reviewers received a copy of the book in
return for their effort.
Acknowledgements
We are forever grateful to the authors and the external reviewers
featured in this anthology for joining us in both paying tribute to Bob
Gardner’s career and to extending his research in exciting new directions.
4 Contemporary Language Motivation Theory
We would also like to thank the contributors who volunteered to partici-
pate in the review process: Jorida Cila, Jean-Marc Dewaele, Paul Tremblay,
Phil Hiver and Tammy Gregersen. We also thank Ali Dincer, Dayuma
Vargas Lascano, Kathryn E. Chaffee and Nigel Mantou Lou for their
contribution to the review process, as well as a publisher-commissioned
external reviewer for their helpful feedback. We are especially grateful
to Bob himself for contributing a chapter that looks back on the devel-
opment of the socio-educational model and its underlying rationale, as
well as looking forward at potential research directions. At the end of the
book, three discussant chapters reflect on Gardner’s contributions from
various perspectives. Phil Hiver and Diane Larsen-Freeman contemplate
on the relational nature of language learning motivation vis-à-vis com-
plexity theory. Elaine Horwitz takes the discussion in a different direction,
highlighting some of the applied questions Gardner’s work has inspired.
Howard Giles ends this volume with an epilogue that takes the discussion
to social psychology, Gardner’s original field. We hope that readers enjoy
the chapters that follow as much as we did in assembling them.
Motivation has been a staple of research in language learning for a
long time. As one of the most extensively studied individual difference
factors, much has been learned about motivation for language learning,
but given its complexity much remains to be learned as well. In preparing
this anthology and offering it to readers around the world, we echo the
sentiment expressed by Gardner and Tremblay (1994: 524) that ‘(t)he
socio-educational model of second language acquisition is not a static
formulation. It is continually undergoing change and development, as
new relevant information is uncovered’. Then, as now, new information is
emerging as the research process continues to unfold, with this anthology
hopefully being one of many contributions to that process.
References
Crookes, G. and Schmidt, R.W. (1991) Motivation: Reopening the research agenda.
Language Learning 41 (4), 469–512.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005) The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in
Second Language Acquisition. London: Erlbaum.
Ellis, R. (2008) The Study of Second Language Acquisition (2nd edn). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Gardner, R.C. and Lambert, W.E. (1959) Motivational variables in second language
acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology 13, 266–272.
Gardner, R.C. and Tremblay, P.T. (1994) On motivation: Measurement and conceptual
considerations. Modern Language Journal 78, 524–527.
MacIntyre, P.D. (2010) Perspectives on motivation for second language learning on the 50th
anniversary of Gardner & Lambert (1959). Language Teaching 43, 374–377.
