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Promoting biosecurity through insect management at animal facilities.

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The book Biosecurity in Animal Production and Veterinary Medicine is the first compilation of both fundamental aspects of biosecurity practices, and specific and practical information on the application of the biosecurity measures in different animal production and animal housing settings. This book has 19 chapters, starting with a general introductory chapter on the epidemiology of infectious diseases (chapter 1), followed by a chapter explaining the general principles of biosecurity (chapter 2). Explanations on the relevance of the implementation of biosecurity plans in order to improve animal health and performance and reduce antimicrobial usage are described (chapter 3). Ways to motivate farmers to implement a biosecurity plan and how to measure biosecurity and hygiene status of farms has been included (chapters 4 and 5). Specific topics of biosecurity, such as cleaning and disinfection (chapter 6), hygiene and decontamination of air (chapter 7), feed (chapter 8), and drinking water (chapter 9) were included, other chapters focused on rodent and insect control (chapters 10 and 11). Practical chapters deal with biosecurity in the pig, (chapter 12), poultry (chapter 13), and cattle (chapter 14) industry, horse facilities (chapter 15), dog kennels (chapter 16), veterinary practices and clinics (chapter 17) and laboratory animal facilities (chapter 18). The concluding chapter (chapter 19) discussed the topic on biosecurity in aquaculture highlighting practical veterinary approaches for aquatic animal disease prevention, control, and potential eradication.
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CHAPTER 10
PROMOTING
BIOSECURITY THROUGH
INSECT MANAGEMENT
AT ANIMAL FACILITIES
Alec C. Gerry
Amy C. Murillo
Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
244 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
1 Introduction
Insects and related terrestrial arthropods (including mites and
ticks) are incredibly diverse groups of invertebrate animals found
almost everywhere on Earth. Insects alone comprise approxi-
mately 75% of the total animal species on Earth (Samways, 2005).
While not as species-diverse as insects, mites can be very abundant
in some habitats. Fortunately, few insect and mite species directly
harm animals. In contrast to insects and mites, all tick species have
the potential to cause harm to animals because all ticks feed on
animal blood. The insects, mites, and ticks that do harm animals
can severely impact animal health and welfare, often resulting in
considerable economic loss to domestic animal production.
2 Damage caused by insects
With few exceptions, the insects, mites, and ticks that harm ani-
mals feed on blood, skin, hair, feathers, or body exudates (e.g.,
tears, mucus) on the external body surface of their animal host and
are therefore often collectively described as external parasites or
‘ectoparasites.’ These ectoparasites can negatively impact animal
health and productivity in many ways, ranging from reduced feed
consumption, growth, and economic output (e.g., in meat, milk,
or eggs) to severe health consequences or even death of parasitized
animals. Negative impacts include (1) physical damage to the ani-
mal host caused by insect feeding, (2) expression of unproductive
animal behaviour in response to animal disturbance caused by the
painful bites of some biting insects, and (3) transmission of viruses,
parasites and other pathogens from infected animals to susceptible
animals. Even when ectoparasites cause no obvious physical dam-
age to their animal host, painful or irritating bites can negatively
impact animal production due to increased host metabolic activity
and behavioural responses that lower feed conversion efficiency or
feed consumption of the animal host. Additionally, some insects
and mites cause economic damage to animal producers as a result
of nuisance to facility employees or neighbours.
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2.1 Insects and animal disease
Of the negative impacts described above, the transmission of path-
ogens among animals is perhaps of greatest concern for many vet-
erinarians and animal producers. In some cases, an arthropod is a
necessary intermediary for the transfer of pathogens among ani-
mals, and disease transmission would not occur but for the pres-
ence and activity of the ectoparasite. These ectoparasites are called
‘biological vectors’ identifying their required role in transmission
of the pathogen. In these cases, the arthropod is as much a host of
the pathogen as is the vertebrate animal; the pathogen being
adapted for life in both the arthropod and the vertebrate animal.
Ectoparasites that feed on animal blood can acquire pathogens
from an infected animal host, subsequently transferring these
pathogens to susceptible animals during later feeding events. For
example, biting midges in the genus Culicoides are biological vec-
tors of several viruses that infect cattle, sheep, and horses. Within
the biting midge, the virus must escape the digestive system,
amplify, and spread to the insect salivary glands where the virus is
then positioned to be introduced to a new host when the biting
midge feeds again. The time required for the virus to amplify and
reach the salivary glands is called the ‘extrinsic incubation period’
and a biting midge that feeds on a new host before the extrinsic
incubation period is completed cannot pass on the virus. The
extrinsic incubation period is typically dependent upon environ-
mental temperature, with higher temperatures resulting in a
shorter incubation period (Reisen, 2009). A higher environmental
temperature typically also increases the insect development rate.
These temperature effects are the reason that many insect trans-
mitted diseases show a seasonal transmission pattern with greater
disease incidence during warmer months of the year (e.g., see
Gerry et al., 2001). A few biological vectors transmit pathogens to
vertebrate animals through more unconventional associations.
The lesser mealworm beetle (Alphitobius diaperinus) is a biologi-
cal vector of chicken tapeworm, though this beetle does not bite or
feed on chickens. Rather, these beetles acquire tapeworms when
burrowing through poultry faeces contaminated with tapeworm
from infected birds. The tapeworm then undergoes development
246 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
within the body of the beetle before being passed to a susceptible
bird that eats the infected beetle. Often, targeted control of these
biological vectors will lead to a reduction in disease incidence in
the vertebrate animal population.
In some cases, insects are not required intermediate hosts for ani-
mal pathogens. Rather, pathogens may be acquired from the envi-
ronment and distributed among susceptible animal hosts as the
insect moves about the landscape. These ‘mechanical vectors’ may
act to some extent as fomites, simply carrying the pathogen as
a contaminant on external body surfaces and depositing patho-
gens wherever they go. Insects that develop in or feed on animal
faeces are often mechanical vectors of animal pathogens shed in
the animal faeces. Susceptible animals become infected with the
pathogen when they consume feed or water contaminated with a
pathogen as a result of insect contact, or susceptible animals may
simply consume a contaminated insect. For example, house flies
are proven mechanical vectors of pathogenic Escherichia coli bac-
teria to cattle presumably through these mechanisms (Ahmad et
al., 2007). Recent evidence suggests that some insects that serve as
mechanical vectors may be more than simple fomites. For exam-
ple, flies that feed on animal faeces may harbour some pathogens
within their digestive system, with pathogen amplification occur-
ring within the insect digestive tract or even in the excreted insect
faeces (Wasala et al., 2013; Nayduch & Burrus, 2017).
2.2 Insects and biosecurity
Biosecurity traditionally includes those preventive measures
employed at animal facilities to limit the spread of pathogens
among animals or to/from other animal facilities. Because insects,
mites, and ticks can transmit numerous pathogens to wild and
domestic animals, measures to prevent the spread of these pests
among animal facilities is a critical part of an effective biosecurity
programme. However, given the direct harm that ectoparasites can
cause to animals, even in the absence of disease transmission, a
more comprehensive understanding of biosecurity also includes
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those measures intended to reduce pest numbers on animal facili-
ties and prevent pest movement among animal facilities. It should
be noted that most insects are winged as adults, resulting in a con-
siderable challenge to preventing their movement and dispersal
among nearby animal facilities. Instead, the focus of insect biose-
curity should be on reducing the number of insects on animal facil-
ities and limiting the contact of insects with infectious animals. In
contrast, mites and ticks lack wings and dispersal among facilities
generally occurs by movement of infested animals or by sharing
machinery and supplies, though movement of facility employees
among animal facilities can also pose a risk. Mite and tick bios-
ecurity is thus best accomplished by quarantine and treatment
of parasitized animals, exclusion of wild animals that may carry
ectoparasites, and limiting the activities and movement of facility
employees to reduce the accidental transport of ectoparasites to
other susceptible animals.
2.3 Integrated pest management
Animal producers should implement the integrated pest manage-
ment (IPM) concept to control insect pests and ectoparasites as
part of a biosecurity programme. IPM is a coordinated strategy
to reduce arthropod damage, including pathogen transmission,
through application of a combination of techniques aimed at
keeping pest abundance at levels below which damage is expected
to occur. While it may be more difficult to determine a threshold
of pest abundance when risk of disease transmission is involved,
using an IPM strategy nevertheless provides a proactive focus on
pest management ensuring that pests are held to low abundance
levels thereby minimizing impacts on animal production. Lack-
ing an IPM strategy, many animal producers respond to high pest
numbers through application of pesticides for immediate reduc-
tion of the offending pest; but at these high pest numbers, disease
transmission and economic damages have likely already occurred.
An IPM strategy focuses first on reducing opportunities for imma-
ture development of pest species. Reducing or manipulating the
248 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
available pest development habitat may alone provide the desired
level of control. Where immature development habitat cannot be
reduced or manipulated sufficiently, judicious use of pesticides on
insect development sites may reduce pest production and keep
numbers of damaging pests low. In some situations, application
of pesticides for control of adult insects will be needed and may
form part of an IPM strategy. When pest numbers reach dam-
aging levels, or when pathogen transmission has been detected,
immediate control of adult insects is warranted. In these situa-
tions, pesticides may be applied directly to the host animal or to
animal facility structures to target insects resting on these struc-
tures. A searchable, online database of pesticides registered by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for control of arthropod
pests of animals is maintained by veterinary entomologists in the
United States as part of a U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
sponsored multistate research project, and is available at https://
www.veterinaryentomology.org/vetpestx (Ferguson et al., 2015).
However, if pesticides are often used for emergency pest control
due to failure of proactive IPM measures, facility managers should
re-evaluate their IPM program. Frequent application of pesticides
is unsustainable, and pests will quickly develop resistance to the
chemicals used. When applying pesticides, care must be given to
maximise control of the damaging pest while minimising pesticide
impact to useful insects, such as pollinators or any insect predators
and parasitoids that naturally prey on the damaging pest.
An IPM strategy necessarily includes a mechanism for monitoring
pest abundance, with increasing abundance triggering additional
control measures aimed at keeping pest numbers from reaching
damaging levels. Monitoring pest abundance is also important to
note if control measures applied have been effective in decreasing
pest populations. Effective pest monitoring methods will differ by
pest species based upon the biology and behaviour of each pest
species as well as differences in the location of immature develop-
ment sites and adult resting sites. In general, a weekly count of the
number of individual ectoparasites on a representative number of
host animals is a useful way to monitor changing pest abundance
for many ectoparasites, including ticks and some of the larger bit-
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ing flies. Animals can also be observed for certain behaviour or an
appearance that is indicative of pest activity or pest abundance.
For example, cattle will stamp their legs, toss their heads, or bunch
together in a group to avoid the painful bites of some biting flies,
and an animal’s ‘mangy’ appearance is an indicator of possible
infestation by a mite species. Other pest species can be monitored
using attractive traps (baited with a host or food odour) or by
using traps that passively capture pests as they move about their
environment. Appropriate methods for monitoring relevant pest
species will be discussed in each animal commodity section below.
3 Insect pests of cattle
Since the 1980s, the production of milk worldwide has increased
more than 50% to 769 million tons of milk produced in 2013
(FAOSTAT, 2017). The increase in milk production is attributed to
growth of the industry in developing countries throughout south
Asia where milk is often produced on smallholder or family farms.
Major milk producing countries are India, the United States,
China, Pakistan, and Brazil. Countries with the highest milk sur-
pluses are New Zealand, the United States, Germany, France, Aus-
tralia, and Ireland. In developed countries, dairy farms are grow-
ing larger and are increasingly mechanised. Cow nutrition is now
often carefully controlled through supplemental feed to increase
milk production per animal. In contrast to milk production, beef
production and consumption worldwide is increasing slowly with
beef consumption increasing primarily in developing countries
(FAO, 2016a). Beef production is limited by declining rangeland
availability in most countries due to encroachment of other land
uses and degradation of available rangelands. Further increases in
beef production are likely to result from increasing animal density
on available lands, with animals provided supplemental feeds
where forage is no longer sufficient (Bruinsma, 2003). Modern
cattle feedlots, where cattle have no access to pasture and are fed
entirely on supplemental feed, are an extreme example of beef cat-
tle intensification.
250 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
As cattle operations continue to move towards a more intensive
operational model with increasing cattle density and reduced pas-
ture availability, insect and tick species that impact cattle in open
pasture settings are being eclipsed in importance by pest species
that develop in cattle manure and feed waste. These often accu-
mulate in great quantities on intensive operations (Gerry, in press).
3.1 Permanent ectoparasites
Some ectoparasites spend their entire life on a single host (‘perma-
nent ectoparasites’), with the host providing the necessary habitat
and food for each life stage of the ectoparasite. There are five spe-
cies of lice and four species of mites common to cattle as per-
manent ectoparasites. The more damaging blood feeding lice are
the long-nosed cattle louse (Linognathus vituli), short-nosed cat-
tle louse (Haematopinus eurysternus), cattle tail louse (H. quad-
ripertusus), and little blue louse (Solenopotes capillatus). A single
species of chewing louse, the cattle biting louse (Bovicola bovis),
feeds on skin rather than blood. Cattle mites feed on skin debris or
lymph within the dermal tissues, and include the important scabies
or ‘mange’ mites Psoroptes ovis, Sarcoptes scabiei and Chorioptes
bovis, as well as the cattle follicle mite (Demodex bovis). Feeding
by lice and mites can be quite irritating to the host, and may result
in considerable physical damage due to dermatitis, tissue destruc-
tion, and hair loss. Lice and mites can also cause damage to hides,
particularly as animals rub and scratch against objects in their
environment to alleviate the itching caused by ectoparasite feed-
ing. Heavy infestations of lice and/or mites can reduce weight gain
and milk yield (Wright, 1985). Additionally, poor physical condi-
tion of heavily infested animals, often coupled with substantial
hair loss, can result in death of young calves and older cattle when
exposed to severe weather conditions or low nutritional levels.
Surveillance for both lice and mites is by routine observation of
animal health, with obvious signs of mange or other hide damage
indicative of louse or mite infestation.
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Management of lice and mites is commonly achieved by treating
all cattle within a herd with a topically-applied insecticide (lice)
or acaricide (mites), and by limiting contact among infested and
uninfested animals or herds. Any animals left untreated in the
herd, even if they appear to be free of lice or mites, will almost
certainly result in treated cattle soon being infested again with lice
and mites. Injection of ivermectin or related parasiticides may also
provide control of lice and mites. For lice, two insecticide treat-
ments 10-14 days apart are needed, as lice in the egg stage are
protected from the insecticide and may survive the first treatment
(Campbell, 1985).
3.2 Ticks
There are many tick species that feed on cattle. Ticks can be cat-
egorised as ‘hard ticks’ (Family Ixodidae) due to the presence of a
rigid plate on the back that makes them difficult to crush between
the fingers (Fig.10.1 ), or ‘soft ticks’ (Family Argasidae) which lack
this rigid dorsal plate.
Most hard ticks have three life stages (larva,
nymph, adult) and feed on a different vertebrate
host during each life stage (3-host ticks), living
off the host in the surrounding habitat between
feeding periods. Attachment to hosts for feed-
ing often lasts for at least several days. Where
cattle are kept on pasture, 3-host ticks can be
abundant due to the presence of off-host ref-
uge and alternate hosts in this habitat. These
ticks are less abundant on more intensive cattle
operations where cattle access to pasture is lim-
ited, with ticks essentially absent on dairy and
feedlot facilities where cattle have no access to pasture (Gerry, in
press). While these ticks can cause economic damage from blood
loss, irritation by tick feeding, and even toxic paralysis, their more
important impact is as vectors of several bacterial and protozoal
diseases of cattle. A few hard ticks will feed on the same cattle
Fig. 10.1: Hard ticks in
several genera (including
Dermacentor
, shown)
can impact livestock,
especially as vectors of
pathogens.
252 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
host during all life stages (1-host ticks). Cattle ticks (Rhipicephalus
spp.) are a particularly important group of 1-host ticks that are
biological vectors of the Babesia parasites that cause bovine babe-
siosis or ‘cattle fever’ (Pérez de León et al., 2012).
Soft ticks tend to be more common in arid environments and can
have quite variable life histories, often including several nymph
stages before reaching the adult stage. During each life stage, soft
ticks will feed on a host for only a few minutes after which they
typically leave the host to moult to the next life stage. One unu-
sual soft tick, the spinose ear tick (Otobius megnini), will spend
its immature life feeding within the ear canal
of a single host animal (Fig. 10.2; cattle and
non-cattle), before dropping to the ground to
complete a non-feeding adult stage. Due to this
unusual life history, the spinose ear tick can be
abundant in both pasture-based and confined
cattle facilities.
Tick numbers on cattle can be reduced by appli-
cation of acaricides to adult tick feeding sites
on the animal or in some cases by immersion of
the entire animal into a dipping vat containing acaricide (Wright,
1985). Management of ticks in pasture settings is quite challeng-
ing, as many ticks will also feed on non-cattle hosts, and will thus
avoid the treatment or will be reintroduced with trespassing wild-
life arriving from outside the cattle pasture. To address this, sev-
eral novel methods to treat non-cattle hosts for ticks have been
introduced in recent years, including the USDA ‘4-Poster’ device
for deer to self-treat with an acaricide while accessing food bait
(Carroll et al., 2009).
3.3 Cattle grubs and screwworm flies
Cattle grubs (Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum) and screwworm
flies, both New World screwworm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax)
and Old World screwworm fly (Chrysomya bezziana), are inter-
Fig. 10.2: Spinose ear
ticks (
Otobius megnini
)
are soft ticks that feed and
develop in the ear canal
of several animals
including cattle and
swine. They are more
commonly found
on animals held in
confinement.
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mittent parasites of cattle that feed on internal body tissues of cat-
tle only during their immature life stages. The adult flies of these
species do not feed on the animal, but seek cattle on which they
will lay their eggs. Cattle grubs are parasites only of cattle, while
screwworm flies will attack many warm-blooded animals (includ-
ing humans). Neither fly is a vector of cattle pathogens, but the
damage caused by the feeding of these flies on internal tissues can
be severe, resulting in considerable economic cost to producers.
Feeding damage by immature screwworm flies (maggots) can be
particularly devastating. This often leads to the death of the ani-
mal as feeding wounds become infected which attracts additional
egg-laying by tissue-consuming flies (Alexander, 2006).
Where the adult cattle grub (called a heel fly) is active, cattle often
exhibit behaviour called ‘gadding’ where they run madly with
their tails raised in the air in an apparent effort to prevent these
flies from depositing eggs on the cattle body. Parasitized cattle will
show swellings along the back (‘warble’) where the cattle grub
has cut a breathing hole in the animal hide to complete its imma-
ture development. In geographic regions where screwworm is pre-
sent, cattle should be routinely observed for wounds within which
immature flies may be developing.
Cattle grubs are readily treated using systemic insecticides applied
to cattle in late summer to kill the developing immature flies as
they migrate though the body of cattle. Management of screw-
worm flies is more difficult and relies on early treatment of screw-
worm infested wounds with insecticides and culling of severely
infested animals to prevent fly development to the adult stage.
New World screwworm fly has been eradicated throughout North
and Central America by sustained releases of sterile male screw-
worm flies initiated by the USDA in 1958.
3.4 Flies that develop in cattle faecal pats
Pest flies that require fresh, undisturbed cattle faeces (faecal pats)
to complete their immature development are the horn fly (Haema-
254 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
tobia irritans) and face fly (Musca autumnalis).
During the adult stage, both fly species feed on
cattle, but the horn fly feeds on blood (Fig. 10.3)
while the face fly feeds primarily on exudates,
particularly nasal and eye secretions (Fig. 10.4).
Horn flies spend most of their adult life resting
or feeding on cattle, taking many small blood
meals each day (Cupp et al., 1998). Horn flies
are easily disturbed by cattle activity, and read-
ily move among nearby animals throughout the
day. Face flies feed only briefly on cattle before leaving the host
animal to rest in the surrounding habitat. Face flies are recognized
vectors of a bacterium (Moraxella bovis) causing bovine pinkeye,
and of filarial nematodes (Thelazia spp.) that parasitize the cattle
eye (Wall & Shearer, 1997). Horn flies are not recognized as vec-
tors of a cattle disease, but their painful bites irritate cattle and can
greatly impact production efficiency.
Both flies can be monitored by visual observation of fly numbers
on cattle. Flies should be counted during mid-morning when horn
flies are typically resting on the back and sides of
cattle and face flies are actively feeding around
the eyes and face. When daytime temperatures
are high, horn flies can be difficult to accurately
count as they retreat to the shaded lower regions
of the cattle body to escape direct sun exposure
(Lysyk, 2000). A weekly count of horn flies and
face flies on 15 randomly selected animals in a
herd is suitable for showing changes in fly abun-
dance over time.
Management of these flies is best achieved by
disturbance of freshly deposited cattle faecal pats. Where cattle
are held in confinement at high density, faecal pats rarely remain
intact as cattle disturb the pats as they move about their pen. For
this reason, horn flies and face flies are usually not abundant on
intensive cattle operations where cattle lack access to pasture.
However, where cattle density is low or where cattle have at least
Fig. 10.3: Horn flies
(
Haematobia irritans)
feed
on blood from cattle and
occasionally horses. They
spend most of their time
on the host, and tend to
orient themselves facing
downward.
Fig. 10.4: Face flies
(
Musca autumnali
s)
congregate near the eyes
of cattle where they feed
on exudate. Face flies
are vectors of pathogens
including bovine pinkeye
and eyeworms of cattle
and horses.
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some access to pasture, these flies can be abundant unless facility
workers manually or mechanically disturb the fresh faecal pats.
Where disturbance of faecal pats is impractical, cattle can be given
feed additives containing an insect growth regulator (IGR) that
will pass through the animal digestive system and into the fae-
ces to prevent immature fly development. However, some IGRs
can also prevent development of dung beetles and other insects
that assist with the breakdown of cattle faeces, so these products
should be used judiciously. Where faecal pats cannot be disturbed
or treated to prevent development of these flies, adult flies can be
controlled using insecticides applied to cattle as insecticide-treated
ear tags, or as topical pour-ons, sprays, oils, and dusts (Wright,
1985). Insecticide applications have been particularly useful in
reducing adult horn flies as these flies only rarely leave their cattle
host. However, over-use of insecticides for adult horn fly manage-
ment has led to the inevitable development of horn fly resistance
to some insecticides (Foil & Hogsette, 1994). There has recently
been increased interest in using low toxicity botanical extracts and
essential oils primarily as repellents applied to cattle to reduce bit-
ing by horn flies (Showler, 2017; Mullens et al., 2017a).
3.5 Flies that develop in fermenting organic matter
Fermenting organic matter including animal faeces, cattle bedding,
and wet animal feed is often plentiful on most modern dairies and
feedlots, with increasing animal density and mechanisation associ-
ated with greater quantities of these materials. Important pest flies
that develop in fermenting organic materials are
the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) and the house
fly (Musca domestica). The adult stable fly feeds
on animal blood (Fig.10.5) while the adult house
fly feeds on any number of carbohydrate or pro-
tein-rich foods available in the environment,
including feeding on cattle faeces. Adult stable
flies typically feed on cattle or other animals
once per day. The bites are quite painful causing
cattle to exhibit bite avoidance behaviour includ-
Fig. 10.5: Resting female
stable fly (
Stomoxys
calcitrans
) after taking
a blood meal. Note the
rigid proboscis.
256 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
ing leg stamping and tail switching to dislodge biting stable flies
(Mullens et al., 2006). When biting pressure is high, cattle gather
into groups (‘bunching’) to avoid these biting flies. This unproduc-
tive cattle behaviour can result in reduced weight gain and milk
production for animals molested by stable flies (reviewed by Gerry
et al., 2007). Somewhat surprisingly, the stable fly is not known to
transmit important cattle diseases. In contrast, house flies do not
feed on blood but are mechanical vectors of a number of viral and
bacterial pathogens which they acquire from contact with animal
faeces and subsequently distribute throughout the environment.
Pathogen deposition by house flies onto human food crops is of
particular concern (Talley et al., 2009).
Stable fly abundance and activity can be determined by counting
flies on cattle, by using traps such as the Alsynite trap that target
adult stable flies, or by observing animal behaviour in response to
the painful biting of these flies (Gerry et al., 2007). If monitoring
stable flies by counting flies on cattle, counts are performed by
approaching the animal from one side and visually observing the
number of stable flies on the outside of the front leg nearest to the
observer and the inside of the opposite front leg (Lysyk, 1995)
(Fig. 10.6). A count of 5 stable flies per leg is considered the thresh-
old for economic impact on cattle. Some cattle
behaviour is associated with stable fly biting
activity, and can be used as a means to monitor
fly activity. When stable fly activity is high, cattle
bunching may be noted and is certainly an indi-
cation that stable fly management is needed. At
lower stable fly abundance, the number of cattle
tail flicks within a 2-minute period can be used
as a measure of fly activity, with an average of 10
tail flicks per animal considered the economic
threshold (Mullens et al., 2006). It should be
noted that high numbers of horn flies will also
affect cattle behaviour, including increasing tail flicks (Boland et al.,
2008), making it difficult to distinguish which fly species are
responsible for observed behaviour when both flies are abundant
Fig. 10.6: On cattle, stable
flies (
Stomoxys calcitrans
)
prefer to feed on the
lower legs. While feeding,
they generally position
themselves facing up-
ward.
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on cattle. All cattle observations should be performed on a mini-
mum of 15 randomly selected animals for statistical validity.
House fly activity can be determined by capturing flies using sticky
traps or traps baited with food attractants, or by using ‘spot cards’,
paper cards placed at fly resting sites on which flies deposit faecal
and regurgitation spots. For a reliable monitoring programme,
5 traps or 12 spot cards are usually sufficient (Gerry et al., 2011).
There has been recent interest in using computational technologies
to improve fly monitoring, with development of software (Fly
Spotter©) to automate counting fly spots on spot cards (Fig. 10.7)
(Gerry et al., 2011). Monitoring systems that
identify wingbeat frequency of flying insects
passing through a sensor array are currently
under development and may soon greatly sim-
plify pest monitoring by identifying and count-
ing several pest fly species simultaneously with-
out the need to capture the insects (Chen et al.,
2014).
Management of both the stable fly and house fly
can be challenging on modern intensive cattle
operations. Substantial quantities of cattle fae-
ces collected from animal housing areas are often stored on-site
and long-term storage of animal feed including hay, straw, grains,
and fermenting feed additives including fruit and nut waste is also
common. For both fly species, management is best achieved by
applying sanitation measures to rapidly dry cattle faeces, to pre-
vent wetting of stored dry cattle feeds, and to limit fly access to
cattle feed that is intentionally fermented. Cattle pens should be
regularly scraped or harrowed to break up and dry faecal accu-
mulations within the pen. If faeces cannot be dried this way due
to high animal density or pen characteristics, cattle faeces should
instead be collected and piled to compost in a location where
it will not be rewetted. Composting of cattle faeces can greatly
reduce fly development as internal pile temperatures increase to
exceed lethal temperatures for developing flies while simultane-
ously drying the outer portion of the compost pile to make it
Fig. 10.7: House fly
monitoring can be
accomplished via
placing white cards in
likely fly resting areas.
When flies land (shown)
they regurgitate and/
or defecate leaving ‘fly
spots’. Spots can be hand
counted or software such
as FlySpotter© can be
utilized to track relative
populations over time.
258 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
unsuitable for egg-laying by female flies. Hay, grains, and other
dry animal feeds should be stored in a manner to prevent wet-
ting and subsequent fermentation of these materials. Flies will not
develop on dry animal feed. Where fermentation of animal feed
is desired or necessary, animal feed should be fermented within
enclosed fermentation bags to prevent fly access. When sanitation
measures fail and adult fly numbers reach damaging levels, insec-
ticides used for immediate control of adult flies are best applied as
sprays, fogs, or mists of a long-lasting or residual chemical such as
a synthetic pyrethroid to facility structures near cattle where adult
flies are noted to rest. However, insecticide application alone will
not provide sustainable control of adult flies, and over-reliance on
pesticides has resulted in the development of resistance to many
available insecticides in both species (e.g. see Keiding, 1999).
3.6 Biting midges
Biting midges in the genus Culicoides are small, blood-feeding flies
that are important vectors of several viruses that impact cattle,
including bluetongue virus and the recently isolated Schmallen-
berg virus (Mellor et al., 2000; Rasmussen et al., 2012). These flies
can be produced in substantial numbers in semi-aquatic habitats,
moist leaf litter or even moist manure, depending on the species
of biting midge. Developmental sites are difficult to identify for
many species and are often widespread in the habitat surrounding
animal facilities. Culicoides that bite cattle are usually active dur-
ing crepuscular periods near both sunrise and sunset (Mellor et al.,
2000), though activity may shift toward daylight periods in cooler
weather. Risk of bluetongue virus transmission to cattle is primar-
ily determined by Culicoides abundance and their cattle biting rate
(Gerry et al., 2001; Mayo et al., 2016).
Culicoides activity is commonly measured using traps baited with
UV light or carbon dioxide, though there are a number of limita-
tions associated with these traps, including the inability of light
traps to capture diurnally active midges and the poor efficiency of
carbon dioxide traps for capturing a number of important midge
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vectors of bluetongue virus (reviewed by Mullens et al., 2015).
Collection of biting midges by aspiration directly from animals
would provide better surveillance outcomes, but is certainly more
difficult and is rarely done (e.g., see Gerry et al., 2009; Cohnstaedt
et al., 2012).
Even when Culicoides development sites are known, manipulation
of these developmental sites is often impractical, making manage-
ment of biting midges challenging. Application of insecticides or
insect repellents directly to animals may provide some level of pro-
tection from biting midges (Mullens et al., 2010; Griffioen et al.,
2011) and might be particularly useful when transporting small
numbers of animals through quarantine zones, but insecticide
applications to cattle herds may not be successful in reducing virus
transmission to treated herds overall (Mullens et al., 2001). Sta-
bling of animals indoors can reduce biting by some Culicoides that
are reluctant to enter structures (Meiswinkel et al., 2000).
3.7 Biosecurity for cattle pests
Biosecurity measures for cattle pests should focus on (1) sanitation
measures to reduce fly development in cattle faeces and stored cat-
tle feed, (2) limiting movement of cattle among herds and particu-
larly among cattle facilities to reduce transfer of lice, mites, and
ticks, (3) restricting deer and related wildlife access to cattle facili-
ties to limit tick introductions, and 4) routine observation of cattle
to monitor for pest introductions and increasing pest abundance
to drive management efforts. The main biosecurity concerns will
differ by geographic region, habitat, and the level of intensifica-
tion of the cattle operation. In pasture-based cattle systems, man-
agement efforts should focus on ticks, cattle grub, horn fly, and
face fly, while in more intensive confined dairy and feedlot systems
management efforts should focus on house fly and stable fly, with
biosecurity efforts applied to other pests when noted on cattle.
260 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
4 Insect pests of sheep
In the United States, sheep production has declined rapidly in the
last 50 years as the use of synthetic fibres has replaced the need
for wool (Jones, 2004). While meat production has replaced wool
production as the primary emphasis for the sheep industry, the
industry continues to decline in the United States and other coun-
tries due to increased regulatory pressures, reduced access to graz-
ing lands, and increased costs for raising sheep (Shiflett, 2017).
However, sheep production in Australia and New Zealand has
adjusted to the shrinking wool industry, and export of sheep meat
from these countries is increasing. Top producers of sheep meat
today are China, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom,
and Turkey (FAOSTAT, 2017). Sheep are particularly suited for
the conversion of many different types of forage vegetation into
wool and meat, and for this reason are rarely held in intensive
confined animal production systems.
4.1 Permanent ectoparasites
There are four species of lice found on sheep. Blood-feeding sheep
lice are the sucking body louse (Linognathus ovillus), the sucking
foot louse (L. pedalis), and the African blue louse (L. africanus). A
single species of chewing louse, the sheep biting louse (Bovicola
ovis), feeds on skin rather than blood. The sheep biting louse can
be very irritating, causing sheep to pull at their fleece and rub
against objects to alleviate the itching. These actions can result in
considerable fleece damage as large areas of fleece can be com-
pletely rubbed off. Lice are transferred among animals by direct
contact.
Sheep mites include Psoroptes ovis which causes a condition called
‘sheep scab’, the scabies mite (Sarcoptes scabiei), the sheep leg
mite (Chorioptes ovis), and the Australian itch mite (Psorergates
ovis). Of these mites, Psoroptes ovis is of most concern as this mite
causes intense itching so that sheep scratch their bodies against
objects in their environment often to the point of causing physical
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damage to their fleece and hide. Psoroptes ovis has been eradicated
from the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and
Canada (Spickler, 2009).
The sheep ked (Melophagus ovinus) is a wingless, blood-feeding
fly that spends its entire life in the fleece of sheep. Female sheep
ked develop larvae one at a time within their body, periodically
depositing a fully developed larva onto the fleece. Populations of
sheep ked therefore build up more slowly than for most ectopara-
sites. Like lice and mites, sheep ked are transferred among sheep
by direct contact between animals. Sheep ked cause damage from
their irritating bites which can result in the formation of nodules
or ‘cockles’ on the skin, which reduces the value of sheep skin.
Permanent ectoparasites are monitored by direct observation of ani-
mals, with poor fleece or skin conditions indicative of ectoparasite
presence. Management of lice and mites on sheep is similar to their
management on cattle (see above). Sheep ked can be eradicated by
shearing of sheep before lambing in spring, followed by applica-
tion of insecticides to all animals in the herd. To prevent reinfesta-
tion of the herd, new animals should be quarantined, inspected and
treated with insecticide prior to introduction to the herd.
4.2 Ticks
Ticks described in the cattle section above will also feed on sheep,
and management is similar for ticks on both animals.
4.3 Sheep bot fly
The sheep bot fly (Oestrus ovis) is a worldwide pest of sheep and
goats. Adult flies deposit first instar larvae in the nostrils of sheep
where the larvae (maggots) consume the nasal mucosa. Feeding by
sheep bot maggots can be irritating to the sheep and can increase
the opportunity for bacterial infection of the nostrils. The mere
presence of adult flies can also irritate sheep, and they will attempt
262 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
to avoid the flies by running in short bursts and by snorting, behav-
iour which affects sheep grazing and reduces animal weight gains.
There are no management recommendations for this fly, though
individual animals can be treated with ivermectin or other antihel-
minthics if infestation is deemed to be problematic for the animal.
4.4 Wool maggots
Wool maggots are the generic name for the larvae of any fly species
that lay their eggs on sheep fleece that is soiled with urine, faeces,
or blood due to wounding. Most of these flies belong to the blow
fly family (Calliphoridae) and are typically carrion-feeding flies.
Wool maggots consume bacteria associated with the soiled fleece
and may also readily feed on infected skin wounds or lesions.
Where an infestation becomes severe, sheep mortality may occur.
Preventive measures include shearing pregnant ewes to prevent
soiling of fleece during lambing, and scheduling lambing for early
spring before flies are abundant. Fleece that is soiled by urine or
faeces should be clipped to reduce the opportunity for fly strike
(egg laying by flies). Animals infested with wool maggots can be
spot treated with insecticide at the site of infestation to eliminate
maggots.
4.5 Biting midges
Sheep are a suitable host for many Culicoides species that will
attack cattle. Sheep are particularly at risk of Culicoides transmit-
ted bluetongue virus, which can often result in death of infected
sheep.
Surveillance and management for biting midges is described in the
cattle section above.
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4.6 Biosecurity for sheep pests
Biosecurity measures for sheep pests includes limiting movement
of sheep among herds to reduce transfer of lice, mites, sheep ked,
and ticks, and monitoring sheep for the presence of other pests
with increasing pest abundance driving management efforts. The
main biosecurity concerns will differ by geographic region and
by habitat, with viruses transmitted by biting midges perhaps of
greatest concern for sheep health in most countries.
5 Insect pests of swine
Pork is the most consumed animal protein worldwide and accounts
for 35% of the world’s meat intake (FAO, 2016b). China is the
world’s leading pork producer, which over 50 million metric tons
produced in 2016; this is followed by the European Union (> 23
million MT) and the United States (> 11 million MT). Over 780
million pigs were stocked for consumption in 2016, 68 million
in the United States alone (USDA, 2017). Most swine are housed
indoors, with modern confinement facilities in Europe and the U.S.
housing a high density of swine within environmentally controlled
facilities (Plain & Lawrence, 2003). However, pasture-based swine
production has increased recently in response to animal welfare
interests (e.g. Edwards, 2005; Honeyman et al., 2006).
5.1 Permanent ectoparasites
The hog louse (Haematopinus suis) is a large (ca. 6 mm) blood-
feeding louse specific to pigs. Eggs are glued to hair near the skin
and typically require 2-3 weeks to hatch (Williams, 1985). Lice are
typically found on pigs in the area around the tail and upper inside
of the legs. Blood-feeding causes irritation, which can indirectly
lead to hair loss and skin damage as animals rub against objects to
alleviate itching. Hog lice are also recognized as important vectors
of the swine pox virus, though this virus can also be transmitted
264 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
by direct contact among pigs. Lice do not survive more than a few
days off host and are more noticeable during the winter months.
Like many other animals, swine may get sarcoptic mange caused
by the mite Sarcoptes scabiei. In pigs, mange usually appears first
around the head but can occur anywhere. Damage to swine due to
the irritating bites of lice and mites and the management of these
pests is similar to that described for lice and mites of cattle.
5.2 Ticks and fleas
Like cattle or sheep, swine with access to pasture may become
hosts for many of the 3-host ticks commonly encountered in the
pasture environment. Also like cattle and sheep, swine can host the
spinose ear tick (Otobius megnini), a soft tick that may be found
feeding in the ear canal of pigs. Soft ticks in the genus Ornitho-
doros are known to vector African swine fever virus (Kleiboeker
& Scoles, 2001), an often fatal viral disease among pigs. While
African swine fever virus is not currently in the U.S. or Europe, an
outbreak of this virus on the eastern edge of Europe that started in
2013 is threatening to expand into Eastern Europe, perhaps dis-
tributed by infected wild boars (FAO, 2017). In the past, African
swine fever virus was also transmitted to pigs by soft ticks endemic
in the Caribbean and in Brazil. Should this virus spread to the
main pig raising regions of Europe or North America, soft ticks in
both regions are capable of transmitting the virus.
Swine may also become infested with several species of fleas,
including the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis), the dog flea (C.
canis), and the human flea (Pulex irritans). Adult fleas take blood
meals from the host. Larvae develop and feed on organic material
near vertebrate hosts. Adult fleas are dark brown and may be spot-
ted periodically feeding on pig bodies; larvae are too small to eas-
ily find in the environment. Flea bites are quite irritating to swine
who will scratch continuously in response to the bites.
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Fleas that attack swine will also attack their handlers as well.
Observation of fleas or flea bites on handlers is often the first indi-
cation of a flea problem in a swine facility. Fleas are controlled by
removal of animal bedding and application of insecticides to the
floor, lower walls, and other structures in the swine facility before
replacement of bedding. Insecticides may be applied directly to
pigs as well for immediate control of fleas on the animals.
5.3 Flies and mosquitoes
House flies (Musca domestica) and stable flies (Stomoxys calci-
trans) can develop in and around swine facilities where manure
and other organic material accumulate and are left relatively
undisturbed. To address animal welfare concerns, swine producers
often add enrichment devices to swine pens. Enrichment devices
can range from balls to teeter-totter type structures with devices
fixed to the ground. Faeces can accumulate beneath and around
such devices creating additional challenges for sanitation of swine
pens. House flies are mechanical vectors of salmonella and classi-
cal swine fever virus, and there is evidence that they may also be
involved in the transmission of porcine reproductive and respira-
tory virus (PRRSV) in swine facilities (Otake et al., 2003).
Monitoring of flies is described in the cattle section above. Fly
control in swine facilities is achieved primarily through sanitation
measures aimed at interrupting fly development in swine faeces and
bedding. All bedding and accumulated faeces should be removed
and pens cleaned each week, or twice per week if weekly cleanouts
are insufficient to achieve the desired level of control. Immediate
control of adult flies can be achieved by using long-lasting insecti-
cides applied by sprayer to facility walls and structures.
Mosquitoes are typically produced in waste water lagoons or
other bodies of standing water, though some pestiferous mosquito
species can develop in small, temporary water sources such as pails
or other objects that can fill with rainwater. At least one mosquito
species (Aedes vexans) has been shown to vector (PRRSV) (Otake
266 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
et al., 2002). Mosquitoes are controlled by eliminating aquatic
development sites or by treatment of sites with insecticides, oils,
or bacteria that kill some strains of mosquitoes.
5.4 Biosecurity for swine pests
Limiting the movement of animals and humans among groups of
swine will help to prevent the direct spread of permanent ectopar-
asites. Proper manure management can limit house fly and stable
fly development. Developmental sites for fleas or soft ticks near
animals should be eliminated or treated. Tick prevention will be
more difficult if swine are on pasture. Measures for pastured swine
would reflect biosecurity for pastured cattle (above).
6 Insect pests of horses
Worldwide horses and other equines are kept for recreation, sport,
and as work animals. Indirect economic impact of the equine indus-
try is over $100 billion in both the United States and in Europe,
with horse riding in Europe reported to be increasing by 5% each
year (FEI Sports Forum, 2013). While horses are still used in some
parts of the world as work animals for farming or herding, in many
countries they are predominantly used for recreation and competi-
tive sport. Horse meat is consumed in some countries, but is gener-
ally unavailable or even taboo, especially in many English-speak-
ing countries where horses are considered more as pets than food
animal. Horses are perhaps the most exported animal worldwide,
for example accounting for 57% of all U.S. live livestock exports
(including cattle, poultry, swine, sheep, and goats; USDA, 2015).
The United State is the world leader in horse population followed
by Mexico, China, Brazil, and Argentina (FAOSTAT, 2017). There
is also an exceptionally active international equine sporting indus-
try with worldwide horse movement to attend international com-
petitions. Horse travel has increased the risk of movement of horse
pathogens from endemic areas to non-endemic areas.
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6.1 Permanent ectoparasites
Horses host two lice species; the horse biting louse (Bovicola equi)
and the horse sucking louse (Haematopinus asini). Eggs of the
horse biting louse are laid on fine hairs of the neck and flank of
animals, but can spread to the entire body. Adult biting lice are 1-2
mm in length. Horse sucking lice prefer coarse hair and are found
on the mane, base of the tail, and above hooves. Adult sucking lice
are 2-3 mm in length. Lice can be spread by direct contact or by
contaminated equipment or blankets. Lice infestations tend to be
heaviest in winter months when longer coats offer better habitat.
Horses can be infested with various species of scabies or ‘mange
mites’ and will exhibit similar scratching behaviour as cattle (see
above).
Management of lice and mites on horses is similar to that described
for cattle.
6.2 Ticks
Many of the ticks that negatively impact cattle will also infest
horses. Ticks can transmit a suite of protozoan, viral, and bacterial
pathogens to horses, including those that cause anaplasmosis, piro-
plasmosis, Lyme disease tularemia, and Q-fever (Granström, 1997).
Management of ticks on horses is similar to that described for cattle.
6.3 Bot flies
The main species of bot fly that can affect horses are the com-
mon horse bot fly (Gasterophilus intestinalis), the throat bot fly
(G. nasalis), and the nose bot fly (G. haemorrhoidalis). Eggs are
laid onto the fur of horses and are ingested during grooming. First
instar larvae attach to the mucosa of the mouth or gastrointestinal
tract where they feed on tissue. This process takes several months,
and when larvae reach the 3rd instar they detach and are excreted.
268 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
Bots will then pupate in soil or dried manure. Damage to the host
occurs when the gastrointestinal lining becomes inflamed or 1st
instar larvae burrow into the mouth lining. As for cattle, the pres-
ence of adult flies attempting to lay eggs can panic horses leading
to horse self-injury.
6.4 Flies and mosquitoes
Horses are affected by many of the same fly species that impact
cattle, including the stable fly, horn fly, face fly and house fly. While
horse faeces is typically less productive for flies relative to cat-
tle faeces, both stable fly and house fly can be produced in large
numbers when horse faeces and urine is mixed with straw bedding
for stabled horses. Horn flies and stable flies will bite on horses
and stable flies in particular have painful bites. Horn flies prefer
bovine hosts, but will feed on horses and cause irritation to ani-
mals despite not reaching high populations on them (Fig. 10.8).
Face flies feed on eye secretions and annoy animals. They are also
vectors of eye worms (Thelazia spp.) House flies do not directly
affect horses, but may be a nuisance to animals,
workers, and neighbours. House flies are also
vectors of numerous pathogens and parasites
of animal health importance, including round-
worms of horses (Habronema microstoma).
Mosquitoes develop in aquatic environments
in and around horse facilities. Mosquitoes are
vectors of several important viruses of horses,
including eastern equine encephalitis (EEEV),
western equine encephalitis (WEEV), West Nile
virus (WNV), St. Louis encephalitis (SLEV), and Venezuelan equine
encephalitis (VEEV). These viruses can cause significant disease in
horses, with mortality as high as 90% for EEEV (Knapp, 1985).
A vaccine is available to protect horses against WNV, and should
be considered for horses in geographic regions where this virus is
actively transmitted.
Fig. 10.8: Horn flies
blood-feeding on
a horse. While cattle are
the preferred host, horses
in proximity to cattle may
be also be attacked.
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Other flies that negatively affect horses and develop in aquatic
or semi-aquatic habitats include black flies (Family: Simuliidae),
biting midges (Culicoides spp.), and horse flies (Family: Tabani-
dae). The adults of both black flies and biting midges are small
( 15 mm) but in large numbers they can severely depress animals
due to their painful and irritating bites. Biting by these flies can
also result in pronounced itching and tissue irritation as a result of
host allergic reaction to salivary compounds injected into the bite
wound by these flies (Knapp, 1985). Biting midges are also of con-
cern as vectors of African horse sickness virus (AHSV), a severe
disease of horses which is currently limited to sub-Saharan Africa
but has the potential to spread to other geographic regions. Horse
flies are large (10-30 mm) blood-feeding flies that will readily
attack horses. Horse flies have painful bites that can cause horses
to display defensive behavior including panicked running which
may cause horse self-injury. Horse flies are vectors of equine infec-
tious anaemia and trypanosomes (Knapp, 1985).
Monitoring for flies and management of flies and mosquitoes is
described in the cattle and swine sections above.
6.5 Biosecurity for horse facilities
Horse facilities present a unique challenge in terms of biosecu-
rity because of their inherent purpose. Rather than being kept for
livestock or as work animals, most horses are kept for recreation
meaning that limiting contact among animals or between humans
and animals is not feasible. It may be much more important, there-
fore, to monitor for insect pests on animals more closely, especially
those that could spread to uninfested animals by direct contact
(e.g., lice and mites) and to keep horse stalls clean to prevent insect
breeding. Guidelines outlined for pastured cattle (above) also
apply to horses kept on pasture
270 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
7 Insect pests of poultry
Poultry is one of the most important sources of protein found
around the world (Vaarst et al., 2015). Commercial poultry raised
for food include chickens or related birds that lay eggs and birds
raised for meat. Worldwide, poultry meat production is increasing
with worldwide consumption expected to increase 19% by 2025
(Conway, 2016a). An estimated 110 million metric tons of poultry
meat were produced worldwide in 2016 with the United States
as the world leader followed by China, Brazil, and the European
Union. China is the leading producer of eggs at 30 million met-
ric tons in 2015, followed by the United States (5.8 million MT),
India (4.4 million MT) and Mexico (2.6 million MT) (Conway,
2016b). A variety of insect and arthropod pests and ectoparasites
can negatively impact commercial birds. Egg-laying chickens (lay-
ers) are generally raised for longer periods of time than chickens
for meat (broilers), which can influence the type and severity of
insect pests. Additionally, poultry housing can influence the preva-
lence and severity of poultry pests (reviewed in Mullens & Muri-
llo, 2017). As animal welfare concerns influence poultry housing
(e.g., cage-free eggs) arthropod pest complexes will be affected.
7.1 Permanent ectoparasites
There are several species of lice and mites that infest chickens
and other poultry as permanent ectoparasites. Common species
include, the chicken body louse (Menacanthus stramineus), the
shaft louse (Menopon gallinae), the northern fowl mite (Ornitho-
nyssus sylviarum) and the scaly leg mite (Knemidocoptes mutans)
(McCrea et al., 2005). Lice are generally host-specific, able to feed
on a single host species or very closely related host species. In con-
trast, poultry mites can often feed on a range of avian hosts (Baker
et al., 1956). With a rapid life cycle and high reproductive rate,
both lice and mites can reach high numbers on layers, which have
a productive life of 1-3 years. However, broilers rarely have high
infestations of lice or on-host dwelling mites due to their limited
lifespan (6-14 weeks).
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Louse nymphs and adults feed on feathers and
sometimes blood of poultry, causing irritation to
birds (Fig.10.9). Eggs are laid singly or in clumps
in bird feathers, and the location of the life stages
will vary by louse species. Lice can only survive
for short periods of time off-host. For example,
chicken body louse adults can survive off-host
for only up to 2-3 days in favourable conditions
(Chen & Mullens, 2008).
The northern fowl mite is the most common mite that lives on
poultry (Fig. 10.10). It is primarily found in the vent region of
birds due to a favourable microclimate in this location. Eggs are
laid in these feathers, and protonymphs and adult mites blood feed
in this area. Mite blood feeding results in irritation to birds and
can result in decreased egg production. These mites are not impor-
tant vectors of disease. Adult northern fowl mites can survive
nearly a month off-host when temperatures are cooler (<33 °C)
and relative humidity is high (85%) (Chen & Mullens, 2008). The
northern fowl mite can feed on a range of poultry and wild bird
hosts making it difficult to prevent introduction of these mites into
a new poultry flock (Knee & Proctor, 2007). The scaly leg mite
looks similar to scabies and lives in the skin under foot and leg
scales where they can cause irritation, inflammation, and in severe
cases, foot deformation or lameness.
Monitoring for lice or mites that live on-host will rely on direct
inspection of animals periodically. Lice may be
found all over the body, but mites will be pri-
marily in the vent area (Axtell & Arends, 1990).
The presence of mites on eggs is also an indicator
of high mite populations and has been used as
a threshold for treatment, though ideally treat-
ment would occur before mite populations reach
such levels (Mullens et al., 2000).
Control of permanent ectoparasites has tradition-
ally relied on insecticidal sprays applied directly
Fig. 10.9: Chicken
body lice (
Menacanthus
stramineus
) on a chicken
(dark brown near the base
of the feather). Several
species of chewing lice
infest poultry. Most are
feather-feeding, but
Menacnathus
spp. also
sometimes feed on blood.
Fig. 10.10: Northern fowl
mites generally live in
the vent region of chick-
ens. Mite protonymphs
and adults travel from
the feathers to the skin
surface to blood-feed
(arrow).
272 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
to the birds (Axtell & Arends, 1990). These chemicals must be
sprayed at high pressures to penetrate the feather layer to reach
where the ectoparasites live. Chemical resistance, increasing
organic production, and the shift from caged to cage-free birds
has limited the use and effectiveness of insecticides in recent years
(Mullens & Murillo, 2017; Mullens et al., 2017b). Alternatives to
traditional insecticides include the use of inorganic dusts such as
kaolin clay or diatomaceous earth in dustboxes (Martin & Mul-
lens, 2012) or the application of sulphur dust directly to birds or
by dustboxes or bags (Martin & Mullens, 2012; Murillo & Mul-
lens, 2016).
7.2 Nest parasites
Some ectoparasites require poultry blood for development and
reproduction, but spend most of their time living off their poul-
try host in the nest area (‘temporary ectoparasites’). Common
temporary ectoparasites of poultry include the bed bug (Cimex
lectularius), poultry red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae), sticktight
flea (Echidnophaga gallinacea), and several soft ticks (Argas spp.).
These temporary ectoparasites can be problematic for both layers
and broilers as long as suitable off-host harbourage is available.
The eggs of bed bugs, poultry red mites, and soft ticks are laid in
protected cracks and crevices near poultry, such as in nest boxes.
Other life stages of these ectoparasites also live within cracks and
crevices and other harbourage locations near birds, emerging at
night to blood feed on nearby birds. Bed bugs can take 1-4 months
to develop from egg to adult depending on envi-
ronmental conditions, and they survive for weeks
to months without feeding. Bed bugs cause irrita-
tion by feeding but have not been found to vector
poultry disease (Krinsky, 2009). Poultry red
mites can develop from egg to adult in as little as
10 days (Maurer & Baumgärtner, 1992). Red
mites have been implicated as vectors of numer-
ous poultry pathogens including bacteria and
Fig. 10.11: Adult stick-
tight fleas (
Echidnophaga
gallinacea
) attach to the
host to blood-feed. They
prefer to attach to combs,
wattles, and areas around
the eyes (shown).
273
PROMOTING BIOSECURITY THROUGH INSECT MANAGEMENT AT ANIMAL FACILITIES
1
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viruses (Moro et al., 2005). Soft ticks can transmit spirochetes and
cause tick paralysis (Proctor & Owens, 2000).
Sticktight flea adults blood feed by attaching to hosts on the head
or face area for extended periods of time (Fig. 10.11) (Axtell,
1985). Sticktight flea adults lay eggs without detaching from birds.
Eggs fall to the litter, where immatures develop
on organic material and adult flea faeces. Stick-
tight fleas have not been implicated in disease
transmission.
Monitoring for off-host dwelling ectoparasites
should target likely harbourage near animals.
Nest boxes should be examined periodically for
various life stages of ectoparasites, including
eggs, or signs of ectoparasites such as blood-fae-
cal spots (Fig. 10.12). Traps made from corru-
gated cardboard create harbourage for ectopara-
sites and can be used for monitoring presence
and relative abundance. The combs of birds should be examined
directly for the presence of sticktight fleas.
While it can be difficult to locate the often numerous harbourage
sites of these temporary ectoparasites, application of insecticide or
acaricide sprays to these harbourages near birds can provide con-
trol. Sprays must be thorough for effective control. Dusts or silica
gels or entomopathogenic fungi can likewise be applied directly to
cracks and crevices, though environmental conditions may affect
their efficacy.
7.3 Insects that develop in poultry faeces and litter
Insects that develop in poultry faeces and poultry litter include the
lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) and several species of
flies, notably the house fly and the little house fly (Fannia canicula-
ris). Lesser mealworm immatures require months to develop, then
burrow into soft wood or poultry housing insulation to pupate
Fig. 10.12: Bed bugs
(eggs, immatures, and
adults) in a wooden nest
box on a commercial
poultry facility. The dark
spots are caused by bed
bug defecation of digest-
ed blood and can be in-
dicative of an infestation.
274 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
(Axtell, 1985). Besides causing structural damage, beetles are also
reservoirs and vectors of numerous poultry diseases. They can also
be nuisance pests of humans if large numbers of these beetles are
removed from poultry houses with manure cleanout, leaving the
adult beetles to disperse into the surrounding area. House flies and
little house flies develop in nutrient-rich moist environments that
include poultry litter, manure, and spilled feed.
House flies can develop from egg to adult in as little as 7-10 days.
Little house flies, in contrast, require 20-30 days to develop from
egg to adult (Axtell, 1985). Adult flies can mechanically transfer
pathogens, though flies are primarily nuisance pests of humans.
Various traps can be used to monitor for immature and adult
beetles (Axtell & Arends, 1990). Tube traps can be constructed
out of short (ca. 15 cm) pieces of PVC pipe filled with corrugated
cardboard. These traps should be placed along the poultry house
perimeter and checked weekly to track relative beetle abundance.
Fly monitoring and control as described for cattle (above) apply
here. In poultry housing, moist manure or litter should be inspected
directly for the presence of developing beetles and fly larvae, which
may then be targeted for control.
Control of these pests is best achieved by sanitation efforts applied
to poultry manure and litter. Moist areas, such as under leaking
water lines, may be hot spots of development. Every effort should
be made to dry manure quickly, which will make it unsuitable for
fly development. In addition, insecticides or insect growth regula-
tors (prevent insects from maturing to adults) may be applied to
manure or other immature development habitat where these pests
are noted. Control of adult flies includes insecticidal spray to rest-
ing areas, granular fly baits, or fly traps, though this should be
secondary to reducing immature development sites.
275
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7.4 Biosecurity for poultry pests
Biosecurity can impact how insect pests get into poultry flocks,
how insects and disease are spread among flocks, and the dispersal
of insect pests from commercial poultry facilities to nearby proper-
ties. Permanent and temporary pests can be limited or prevented
entirely with good biosecurity because they are so dependent on
poultry hosts for survival. Excluding wild birds and their nests and
excluding or limiting rodent activity can limit introduction and
spread of mites and lice. Humans may act as incidental carriers of
poultry ectoparasites and move them from infested to uninfested
flocks. Cleaning boots and equipment in between flocks can limit
the spread of insects. Limiting movement between poultry houses
will also reduce the risk of spreading ectoparasites.
Lice and northern fowl mites do not infest humans, but poultry
red mites may feed on people causing irritation. The bed bug spe-
cies that feeds on humans can also infest poultry flocks, though the
importance of humans to introducing bed bugs to poultry facilities
is unknown.
Insects that develop in poultry manure are not as dependent on
the presence of poultry, and the way in which manure is stored
or managed is much more important for their survival during
the time between flocks. Manure and litter can be composted or
treated with insect growth regulators or insecticides to limit the
spread of nuisance pests and potential vectors. Flies in particu-
lar may be able to vector pathogens to or from poultry facilities.
House flies and little house flies can potentially mechanically vec-
tor exotic Newcastle disease, and the vector potential for avian
influenza is currently unknown.
276 BIOSECURITY IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
8 Conclusion
Biosecurity measures employed to protect animal health must
include control of insects, mites, and ticks that negatively impact
animals by direct feeding damage or as vectors of animal patho-
gens. Control of these pests should follow the general principles
and practices of an integrated pest management (IPM) programme,
including pest monitoring and focusing on proactive measures to
limit pest production.
Insect biosecurity is best achieved by (1) reducing fly abundance
through appropriate sanitation practices to limit fly development
habitat, (2) quarantining and treating animals infested with lice
or mites to prevent direct transfer of these pests to other animals,
(3) separating farm animals from wild animals that may carry and
transfer lice, mites, and ticks, (4) monitoring pest abundance and
activity regularly to identify new pest introductions and to deter-
mine whether pests are nearing damaging levels, and (5) training
facility employees to avoid accidental transfer of ectoparasites
from infested facilities to non-infested facilities.
The pests that need to be monitored and managed will depend
upon the production animal, the operational characteristics of the
facility (e.g. pasture-based or confinement), the geographic region
where animals are located, the season, and the presence or absence
of pathogens within the region. As discussed in the sections above,
pests of importance often differ among the different species of ver-
tebrate hosts, so monitoring efforts should focus on relevant pests
for each animal commodity.
277
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Photo credits
Alex Gerry: figures 10.1, 10.2, 10.4, 10.7, 10.8
Amy Murillo: figures 10.9, 10.10, 10.11
B.A. Mullens: figures 10.3, 10.5, 10.6
Cornell Vet Entomology: figure 10.12
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Development of the Pasture and Cattle Management (PCM) method is a priority to control the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus australis, in New Caledonia. The PCM method provides the foundation for sustainable integrated tick control because approximately 95% of cattle ticks in infested pastures are off the host in the non-parasitic life stages, and the practice of treating cattle intensely with chemical acaricides is a risk for the emergence of resistance to these active ingredients in commercial acaricidal products available for veterinary use. Here, we report the findings of an assessment survey to document the utility of the PCM method. Analyses of questionnaire data provided by 21 beef cattle producers describing their management of 37 herds informed how to (1) assess the ability of PCM to reduce acaricide use and (2) prioritize best practices and define recommendations to breeders promoting efficient tick control with minimum acaricide use. Boosted regression tree analysis showed a significant (p = 0.002) reduction of ≈33% in the number of acaricide treatments from 7.9 to 5.3 per year by using PCM. Of the 24 factors identified as potentially affecting acaricide use, six factors accounted for ≈86% of the variability in number of acaricide treatments applied annually. The six most influential factors involved farm characteristics as well as pasture and herd management recommendations. These results demonstrated the usefulness of PCM for integrated control of R. australis infestations while reducing acaricide use to improve cattle production in New Caledonia.
... As a transboundary animal disease, bovine babesiosis can impact the international trade of cattle [4,5]. The incorporation of appropriate biosecurity measures in cattle production systems at exporting countries in which vector tick species still occur can mitigate the risk of invasion and re-emergence in trading partner nations that are babesiosis-and CFT-free [6,7]. ...
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Bovine babesiosis is a reportable transboundary animal disease caused by Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina in the Americas where these apicomplexan protozoa are transmitted by the invasive cattle fever ticks Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus. In countries like Mexico where cattle fever ticks remain endemic, bovine babesiosis is detrimental to cattle health and results in a significant economic cost to the livestock industry. These cattle disease vectors continue to threaten the U.S. cattle industry despite their elimination through efforts of the Cattle Fever Tick Eradication Program. Mexico and the U.S. share a common interest in managing cattle fever ticks through their economically important binational cattle trade. Here, we report the outcomes of a meeting where stakeholders from Mexico and the U.S. representing the livestock and pharmaceutical industry, regulatory agencies, and research institutions gathered to discuss research and knowledge gaps requiring attention to advance progressive management strategies for bovine babesiosis and cattle fever ticks. Research recommendations and other actionable activities reflect commitment among meeting participants to seize opportunities for collaborative efforts. Addressing these research gaps is expected to yield scientific knowledge benefitting the interdependent livestock industries of Mexico and the U.S. through its translation into enhanced biosecurity against the economic and animal health impacts of bovine babesiosis and cattle fever ticks.
... Ectoparasites are a group of arthropods that reside on the surface of the body of chickens, causing stress to the host, and potentially spreading to nearby chickens or other animal hosts [37] [39]. Many of these ectoparasites, such as the northern fowl mite, adversely affect productivity (e.g. ...
... Ectoparasites are a group of arthropods that reside on the surface of the body of chickens, causing stress to the host, and potentially spreading to nearby chickens or other animal hosts [37] [39]. Many of these ectoparasites, such as the northern fowl mite, adversely affect productivity (e.g. ...
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Poultry farms are an important contributor to the human food chain. Worldwide, humankind keeps an enormous number of domesticated birds (e.g. chickens) for their eggs and their meat, providing rich sources of low-fat protein. However, around the world, there have been growing concerns about the quality of life for the livestock in poultry farms; and increasingly vocal demands for improved standards of animal welfare. Recent advances in sensing technologies and machine learning allow the possibility of automatically assessing the health of some individual birds, and employing the lessons learned to improve the welfare for all birds. This task superficially appears to be easy, given the dramatic progress in recent years in classifying human behaviors, and given that human behaviors are presumably more complex. However, as we shall demonstrate, classifying chicken behaviors poses several unique challenges, chief among which is creating a generalizable dictionary of behaviors from sparse and noisy data. In this work we introduce a novel time series dictionary learning algorithm that can robustly learn from weakly labeled data sources.
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