Available via license: CC BY
Content may be subject to copyright.
dA.Derecho Animal (Forum of Animal Law Studies) 2019, vol. 10/4 77-84
https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/da.462
ISSN 2462-7518
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
Research Manager –Fish
Compassion in World Farming, United Kingdom
Received: October 2019
Accepted: November 2019
Recommended citation. LARA, E., BOYLAND, N., Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view, dA. Derecho
Animal (Forum of Animal Law Studies) 10/4 (2019) - DOI https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/da.462
Abstract
Fish are the most exploited, forgotten and misunderstood animals on the planet. They also are
extraordinary creatures: complex, intelligent, sensitive, curious, and some of them have amazing abilities.
For instance; some use tools, have a good memory, or collaborate to hunt. And most importantly, they are
sentient, and they feel pain. Aquaculture has become the main supplier of fish worldwide, accounting for
just over half of the fish eaten by humans due to static global wild-capture stocks, which have been
overfished for decades. Also, global consumption of fish has doubled since the early 1970s and will
continue to grow with population growth in the developing world. However, the aquaculture industry has
developed without proper consideration of the needs of the fish species farmed, and the welfare
consequences for those animals. Moreover, the rapid growth of aquaculture has raises major sustainability
concerns due to its continued reliance on wild-caught fish. Annually, 0.5-1.0 trillion fish are caught to be
reduced to ingredients to feed farmed animals, mainly fish. When considering the negative environmental
consequences of using wild-caught fish as feed, we must not overlook the huge animal welfare impact
that represents for the huge number of animals involved. Compassion in World Farming is working to
raise awareness about fish sentience and the welfare problems that aquaculture industry represents for fish
welfare. The way that fish are treated is important and we must do it better.
Keywords: fish welfare, fish sentience, aquaculture, fishmeal and fish oil.
Resumen - Bienestar en peces: la perspectiva de defensa de los animales
Los peces son los animales más explotados, olvidados e incomprendidos del planeta. Pero también son
criaturas extraordinarias: complejos, inteligentes, sensibles, curiosos, y algunos de ellos tienen habilidades
increíbles. Por ejemplo, algunos usan herramientas, tienen buena memoria o colaboran para cazar. Pero lo
más importante es que los peces son seres sintientes y por lo tanto sienten dolor. La acuicultura se ha
convertido en el principal proveedor de pescado en todo el mundo; más de la mitad del pescado que
consumimos es cultivado. Esto se debe principalmente a que las capturas de peces salvajes se han
estabilizado porque han estado sobreexplotadas durante décadas. Además, el consumo mundial de pescado
se ha duplicado desde principios de la década de los 70 y continuará creciendo con el aumento de la
población. Sin embargo, la industria de la acuicultura se ha desarrollado sin el debido conocimiento de las
necesidades de las especies de peces cultivadas y las consecuencias para el bienestar de estos animales.
Asimismo, el rápido crecimiento de la acuicultura ha generado importantes preocupaciones a nivel medio
ambiental ya que esta industria depende de las capturas de peces salvajes. Anualmente, se capturan 0.5-1.0
billones de peces para ser transformados en ingredientes para alimentar a los animales de granja,
principalmente peces. Al considerar las consecuencias ambientales negativas del uso de peces salvajes como
alimento, no debemos pasar por alto el enorme impacto que supone a nivel de bienestar animal ya que el
número de animales involucrados es muy alto. Compassion in World Farming trabaja para crear conciencia
de que los peces son animales sintientes y los problemas de bienestar que la industria acuícola representa
para los peces. La forma en que tratamos a los peces es importante y debemos hacerlo mejor.
Palabras clave: bienestar en peces, sintiencia, acuicultura, harina de pescado y aceite de pescado.
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
78 Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4
Introduction
Compassion in World Farming (CIWF) is an international animal welfare environmentalist charity. It
was funded in 1967 by Peter Roberts, a British dairy farmer who could see first-hand how the demand for
“cheap” food was having devastating effect on farm animals, the environment and humans. CIWF focuses
on ending factory farming because animal welfare should be a priority in agriculture, and this is not possible
with intensive systems. CIWF is working to transform our current food system into one that does not
involve cruelty and does not destroy our planet. To achieve these objectives, CIWF is campaigning to
strengthen animal welfare legislation, persuading global food companies to produce only higher animal
welfare products and exposing the true impacts of factory farming – from animal suffering to environmental
pollution, damage to human health and the devastation of our wildlife.
Around the world, up to 2.3 trillion fish are caught from the wild, and up to 167 billion are farmed for
human consumption1. Of the wild fish captured globally each year, 0.5 -1.0 trillion are caught specifically to
feed to farm animals2, mostly farmed fish. These wild fish will be reduced to fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO)
to produce ingredients for fish feeds. This has allowed the huge growth of intensive aquaculture over the
past few decades, an industry that has developed without a proper understanding of the welfare needs of the
fish species farmed. Furthermore, most farmed fish are killed without pre-stunning, and suffer slow, painful
deaths.
Two years ago, CIWF started a new project focused on fish welfare which has significant potential
impact since, of all the animal groups used by humans, fish are by far the greatest in numbers. Fish welfare
is gaining more prominence in industry, science and policy, but currently there is much work to be done to
ensure that the mental, physical and behavioural need of fish are met in aquaculture. In this rapidly
expanding sector welfare impacts on the farmed species are expected, however there are also far reaching
impacts on wild animals. In this article, we describe current knowledge of fish sentience and cognition,
some key challenges for farmed fish, and present the hidden link to wild fish welfare and ramifications for
marine ecosystems.
Fish sentience and cognition
Historically there has been relatively little public concern regarding fish welfare, suggesting a lack of
understanding and/or empathy for these animals3. Part of the problem seems to be the large communication
gap between fish and humans, since we live in different environments which restricts human-fish contact4.
Fish have unfamiliar body language, have senses that we lack, have no facial expressions that we can
understand, and do not make sounds perceivable by the human ear5. Therefore, fish do not possess the
physical or social characteristics to elicit human empathy or compassion in the way that most other
vertebrates do6. However, our understanding and perception of fish is progressing. Scientific evidence
demonstrates that fish are sentient animals; they are aware of the external environment and of their own
internal emotional states, with the ability to experience pleasure, pain and other emotions7.
Fish are also more intelligent than we give them credit for8. Recent scientific publications document
numerous sophisticated behaviours. For example, fish are able to integrate information and have good long-
term memories that allow them to learn tasks, problem solve, use tools, cooperate, have numerical skills,
1 MOOD, A., BROOKE, P., Fish number estimates based on FAO 2017 data, according to methods published on
https://fishcount.org.uk (2017).
2 Ibid.
3 LUND, V., MEJDELL, C. M., RÖCKLINSBERG, H., ANTHONY, R., HÅSTEIN, T. Expanding the moral circle: Farmed fish as
objects of moral concern. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 75 (2007) 109–118.
4 BROWN, C. Fish intelligence, sentience and ethics. Anim. Cogn. (2014). doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0761-0
5 DRIESSEN, C. P. G. In awe of fish? Exploring animal ethics for non-cuddly species. Consum. Everyday Life (2018) 257–282
doi:10.4324/9781315660691-11
6 BROWN, C. Fish intelligence, sentience and ethics. Anim. Cogn. (2014). doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0761-0
7 ASHLEY, P. J. et al. Effect of noxious stimulation upon antipredator responses and dominance status in rainbow trout. Anim.
Behav, 77 (2009) 403–410; BRAITHWAITE, V. A., HUNTINGFORD, F. A. Fish and welfare: Do fish have the capacity for pain
perception and suffering? Anim. Welf. 13 (2004) 87–92; BROWN, C. Comparative evolutionary approach to pain perception in
fishes. Anim. Sentience 011 (2016) 1–7; BSHARY, R., GINGINS, S., VAIL, A. L. Social cognition in fishes. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18
(2014) 465–471; CHANDROO, K., DUNCAN, I. J., MOCCIA, R. Can fish suffer?: perspectives on sentience, pain, fear and stress.
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 86 (2004) 225–250; SNEDDON, L. U. The evidence for pain in fish: The use of morphine as an analgesic.
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 83 (2003) 153–162; FRANKS, B., SEBO, J., HOROWITZ, A. Fish are smart and feel pain: What about
joy? Commentary on Sneddon et al. on Sentience Denial. Anim. Sentience 156 (2018) 1–4
8 BROWN, C. Fish intelligence, sentience and ethics. Anim. Cogn. (2014). doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0761-0; BATZINA, A.,
DALLA, C., TSOPELAKOS, A., PAPADOPOULOU-DAIFOTI, Z., KARAKATSOULI, N. Environmental enrichment induces
changes in brain monoamine levels in gilthead seabream Sparus aurata. Physiol. Behav, 130 (2014) 85–90
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4 79
navigate long distances and learn through watching others9.
Unlike cognitive abilities, what animals feel is more difficult, or even impossible, to measure10. We
cannot know what is happening inside another animal’s mind, even when that animal is another human11.
Presently, we must rely on brain anatomical traits, and physiological and behavioural responses to identify
the capacity for sentience12. Teleost (bony) fish have the hardware for pain perception13; they have the
necessary receptors (nociceptors) and nerve fibres to detect painful events14. Also, they respond to pain
relief, e.g. morphine. In fact, they have an opioid system that works in a similar way to mammals’15. Not
just a reflexive system, fish respond to painful stimuli with physiological and behavioural responses that
suggest an emotional and longer-term response16. For example, when trout were injected with bee venom or
vinegar, their breathing rate increases, stress hormones are released, they lose their appetite and interest in
their surroundings, and they appear to focus on the area of the body that has been injured17. Higher order
cognitive processes such as attention or spatial awareness are significantly altered by the painful stimuli18.
This demonstrates that fish respond to aversive events and they alter their subsequent behaviour. Despite the
evidence mentioned above, there is still controversy surrounding fish pain. The deniers’ main claim is that
fish cannot feel pain because they do not possess brain structures believed to be essential to conscious pain
in mammals, specifically regions of the neocortex and mesocortex. They state that fish show reflexive
responses only, and that they are incapable of true cognitive abilities19. However, fish have the necessary
receptors and nerve fibres to detect painful events and their brains are arranged in a similar structure to
mammal brains, with the exception of the neocortex which developed in mammals. Brains of different
animals have evolved to do similar things in slightly different ways or using different structures. Another
example of this is that in mammals’ vision is processed in the ‘cortex’, but in fish and reptiles’ vision is
processed in the optic lobe, and yet all of these animals can achieve the same end goal – they can see.
Indeed, according to Braithwaite “there is as much evidence that fish feel pain and suffer as there is for birds
and mammals”20. In any case, there is certainly enough evidence to give fish the benefit of the doubt and
treat them with care. It is therefore important that we urgently address fish welfare issues in aquaculture.
Farmed fish
Most of the 51-167 billion fish21 produced in farms are reared in intensive systems22, where fish are
kept at high stocking densities in barren environments – a set up tailored to maximise production rather than
fish welfare. As for many farmed animals, welfare needs must be met to some extent to achieve good
productivity23. However, this is usually measured on a group level rather than an individual one (i.e. some
individuals may suffer more and there can be a relatively high mortality rate, providing that the system
remains economical) and often focus is on the physical health, and less on meeting the mental and
9 AGRILLO, C., MILETTO PETRAZZINI, M. E., BISAZZA, A. Numerical abilities in fish: A methodological review. Behav.
Processes, 141 (2017)161–171; DE LUCA, G., MARIANI, P., MACKENZIE, B. R., MARSILI, M. Fishing out collective memory
of migratory schools. J. R. Soc. Interface 11 (2014) 20140043; HANSEN, L. P., JONSSON, N., JONSSON, B. Oceanic migration in
homing Atlantic salmon. Anim. Behav. 45 (1993) 927–941; JONES, A. M., BROWN, C., GARDNER, S. Tool use in the tuskfish
Choerodon schoenleinii? Coral Reefs 30 (2011) 865; KAWASE, H., OKATA, Y., ITO, K. Role of huge geometric circular
structures in the reproduction of a marine pufferfish. Sci. Rep. 3 (2013) 2106; KOHDA, M. et al. Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test.
What are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals? bioRxiv (2018); SALWICZEK, L. H. et al. Adult
Cleaner Wrasse Outperform Capuchin Monkeys, Chimpanzees and Orang-utans in a Complex Foraging Task Derived from Cleaner
- Client Reef Fish Cooperation. PLoS One 7 (2012).
10 BROWN, C. Fish intelligence, sentience and ethics. Anim. Cogn. (2014). doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0761-0
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 SNEDDON, L. U. Anatomical and electrophysiological analysis of the trigeminal nerve in a teleost fish, Oncorhynchus mykiss.
Neurosci. Lett. 319 (2002)167–171
14 Ibid.
15 SNEDDON, L. U. The evidence for pain in fish: The use of morphine as an analgesic. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 83 (2003) 153–162
16 SNEDDON, L. U. Pain in aquatic animals. J. Exp. Biol. 218 (2015) 967–976
17 SNEDDON, L. U. The evidence for pain in fish: The use of morphine as an analgesic. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 83 (2003) 153–162
18 CHANDROO, K., DUNCAN, I. J., MOCCIA, R. Can fish suffer?: perspectives on sentience, pain, fear and stress. Appl. Anim.
Behav. Sci. 86 (2004) 225–250
19 ROSE, J. D. et al. Can fish really feel pain? Fish Fish. 15 (2012) 97-133 doi:10.1111/faf.12010
20 BRAITHWAITE, V. A. Do fish feel pain? (Oxford University Press, 2010).
21 MOOD, A., BROOKE, P. Fish number estimates based on FAO 2017 data, according to methods published on
https://fishcount.org.uk (2017)
22 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). World Fisheries and Aquaculture (2018).
23 SARAIVA, J.L., CASTANHEIRA, M.F., ARECHAVALA-LOPEZ, P., VOLSTORF, J., HEINZPETER STUDER, B.
Domestication and Welfare in Farmed Fish. In Animal Domestication; IntechOpen: London, UK (2018).
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
80 Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4
behavioural needs of the animal24.
In intensive aquaculture fish can suffer from higher rates of acute and chronic stress, aggression and
injuries, and with this the risk of disease transmission increases25 - similar features and problems to those
commonly referred to as ‘factory farms’ for terrestrial animals. Fish are often exposed to extremely stressful
handling procedures, involving being taken out of the water where they experience asphyxia, and the vast
majority of fish farmed around the globe are killed using inhumane slaughter practices26.
Commonly, fish are killed by asphyxiation in air or ice slurry, or exposure to carbon dioxide gas; loss
of consciousness and death by these methods is not quick, and suffering is unacceptably prolonged27.
Alternatively, they may die during the process of gutting and processing28. Fish are legally recognized as
sentient beings according to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (2012). The Council
regulation 1099/2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing states that " animals shall be spared
any avoidable pain, distress or suffering during their killing and related operations", and this statement
applies to fish. Therefore, fish should be stunned before being killed to avoid pain and suffering. Stunning
methods (such as electrical or percussive stunning) are available and can allow for a more humane death for
some species, but there is a significant amount of work required to achieve widespread industry adoption.
Other problems that the aquaculture industry should deal with are greenhouse gas emissions29, deleterious
impacts on wild fish populations from farmed fish escapes (European Comission, 2015), antibiotic and
chemical use or abuse30, nutrient release from waste feed and faeces that impact the marine environment,
and slavery31.
Wild-caught fish, fishmeal and fish oil
When considering the negative effects of fish farming, we should not overlook the hidden layer of
animal welfare problems: the welfare of wild-caught fish destined for fish feed which fuels aquaculture (and
other farmed animals)32. That is, the impact of farming carnivorous species33. Besides the welfare issues
regarding method of production of the farmed fish, we should not disassociate the other fish and marine
animals involved in the supply chain34. In order to feed many farmed fish species, huge numbers of fish are
caught from the wild to be made into feed for farmed fish. ‘Reduction fisheries’ catch fish and crustaceans
(mainly krill) to make fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO), which are the main animal protein ingredients of feeds
used for aquaculture and agriculture35. Therefore, when assessing the animal welfare impacts of aquaculture,
we must include both the farmed fish and the numerous wild-caught fish connected with producing it. We
calculated that for the production of one farmed salmon, up to 350 wild-caught fish are used as feed, and so
the welfare of those individuals must also be considered36. The vast majority of fish caught from the wild
suffer immensely during the processes of catching, landing and killing37. Industrial fishing methods catch
fish in huge numbers at a time. When hundreds of thousands of fish are caught – for example, in a purse
seine net or trawling net – they are intensely crowded during capture, then packed tightly together as they
are hauled to the surface of the water. Fish will be damaged (e.g. physical abrasions, compression, bursting
24 Ibid.
25 ASHLEY, P. J. Fish welfare: Current issues in aquaculture. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 104 (2007) 199–235
26 Compassion in World Farming. The welfare of farmed fish during slaughter in the European union. (2018).
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
29 TACON, A. G. J. Demand and supply of feed ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans: trends and prospects. FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 564. FAO, 2011. 87
30 TACON, A. G. J. Demand and supply of feed ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans: trends and prospects. FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 564. FAO, 2011. 87; ROMERO, J., GLORIA, C., NAVARRETE, P. Antibiotics in
Aquaculture – Use, Abuse and Alternatives. Health and Environment in Aquaculture (2012). doi:10.5772/28157
31 NAYLOR, R., BURKE, M. Aquaculture and ocean resources: raising tigers of the sea. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 30 (2005)
185–218; TICKLER, D. et al. Modern slavery and the race to fish. Nat. Commun. 9 (2018) 4643
32 NAYLOR, R., BURKE, M. Aquaculture and ocean resources: raising tigers of the sea. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 30 (2005)
185–218; NAYLOR, R. L. et al. Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106 (2009) 15103–
10
33 ALDER, J., CAMPBELL, B., KARPOUZI, V., KASCHNER, K., PAULY, D. Forage Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets Further
Annual Reviews. (2008). doi:10.1146/annurev.environ.33.020807.143204; CASHION, T., LE MANACH, F., ZELLER, D.,
PAULY, D. Most fish destined for fishmeal production are food-grade fish. Fish Fish. 18 (2017) 837–844
34 ALDER, J., CAMPBELL, B., KARPOUZI, V., KASCHNER, K., PAULY, D. Forage Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets Further
Annual Reviews. (2008). doi:10.1146/annurev.environ.33.020807.143204
35 Ibid.
36 BYELASHOV, O. A., GRIFFIN, M. E. Fish In, Fish Out: Perception of Sustainability and Contribution to Public Health.
Fisheries 39 (2014) 531–535; YTRESTØYL, T., AAS, T. S., ÅSGÅRD, T. Utilisation of feed resources in production of Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Aquaculture 448 (2015) 365–374
37 METCALFE, J. D. Welfare in wild-capture marine fisheries. J. Fish Biol. 75 (2009) 2855–2861
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4 81
of internal organs due to sudden pressure changes) and stressed during this process. A significant proportion
will die, crushed under the weight of other fish in the nets. For fish that survive capture and landing (being
brought aboard the vessel), there is usually no slaughter method; they are simply left to asphyxiate or may
die during processing38. Marine mammals and birds may also be caught up in these practices, becoming
bycatch and dying slow deaths, or being injured during capture and release39.
There is also a knock-on effect on marine ecosystems. The fish destined for reduction to FMFO are
mainly low trophic level species, plankton feeders that form dense schools. These are often referred to as
“forage fish” which includes anchovy, sardine, herring, mackerel, etc40. These species play a key role in the
marine environment because they transfer energy from primary producers to higher trophic levels such as
larger fish, marine mammals and seabirds41. Thus, overfishing down food webs can have important
ecological impacts for the ecosystem function42. While FMFO is generally sourced from reduction fisheries,
it also includes fish trimmings and fish is also used directly for feed from by-catch of non-selective fisheries
as shrimp trawls43. That said, based on FAO fisheries capture tonnages, it is estimated that 0.5-1 trillion fish
are caught each year only to be reduced to ingredients to feed farmed animals, mainly fish44.
The use of FMFO is supporting the rise of intensive aquaculture which is driven by a growing
demand for fish of specific species, mainly carnivorous (e.g. salmon, trout, sea bass, sea bream), that are
preferred by consumers in developed countries45. On the other hand, many farmed herbivorous species that
don’t require fish inputs in their feed are increasingly being supplemented with FMFO, or whole fish, to
speed up growth46. Therefore, the increase in global aquaculture is compromising the future of forage-fish
populations, which play a key role in the marine environment, while animal welfare in fish farms remains a
major problem. Fortunately, the concept of farmed fish welfare and its importance is starting to gain
attention in research, policy and the media. However, the hidden layer to this animal welfare crisis – the
welfare of wild-caught fish destined for fish feed – is often overlooked. Together, these industries lead to
immense suffering for a huge number of animals.
Proposed improvements
The current food system has become a consumer good, more focused on low prices than in the way
that is produced and the true cost of food origin. CIWF believes that we need to move forward to a
sustainable and humane food system for people, animals and the environment; a regenerative production
system without the cruelty of factory farming. CIWF encourages people to eat less animal products
(moderate to low or none) and eat more fresh fruits and vegetables, which is more beneficial to health and
the environment than diets heavy in meat, fish, diary, etc47.
People who do choose to eat fish may want to look at both sustainability issues and animal welfare.
As a general rule, it may be useful to suggest that people who choose to eat farmed fish to avoid carnivorous
fish since huge number of wild-caught fish is used to produce fish feeds. We recommend consuming farmed
fish that do not require animal protein in their feed as carp or tilapia. Currently, it is virtually impossible to
find “high welfare” fish since inhumane slaughter of fish remains common across the industry. However,
some certification schemes have some welfare standards for fish as GlobalGap or BAP. Thus, we encourage
38 VELDHUIZEN, L. J. L., BERENTSEN, P. B. M., DE BOER, I. J. M., VAN DE VIS, J. W., BOKKERS, E. A. M. Fish welfare in
capture fisheries: A review of injuries and mortality. Fish. Res. 204 (2018) 41–48
39 LEWISON, R. L., CROWDER, L. B., READ, A. J., FREEMAN, S. A. Understanding impacts of fisheries bycatch on marine
megafauna. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19 (2004) 598–604
40 ALDER, J., CAMPBELL, B., KARPOUZI, V., KASCHNER, K., PAULY, D. Forage Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets Further
Annual Reviews. (2008). doi:10.1146/annurev.environ.33.020807.143204
41 Ibid.
42 NAYLOR, R. L. et al. Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106 (2009) 15103–10;
ESSINGTON, T. E. et al. Fishing amplifies forage fish population collapses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 112 (2015) 6648–52;
NAYLOR, R. L. et al. Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405 (2000) 1017–1024; SMITH, A. D. M. et al. Impacts
of fishing low-trophic level species on marine ecosystems. Science 333 (2011) 1147–50
43 HUNTINGTON, T., HASAN, M. R. Fish as feed inputs for aquaculture – practices, sustainability and implications: a global
synthesis. In M.R. Hasan and M. Halwart (eds). Fish as feed inputs for aquaculture: practices, sustainability and implications. FAO
Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 518. Rome, FAO. pp. 1–61 (2009).
44 MOOD, A., BROOKE, P., Fish number estimates based on FAO 2017 data, according to methods published on
https://fishcount.org.uk (2017)
45 EUMOFA. The EU Fish Market. (2017).
46 TACON, A. G. J., METIAN, M. Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds:
Trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285 (2008) 146–158
47 HILBORN, R., BANOBI, J., HALL, S. J., PUCYLOWSKI, T., WALSWORTH, T. E. The environmental cost of animal source
foods. Front. Ecol. Environ. 16 (2018) 329–335
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
82 Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4
consumers to pay attention to fish labels and choose products certified by these schemes. Also, fish
produced in extensive or organic production systems are generally reared in better conditions than intensive
fish farms as they can be closer to natural environments. For that people who choose wild-caught fish, fish
products certified by schemes that ensures sustainable fisheries is recommended (however this does not
mean anything for welfare) and it is always better to buy local fish from a small, non-industrial operation.
Conclusions
Here, we have aimed to describe the most important and detrimental issues of fish welfare. The lack
of information about fish sentience and cognition resulting in a poor human empathy or compassion has
built one of the most important animal welfare problems: the poor value that humans give to fish and
therefore, the treatment that they receive from us. A shift in consumer and industry perception of fish is
needed to push welfare standards up. Also, research and technical development is needed to meet the well-
being requirements of the fish. The way forward consists of several steps, which include education,
research, transparency from the aquaculture industry, commitment of policies, laws and codes and animal
welfare assurance from certification schemes for consumers. Compassion in World Farming is working to
spread the message of fish sentience to the general public, consumers, scientists and the whole fish industry
because attitudes to fish and the ways that they are treated are important. The numbers of animals affected is
huge but also, they are sentient, intelligent and conscious animals and thus capable of suffering. They
deserve the same recognition and protection as other groups of animals. It’s time to Rethink fish.
References
• AGRILLO, C., MILETTO PETRAZZINI, M. E., BISAZZA, A. Numerical abilities in fish: A
methodological review. Behav. Processes, 141 (2017)161–171
• ALDER, J., CAMPBELL, B., KARPOUZI, V., KASCHNER, K., PAULY, D. Forage Fish: From
Ecosystems to Markets Further Annual Reviews. (2008).
doi:10.1146/annurev.environ.33.020807.143204
• ASHLEY, P. J. Fish welfare: Current issues in aquaculture. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 104 (2007)
199–235
• ASHLEY, P. J. et al. Effect of noxious stimulation upon antipredator responses and dominance
status in rainbow trout. Anim. Behav, 77 (2009) 403–410
• BATZINA, A., DALLA, C., TSOPELAKOS, A., PAPADOPOULOU-DAIFOTI, Z.,
KARAKATSOULI, N., Environmental enrichment induces changes in brain monoamine levels in
gilthead seabream Sparus aurata. Physiol. Behav, 130 (2014) 85–90
• BRAITHWAITE, V. A., HUNTINGFORD, F. A. Fish and welfare: Do fish have the capacity for
pain perception and suffering? Anim. Welf. 13 (2004) 87–92
• BRAITHWAITE, V. A. Do fish feel pain? (Oxford University Press, 2010).
• BROWN, C., Fish intelligence, sentience and ethics. Anim. Cogn. (2014).
• doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0761-0
• BROWN, C. Comparative evolutionary approach to pain perception in fishes. Anim. Sentience 011
(2016) 1–7
• BSHARY, R., GINGINS, S., VAIL, A. L. Social cognition in fishes. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18 (2014)
465–471
• BYELASHOV, O. A., GRIFFIN, M. E. Fish In, Fish Out: Perception of Sustainability and
Contribution to Public Health. Fisheries 39 (2014) 531–535
• CASHION, T., LE MANACH, F., ZELLER, D., PAULY, D. Most fish destined for fishmeal
production are food-grade fish. Fish Fish. 18 (2017) 837–844
• CHANDROO, K., DUNCAN, I. J., MOCCIA, R. Can fish suffer?: perspectives on sentience, pain,
fear and stress. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 86 (2004) 225–250
• Compassion in World Farming. The welfare of farmed fish during slaughter in the European
union. (2018).
• DE LUCA, G., MARIANI, P., MACKENZIE, B. R., MARSILI, M. Fishing out collective
memory of migratory schools. J. R. Soc. Interface 11 (2014) 20140043
• DRIESSEN, C. P. G., In awe of fish? Exploring animal ethics for non-cuddly species. Consum.
Everyday Life (2018) 257–282 doi:10.4324/9781315660691-11
• EUMOFA. The EU Fish Market. (2017).
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4 83
• ESSINGTON, T. E. et al. Fishing amplifies forage fish population collapses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U. S. A. 112 (2015) 6648–52
• FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). World Fisheries and
Aquaculture (2018).
• FRANKS, B., SEBO, J., HOROWITZ, A., Fish are smart and feel pain: What about joy?
Commentary on Sneddon et al. on Sentience Denial. Anim. Sentience 156 (2018) 1–4
• HANSEN, L. P., JONSSON, N., JONSSON, B. Oceanic migration in homing Atlantic salmon.
Anim. Behav. 45 (1993) 927–941
• HILBORN, R., BANOBI, J., HALL, S. J., PUCYLOWSKI, T., WALSWORTH, T. E. The
environmental cost of animal source foods. Front. Ecol. Environ. 16 (2018) 329–335
• HUNTINGTON, T., HASAN, M. R. Fish as feed inputs for aquaculture – practices, sustainability
and implications: a global synthesis. In M.R. Hasan and M. Halwart (eds). Fish as feed inputs for
aquaculture: practices, sustainability and implications. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical
Paper. No. 518. Rome, FAO. pp. 1–61 (2009).
• JONES, A. M., BROWN, C., GARDNER, S. Tool use in the tuskfish Choerodon schoenleinii?
Coral Reefs 30 (2011) 865
• KAWASE, H., OKATA, Y., ITO, K. Role of huge geometric circular structures in the
reproduction of a marine pufferfish. Sci. Rep. 3 (2013) 2106
• KOHDA, M. et al. Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test. What are the implications for consciousness
and self-awareness testing in animals? bioRxiv (2018).
• LEWISON, R. L., CROWDER, L. B., READ, A. J., FREEMAN, S. A. Understanding impacts of
fisheries bycatch on marine megafauna. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19 (2004) 598–604
• LUND, V., MEJDELL, C. M., RÖCKLINSBERG, H., ANTHONY, R., HÅSTEIN, T. Expanding
the moral circle: Farmed fish as objects of moral concern. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 75
(2007) 109–118
• METCALFE, J. D. Welfare in wild-capture marine fisheries. J. Fish Biol. 75 (2009) 2855–2861
• MOOD, A., BROOKE, P., Fish number estimates based on FAO 2017 data, according to methods
published on https://fishcount.org.uk (2017)
• NAYLOR, R. L. et al. Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405 (2000) 1017–1024
• NAYLOR, R., BURKE, M. Aquaculture and ocean resources: raising tigers of the sea. Annu. Rev.
Environ. Resour. 30 (2005) 185–218
• NAYLOR, R. L. et al. Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.
S. A. 106 (2009) 15103–10
• ROMERO, J., GLORIA, C., NAVARRETE, P. Antibiotics in Aquaculture – Use, Abuse and
Alternatives. Health and Environment in Aquaculture (2012). doi:10.5772/28157
• ROSE, J. D. et al. Can fish really feel pain? Fish Fish. 15 (2012) 97-133 doi:10.1111/faf.12010
• SALWICZEK, L. H. et al. Adult Cleaner Wrasse Outperform Capuchin Monkeys, Chimpanzees
and Orang-utans in a Complex Foraging Task Derived from Cleaner - Client Reef Fish
Cooperation. PLoS One, 7 (2012).
• SARAIVA, J.L., CASTANHEIRA, M.F., ARECHAVALA-LOPEZ, P., VOLSTORF, J.,
HEINZPETER STUDER, B. Domestication and Welfare in Farmed Fish. In Animal
Domestication; IntechOpen: London, UK (2018).
• SMITH, A. D. M. et al. Impacts of fishing low-trophic level species on marine ecosystems.
Science 333 (2011) 1147–50
• SNEDDON, L. U. Anatomical and electrophysiological analysis of the trigeminal nerve in a
teleost fish, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Neurosci. Lett., 319 (2002)167–171
• SNEDDON, L. U. The evidence for pain in fish: The use of morphine as an analgesic. Appl. Anim.
Behav. Sci. 83 (2003) 153–162
• SNEDDON, L. U. Pain in aquatic animals. J. Exp. Biol. 218 (2015) 967–976
• TACON, A. G. J. & METIAN, M. Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in
industrially compounded aquafeeds: Trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285 (2008) 146–
158
• TACON, A. G. J. Demand and supply of feed ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans: trends
and prospects. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 564. FAO, 2011. 87
• TICKLER, D. et al. Modern slavery and the race to fish. Nat. Commun. 9 (2018) 4643
• VELDHUIZEN, L. J. L., BERENTSEN, P. B. M., DE BOER, I. J. M., VAN DE VIS, J. W.,
Fish welfare: an NGO’s point of view
Elena Lara
84 Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies, vol. 10/4
BOKKERS, E. A. M. Fish welfare in capture fisheries: A review of injuries and mortality. Fish.
Res. 204 (2018) 41–48
• YTRESTØYL, T., AAS, T. S., ÅSGÅRD, T. Utilisation of feed resources in production of
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Aquaculture 448 (2015) 365–374
