No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
The Appearance of Bricks in Ancient Mesopotamia
Abstract
Mesopotamia is a region in the Middle East, situated in a basin between two big rivers-the Tigris and the Euphrates. About 5,500 years ago, much earlier than in Egypt, ancient civilization began, one of the oldest in the world. Continuous development was an important factor of everyday life. A warm climate, fertile soil, mixed with the sediment of flowing rivers and perhaps even the first oak all. A deficit of stone for building shelter was an impediment that the Sumerians faced, but from this shortage they found the perfect solution for their construction-brick. Shelter, homes and other buildings were built from material available in the area, such as clay, cane, soil, mule. Sumerians mastered the art of civic construction perfectly. They raised great buildings, made of bricks (Ziggurats, temples, and palaces) richly decorated with sculptures and mosaics. In this article I will focus on the most interesting time period in my opinion-when brick appeared, I will comment upon the process of production and the types of the brick used in Mesopotamia. It should be noted that the form we know today has been shaped by the cultural and social influences of many peoples who have successively settled these lands, continuing to a large extent the cultural heritage of the former.
... The color of the European brick now can be just anything-shades of red and pink, indeed; but also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today has evolved over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of human beings in the past-both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to collaborations among these two classes [59,60]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of contemporary architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level after decades of deconstructivism and hi-tech building. ...
... T color of the European brick now can be just anything-shades of red and pink, indee but also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today h evolved over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of hum beings in the past-both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to colla orations among these two classes [59,60]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of co temporary architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level af decades of deconstructivism and hi-tech building. ...
... T color of the European brick now can be just anything-shades of red and pink, inde but also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today h evolved over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of hum beings in the past-both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to coll orations among these two classes [59,60]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of co temporary architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level af decades of deconstructivism and hi-tech building. ...
The process of combining various parts to create a structure is called building. The most effective and significant component of any construction is masonry. The Colosseum, buildings from ancient Greece and Rome, Central American buildings, and Mycenaean structures all used this material as one of their primary building elements. The oldest form is dry masonry of irregularly shaped stones. The ecological qualities of masonry, as a restorative material with a low impact on the environment, as well as the environmental control capacity of the massive wall, bring masonry back to attention as a suitable material for sustainable building in the context of current concerns for sustainable architecture. This article takes the form of a review of the journey of masonry as the primary construction material—from prehistoric structures to modern-day edifices. This article will go through the fundamentals of masonry construction to support its usage in structures throughout history and in many architectural styles, as a crucial representation of human construction in architectural history. This article aims to create a historical review, presenting masonry as an essential building material and assessing its role in the history of building materials.
... The vast majority of mud brick buildings have lost their weak ability to resist damaging factors in addition to the lack of interest in them. Three-dimensional applications in archaeological studies are considered important processes for registering and preserving heritage and for creating a database for monitoring future erosion [51]. The ancient Egyptians left buildings surrounded by mud-brick wall to suit the climatic conditions in Egypt and due to their low thermal conductivity [52], recent excavations have provided a clear view of the types and uses of mud bricks and the engineering techniques for their use Based on the recognition that these places remain essential to the continuity of the identity of the indigenous peoples [53]. ...
... This is because earth is naturally and locally available in abundance all over the world, it is economical to use, easy to work with, and is more environmentally friendly compared to all other modern construction materials. It has been reported that civilization could be said to have begun with the history of brick masonry around 10,000 BCE as evidenced in one of the earliest man's civilization known, the remains of Mesopotamians masonry heritage [1,2]. Deboucha and Hashim [3] associated the bricks made by the Mesopotamians to the deposits of alluvial from the nearby River Euphrates and Tigris which assisted them to construct their buildings beside the two rivers, indication that man will always make use of available materials to meet their needs. ...
This study investigated the physico-mechanical and thermal properties of plantain pseudo-stem fibre reinforced adobe masonry units. Experimental protocols with 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1% weight of fibres to soil were used to prepare adobe masonry unit and tested for their properties. The fibre reinforced specimens recorded 53 and 33% improvement of tensile strength and compressive strength, respectively as compared with the unreinforced specimens. It was further revealed that the fibre reinforced adobe specimen had 18.42% more thermal resistance than the unreinforced adobe specimen. The study recommends plantain pseudo-stem fibre (0.5-0.75%) for inclusion in adobe masonry units for construction application.
Through the Artemis program, NASA will extensively explore the Moon in preparation for the first human mission to Mars. NASA is planning to return to the Moon in the next few years, to establish a strategic presence at the Lunar south pole. To promote a long-term sustained presence, planetary surface construction technologies are needed to build a variety of supporting structures such as habitats, radiation shields, protective hangars, and launching and landing pads. Construction 3D printing (C3DP) is an autonomous construction technology that employs the principles of additive manufacturing on a structure scale. While C3DP has been mainly used for terrestrial construction, it is also considered a viable robotic construction technology for planetary infrastructure buildup. In this paper, the challenges and possibilities of extrusion-based planetary C3DP will be discussed in detail. Moreover, the results of an ongoing experimental study, as well as future research plans will be presented.
ABSTRACT
Eridu is one of the oldest cities in the ancient world. The city is located on a site called (Tel Abu Shaheen), which is a huge mound of rubble that was accumulated thousands of years ago. Eridu or (Tell Abu Shahrin) is a parallelogram city with a diameter of 1900 by 1,700 feet (580 by 540 meters). It is 23 feet (7 meters) high. Most of its height consists of the ruins of the Ubaid and Uruk period (6500-3800 BC) including houses, temples, and tombs built on top of each other nearly 3,000 years ago.
This paper aims at how to create a retrieval system through designing a digital library by using open source GSDL software, which will help to store, collect, preserve and distribute all types of documents in digital format. It also describes how to create and integrate a new metadata schema (tc) for a particular domain (Terracotta) using GEMS. In this study, different types of textual information, images, and videos are collected about terracotta temples of the Bankura district of West Bengal. A domain-specific metadata schema using unique namespace 'tc' is created for describing terracotta resources and an HTML page is created for each terracotta temple for displaying in a retrieval system. Finally, a retrieval framework through GSDL software is created to search and retrieve the terracotta resources. Ultimately, a digital library or digital archive of “Terracotta temple in West Bengal” has been developed which is searchable through the web as well as offline/CD-ROM or portable media. It also describes steps about the organization and management of terracotta resources and archiving policy of terracotta cultural objects using open-source digital library software - GSDL. As there are no such standard metadata schemas for archival of terracotta temple resources of West Bengal as per our knowledge are concerned, this is a unique attempt to build such schema and design a prototype online as well as offline retrieval system by harvesting this schema.
This paper presents an experimental study considering the effect of aspect ratio of masonry prism specimens on the compressive strength of pressed earth brick masonry. The variable considered in the experimental study is the aspect ratio of prism specimens. A total of twelve specimens were prepared and tested under four different geometric configurations. Strength correction factors to account for the effects of aspect ratio of prism have been proposed by conducting a regression analysis.
Clay brick is the most common construction material used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakır (Turkey). Many clay brick manufacturing workshops and numerous brick masters have emerged. Diyarbakir currently has two clay brick workshops that face the problem of being closed down. Therefore, manufacturing of clay brick by traditional methods may be forgotten in Diyarbakir. This study investigates the manufacturing phases of traditional clay bricks in Diyarbakir׳s local workshops, which have not been documented.
The manufacturing phases of the clay bricks in Diyarbakır were examined for the first time based on in-situ observations, investigations, and interviews. The research indicated the general phases of clay brick manufacturing. Raw materials are first prepared, formed, and dried. The firing of clay bricks is then performed through hacking, heating, burning, cooling, and de-hacking. The clay bricks are finally packaged and dispatched. The traditional manufacturing of clay brick methods in Diyarbakır is similar in many regions of the world. The clay bricks are currently and extensively used in the restoration of historic structures. Therefore, their production must be continuous.
Humans realised the importance of housing since the dawn of history. The first man used the caves as shelter. When agricultural activities dominated the life style of humans, villages started to be constructed. Later these were developed into cities. The dawn of civilization started in Iraq. The inhabitants in that time used the available natural materials in their construction. Reviewing the progress of engineering practices of ancient Iraq, reveals the facts that the inhabitants were aware of the principles of construction and engineering. The materials used and the design of the buildings were very suitable from both environmental and engineering perspectives. This work is a critical review of the progress and development of engineering practices and construction materials used in ancient Mesopotamia
Modern practice in conservation of historical buildings is a complex task that requires a deep and careful diagnosis. Preliminary investigation is essential in order to intervene correctly and successfully. The objectives of such investigation are to gather adequate information about the building or structure, and to evaluate the mechanical properties of materials, being the latter a difficult task due to the complexity of old materials and historic fabrics. Necessary information is the state of conservation, the extent of damages, the presence of moisture, the geometry and hidden features such as voids, cracks and detachments. In order to increase the knowledge about ancient building materials, characterization of clay brick from historic monuments in Portugal was performed in bricks from the 12th to 19th century, collected from six monasteries. The results showed a large scatter, and the main characteristics are high porosity, high suction and low compressive strength. Chemical composition indicates that bricks are not prepared with the same raw materials as old clay artefacts.
The restrictions to remove material for mechanical sampling or to carry out destructive tests are very large. Therefore, in the last decades, the use of non-destructive testing techniques for investigation and diagnosis of historical buildings has increased significantly. However, the evaluation of the compressive strength and other mechanical properties of historic materials using such techniques remains a challenge. A recent minor-destructive methodology based on microdrilling is used in this research work for the characterization of clay bricks from the 12th to 19th century. The results show that it is possible to reliably estimate the compressive strength of bricks by means of regression curves using the adopted microdrilling technique.
The replacement of old material is a matter of concern in every intervention in architectural heritage. Modern materials are usually incompatible, as they present much higher strength and elastic modulus. Thus, this work addresses also the study of traditional handmade clay bricks as replacing bricks. The study shows that new bricks are more durable but exhibit comparable compressive strength. Moreover, the proposed correlations for compressive strength of ancient bricks remain valid for new traditional handmade clay bricks.
Originally, it was planned to use new handmade bricks and weak lime mortars to build replicas of ancient masonry walls, with voids and other inclusions. These would be tested using another technique, which is fully non-destructive and not easily available in Portugal. Ground Penetrating Radar is a non-destructive technique that allows the detection of material changes through changes in dielectric properties. Ground Penetrating Radar was used to determine the geometry and to map hidden features of masonry such as voids, cracks and detachments. The detection of these properties is of high relevance due to the high heterogeneity of old structures, which has implications in the structural performance of buildings. Thus, through a series of examples in laboratory specimens and in situ, the Ground Penetrating Radar was used to help in the detection of geometrical characteristics and to find metallic elements and voids in masonry.
The tests in laboratory specimens included two three-leaf stone masonry walls for the geometrical assessment of the exterior panels, the detection of voids and embedded wood beams, and a third complex stone/masonry wall built with a significant amount of deficiencies, construction materials and elements with different geometry, simulating typical situations on historical buildings. The experiments in situ were performed in several masonry monuments from different European countries to assess the performance of the technique for a number of applications.
Radar measurements in reflection mode (2D) were carried out in every case and produced satisfactory results regarding geometry assessment of masonry leaves and in the location of features (air voids, cracks, detachments) and objects (wood beams, steel objects) that are often found in masonry structural elements.
More precise acquisition techniques and advanced signal processing routines were used when more accurate positioning was needed and for the assessment of the dimensions of possible objects. Acquisitions for the construction of advanced 3D volumes were performed and allowed to obtain the three-dimensional position of cylindrical voids, steel bars and concrete baluster. However, the technique failed to reproduce adequately the dimensions of the objects due, essentially, to the resolution of the antenna when compared to the dimensions of the targets. Transmission measurements were performed to detect thin layers of masonry. The resultant tomograms identify damaged and undamaged material. Due to the significant amount of data that is necessary, the time for accurate field acquisition and the large computer resources to run 3D reconstruction and inversion algorithms, these techniques can only be applied locally, if typical 2D radargrams do fail to provide the necessary information.
Clay brick masonry is one of the oldest and most durable construction techniques used by mankind. Masonry consists of manually built stable stacks of small ele-ments, with or without mortar. It was a fundamental building material in the Meso-potamian, Egyptian and Roman periods. During the Roman period, the use of clay brick increased and became specialized in order to maximize its benefits. Clay brick masonry continued to be used during medieval and modern times. Despite several modifications of the clay brick uses, shape and manufacture along thousands of years of constant evolution, the simplicity that made its success remained. Numerous buildings built with clay bricks prevailed until the 21st century, which testifies to the strength of this material along centuries of rain storms, snow, thaw-freezing cycles, high temperatures and human induced deterioration. Moreover, brick could be easily, inexpensively and rapidly handled and produced with a sim-ple manufacturing process. It is based on fired clay, a raw material available in large quantities all over the Earth. Its wide use proved that clay brick was an effective construction material that could provide both resistance to prevalent climatic condi-tions and insulation from cold and heat. It is known that the properties of ancient clay brick masonry rely essentially on the properties of the brick units, which depend on the quality of the raw materi-als used, together with the manufacturing process technology. The analysis of clay brick production and final properties are therefore fundamental. Generally, it is cru-cial to obtain information on the main physical, chemical and mechanical proper-ties of clay bricks as well as the characteristics of the raw materials used and their manufacturing process.
The excavations at the site of Nemrik in northern Iraq have revealed a unique series of pre‐pottery neolithic settlements dating from the ninth to the first half of the seventh millennium be. Especially notable is the evidence for house architecture, including interior fittings and the unusual pillar structures which seem to have been supports for the roof. The architecture displays a clear course of development in technique of construction, form, roof support system and the conception of interior fixtures, from the earliest simple hut‐like structures to large, relatively richly furnished mud‐brick houses with wooden and later, unique to Nemrik, compacted marl roof‐supporting pillars. Technological progress is seen as the major factor in the architectural transformations of the eighth and seventh millennia bc.
Mud‐brick is one of the most adaptable and versatile of building materials. Its early use in the Near East is discussed, with particular reference to its employment in elaborate façade decoration, for example in the spiral and palm‐trunk semi‐columns of the Great Temple at Tell al Rimah (c. 1800 BC) and in various types of vault. Evidence is discussed for the contemporary use of three techniques of sun‐dried mud‐brick vaulting ‐ radial, pitched‐brick and corbelled ‐ at least as early as the second half of the third millennium BC.
As part of a study to assess the efficacy of impregnation for masonry substrates, the impregnation of mud bricks with soluble sodium silicate followed by water-based organic silicone emulsion was investigated. The treatment was found to be successful in achieving water repellent and consolidation effects for the mud bricks. The durability of the treated mud bricks was examined through water absorption, depth of impregnation, resistance to water penetration, wetting and drying cycling, and UV/condensation weathering tests. The mechanism of water repellent and consolidation effects for the mud bricks is discussed.
Materials' deformation under mechanical loads and stresses can not be studied without considering insidious mechanisms like microstructural and physicochemical degradation due to weathering. In the present study weathering phenomena and construction materials are examined in situ by macroscopic observations, according to parallel experience gained on the field in Roman and Byzantine churches with similar materials degrading in mild Mediterranean climate, in an intense humid and marine environment with prominent problems of urban pollution, specifically due to traffic. The presence of harmful soluble salts such as sulphates and chlorides of Ca, Mg and Na, in pore water and reactions with atmospheric pollutants, are among the main factors of stone decomposition. In the present study the parallel analysis of materials, used to Hagia Sophia according to historic evidence, like the paleochristianic tiles of Rhodes, providing clues for authentic ceramic technologies and consequent behaviour in environmental loading, was employed. Following X-ray Diffraction Analysis, Infra - Red Spectrometry, Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Optical Microscopy and microstructural examinations, a tile quality with excellent performance to meet the Hagia Sophia structural requirements, was recognised, susceptible though to water impregnation. Hence, the study of materials provenance, characterisation and the changes of materials properties over time seem to be a focal point in safety and conservation interventions, even in the precautionary ones, recalling the contribution of studies concerned with parallel experiences and in situ studies in a framework of interdisciplinary cooperation.
10 pages (final publisher version), 23 pages (attached post-print version). Two different types of ancient bricks (12th to 14th centuries) collected from historical buildings of Toledo (Spain) were characterised by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometers (SEM/EDS), electron probe microanalysis (EM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential thermal analysis (DTA) and 57Fe-Mössbauer spectroscopy. Physical properties such as water absorption and suction, porosity, density and compression strength were also determined. Several minerals found in the brick matrix, such as garnet, let us infer raw material sources; calcite, dolomite, illite and neoformed gehlenite and diopside phases, on temperature reached in firing; secondary calcite, on first cooling scenarios; and manganese micronodules, on late pollution environments. XRD and DTA of original and refired samples supply information about firing temperatures. Additional data on firing conditions and type of the original clay are provided by the Mössbauer study. Physical properties of both types of bricks were compared and correlated with raw materials and fabric and firing technology employed. The physicochemical characterisation of these bricks provides valuable data for restoration purposes to formulate new specific bricks using neighbouring raw materials. The authors are especially indebted to Josefo Bedoya, technician of the Museo de Ciencias Naturales (Madrid), who took the beautiful SEM microphotographs for this work and was killed in a car accident during the preparation of this manuscript. We are also grateful to Carlos Sánchez (Faculty of Chemistry Sciences, Ciudad Real) for the XRD analyses. The Spanish project MCYT IFD 1997-0561 and agreement CICYT-JCCM (2002) supported the work. Peer reviewed
The Relationship between Materials and Architecture in the Seljuk Period" (presentation, Material and Architecture Symposium in Anatolia from the Past to the Future
- Aysil Tukel
Aysil Tukel Yavuz, "The Relationship between Materials and Architecture in the
Seljuk Period" (presentation, Material and Architecture Symposium in Anatolia from the
Past to the Future, UIAXXII World Architecture Congress, 2005), 79.
Deterioration of historic brick masonry due to combined gypsum, ettringite and thaumasite, a case study
- Tomas Wijffels
- G Nijland Timo
Wijffels, Tomas, and G. Nijland Timo. "Deterioration of historic brick masonry
due to combined gypsum, ettringite and thaumasite, a case study." Paper
presented at the 13th International Brick/Block Masonry Conference,
Amsterdam, 2004.
- Peter Roger Stuart Moorey
Peter Roger Stuart Moorey, Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries, The
Archaeological Evidence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 311.
Eine technologische Rarität. Das Brennen von Ziegeln in der Grabdekoration des Mittleren und Neuen Reiches" (A technological rarity. The burning of bricks in the grave decoration of the Middle and New Kingdom). Communications of the German Archaeological Institute
- Ursula Verhoeven
Verhoeven, Ursula. "Eine technologische Rarität. Das Brennen von Ziegeln in der
Grabdekoration des Mittleren und Neuen Reiches" (A technological rarity. The
burning of bricks in the grave decoration of the Middle and New Kingdom).
Communications of the German Archaeological Institute, Department of
Cairo 43 (1987): 259-66.
Salonen, Die Ziegeleien im alten Mesopotamien, 119. 19. Aurenche, La Maison Orientale, 67, table 6 (with dimensions), map 6. the ancient Near East origins in the middle of the fourth millennium)
- Henri Frankfort
Henri Frankfort, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (Chicago: Penguin
Books, 1970), 76.
18. Salonen, Die Ziegeleien im alten Mesopotamien, 119.
19. Aurenche, La Maison Orientale, 67, table 6 (with dimensions), map 6.
the ancient Near East origins in the middle of the fourth millennium). Paris: French
Institute of Archeology of the Middle East; Beirut, Damascus Amman:
Archaeological and Historical Library, 1981.
A Monumental Puzzle Reconstructing the Ur-Nammu Stela
- Jeanny Canby
- Vorys
Canby, Jeanny Vorys. "A Monumental Puzzle Reconstructing the Ur-Nammu
Stela." Expedition 29, no. 1 (1987): 54-64. Retrieved from https://ces.to/vCfPbj.
Aurenche, La Maison Orientale
- Die Salonen
- Ziegeleien Im Alten Mesopotamien
Salonen, Die Ziegeleien im alten Mesopotamien, 119.
19. Aurenche, La Maison Orientale, 67, table 6 (with dimensions), map 6.
Abbreviatios
MPa: Uniaxial compressive strength.
GPa: Modulus of Reference elasticity.
F c: Fracture Compression.
The planning and design characteristics of buildings and mud settlements in Iraq
- Abd Alrazaq
- K Najel
Abd Alrazaq, Najel K. "The planning and design characteristics of buildings and
mud settlements in Iraq" [in Arabic]. Journal Planner and Development 25
(2012): 93-111.
Mud Bricks in Ancient Iraq, Production and Patterns
- Al-Temimi
- A Abas
Al-Temimi, Abas A. "Mud Bricks in Ancient Iraq, Production and Patterns" [in
Arabic]. Sumer 38 (1982): 276-83.
Caves in the Middle East
- Seaid Alrwishdi
Alrwishdi, Seaid. "Caves in the Middle East" [in Arabic].
L᾽architecture du proche orient ancien des origines au milieu du quatrieme millenaire (The Oriental House, The architecture of the ancient Near East origins in the middle of the fourth millennium)
- Olivier Aurenche
- La Maison Orientale
Aurenche, Olivier. La Maison Orientale, L᾽architecture du proche orient ancien des
origines au milieu du quatrieme millenaire (The Oriental House, The architecture of
the ancient Near East origins in the middle of the fourth millennium). Paris: French
Institute of Archeology of the Middle East; Beirut, Damascus Amman:
Archaeological and Historical Library, 1981.
Plano Convex Bricks and the Methods of their Employment
- Pinhas Delougaz
Delougaz, Pinhas. Plano Convex Bricks and the Methods of their Employment.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1933.
Uruk-Warka, Evidence of the Gamdat Nasr Period
- Uwe Finkbeiner
Finkbeiner, Uwe. "Uruk-Warka, Evidence of the Gamdat Nasr Period." In Gamdat
Nasr: Period or Regional Style?, edited by Uwe Finkbeiner and Wolfgang
Röllig, 33-56. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1986.
Paper presented at the 6th National Roof & Facade Symposium
- N Gür
- Volkan
- Ş Ömer
- Savas Deniz
- Ekinci
Gür, N. Volkan, Ömer Ş. Deniz, and Savas Ekinci. "Carrier Materials and
Components in Masonry Masonry." Paper presented at the 6th National Roof
& Facade Symposium, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Uludağ
University, Bursa, Turkey, April, 2012. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/30X9
sYG.
Ways to produce bricks and its type
- Hussain
- H Setar
Hussain, Setar H. "Ways to produce bricks and its type" [in Arabic].
Fired brick production
- Mohammed Mustava
- Seaid Ali
- Alrwishdi
Mustava, Mohammed Ali, and Seaid Alrwishdi. Fired brick production [in Arabic].
The Choga Mami Transitional
- Joan Oates
Oates, Joan. "The Choga Mami Transitional." In La Prehistoire de la Mesopotamie,
edited by Jean-Louis Huot, 163-80. Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1987.
Brick production in Ancient Iraq
- Fuozi Rashid
Rashid, Fuozi. "Brick production in Ancient Iraq" [in Arabic]. Oil and Development,
Development in Iraq for Centuries 87 (1981): 33-46.
Characterization of bricks and their resistance to deterioration mechanisms
- Gilbert Robinson
Robinson, Gilbert. "Characterization of bricks and their resistance to deterioration
mechanisms." Paper presented at the 10th International Brick/Block Masonry
Conference, Calgary, 1994.
Die Ziegeleien im alten Mesopotamien (The brickworks in ancient Mesopotamia). Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Sciences
- Armas Salonen
Salonen, Armas. Die Ziegeleien im alten Mesopotamien (The brickworks in ancient
Mesopotamia). Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Sciences, 1972.
La construction royale en Mésopotamie: ingénierie, administration et propagande" (Royal construction in Mesopotamia: engineering, administration and propaganda). ArchéOrient-Le Blog
- Martin Sauvage
Sauvage, Martin. "La construction royale en Mésopotamie: ingénierie,
administration et propagande" (Royal construction in Mesopotamia:
engineering, administration and propaganda). ArchéOrient-Le Blog. May 27,
2016 [In French]. Retrieved from https://ces.to/ll3BHw.
Excavations in Eridu
- Fouad Sefar
Sefar, Fouad. "Excavations in Eridu" [in Arabic].
Excavators General Directorate of Antiquities in Eridu
- Fouad Sefar
Sefar, Fouad. "Excavators General Directorate of Antiquities in Eridu" [in Arabic].
Paper presented at the Material and Architecture Symposium in Anatolia from the Past to the Future
- Aysil Yavuz
- Tukel
Yavuz, Aysil Tukel. "The Relationship between Materials and Architecture in the
Seljuk Period." Paper presented at the Material and Architecture Symposium
in Anatolia from the Past to the Future, UIAXXII World Architecture
Congress, 2005.