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Islamic Bank Profit-Loss Sharing Financing and Earnings Volatility
Abstract
Profit-loss sharing (PLS) financing comprises Musharakah and Mudarabah ought to be the main form of Islamic banks' financing. However, based on Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East Islamic banks' data, this research shows that the proportion of PLS financing is still deficient compared to debt financing. Moreover, it shows that only Musharakah financing displays a significant linear and nonlinear (inverse U-shape) association with Islamic bank earnings volatility. The empirical estimates suggest that earnings volatility is maximized when the proportions of Musharakah financing is about 31%. Increasing this type of financing beyond 31% may lower earnings volatility.
... Following past studies (Alzoubi, 2017;Belkhaoui et al., 2020), we employed mudarabah and musharakah as proxies for risk-sharing contracts of IBs. We computed the risk-sharing contracts using the ratio of mudarabah financing relative to gross financing and musharakah contract relative to gross financing (Warninda et al., 2019). ...
... The reason could be that IBs faces moral hazard, high cost of monitoring and adverse selection problems when they used equity-based financing. That is why they preferred more debt-based loans (Aggarwal and Yousef, 2000;Warninda et al., 2019). Conversely, our results indicate that MUS reduces the default risk and stimulates the stability of IBs in our sample countries. ...
... Conversely, our results indicate that MUS reduces the default risk and stimulates the stability of IBs in our sample countries. This is similar with the findings of Warninda et al. (2019), who showed that an increase in musharakah financing decreases volatility and enhances the stability of IBs. ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine the nexus between CAMELS, risk-sharing financial performance and Islamic banks' stability. It also attempts to assess the conditioning effects of institutional quality in the relationship between risk-sharing contracts and the stability of Islamic banks.
Design/methodology/approach
The quantitative research design was employed using secondary data from 20 Islamic banks in six countries over the period 2007–2019. The study utilized the feasible generalized least squares method for the analysis.
Findings
The results indicate that not all CAMELS variables support the stability of Islamic banks. The musharakah contract induced stability of the banks, whereas mudarabah financing reduced it. The interaction between risk-sharing finance and the quality of institutions suggested that the mudarabah contract via institutional quality raises the stability of Islamic banks. On the other hand, the quality of institutions encourages the banks to offer more musharakah , but it leads to an increase in their risk-taking. We show the impact of changes in risk-sharing variables on stability amplified by institutional quality. The results were robust when alternative measures of stability were used.
Practical implications
Various stakeholders in banking activities could learn from the results of this study. Islamic banks could improve their positions in terms of screening for risk-sharing financing. They could also leverage more on musharakah , as it promotes stability and could generate more returns for the banks. The mudarabah financing can be improved if there is a proper evaluation of entrepreneurs. Policymakers would learn more about the importance of institutional quality, as it provides a friendly environment for both mudarabah and musharakah businesses to thrive. This could increase the participation of Islamic banks in the real economy.
Originality/value
Previous studies concentrated on the effects of CAMELS on the profitability of Islamic banks. This study shows that CAMELS alone might not necessarily capture the financial performance of Islamic banks. Therefore, the risk-sharing financing variables are included alongside CAMELS to determine their effects on stability. Second, unlike the past research, this study used the quality of institutions to moderate the nexus between risk-sharing financing and the stability of Islamic banks.
... Several studies have investigated effect of Islamic contracts on risk of return of Islamic banks. Empirical studies of Shahari et al. (2015); Warninda et al. (2019) found equity-based financing has association with return volatility of Islamic banks. Meanwhile, Chowdhury et al. (2016);Ismal (2010Ismal ( , 2014 study the effect of Islamic contracts on the financing portfolio risk. ...
The study aims to investigate the risk of return characteristics of Islamic bank financing portfolios. A quantitative approach of value at risk is used to estimate return volatility of Islamic commercial banks and Islamic business units in Indonesia for the period of May 2014 to June 2020. The finding suggests proportion of equity-based financing tends to increase in contrast to decreasing of debt and lease-based financing. While rate of return for all financing types tends to decline, the return of equity-based financing experiences higher volatility than other two financing types. The main finding regarding the decrease in value at risk indicates Islamic banks able to reduce risk of financing portfolio. The finding implies Islamic banks should continue to improve the best-practice of risk management based on their past experience to anticipate future risk. As for the regulators, the finding may be used to develop early warning system to anticipate a systemic failure in Islamic banking industry. Further research is recommended to explore impact of market behavior on the risk of each type of financing.
The paper examines the effects of scale (total assets) on the performance of Islamic banks. The analysis is done in the context of agency and financial intermediation theories. Using data from two Sudanese banks, our empirical investigation provides limited support to the theoretical predictions. The relationships between size and profitability measures are statistically significant, indicating that Islamic banks become more profitable as they grow in size. However, the negative relationship between size and the ratio of equity to capital implies that the larger bank is systematically highly levered. Moreover, the negative and statistically significant relationship between size and the risk index indicates that large size is economically efficient. The negative and slightly significant relationship between size and market valuation contradicts the predictions of theory.
Purpose ‐ This paper aims to examine the relationship between the volume of investment deposits and capitalization of Islamic commercial banks. Design/methodology/approach ‐ Unlike current accounts holders, investment accounts holders may support part or all of the losses on assets value, which could be a source of moral hazard among bank managers and shareholders. To test these assumptions, the authors use the system generalized method of moments (system GMM) on a dynamic panel of 59 Islamic banks observed during the period 2005-2009. Findings ‐ After controlling for a set of variables that may influence capital level, the results show a significant negative relationship between PSIA and regulatory capital ratio. This may indicate that the specific nature of PSIA can be a source of excessive risk-taking in Islamic banks. This behavior is likely to threaten the solvency of Islamic banks and shows that some deficiencies may exist in their risk management and governance system. Practical implications ‐ This paper suggests some recommendations to better implement the principle of profit and loss sharing and to curb excessive risk-taking in Islamic banks. Originality/value ‐ The originality of this paper is to give empirical responses to theoretical assumptions of a relationship between PSIA and moral hazard in Islamic banks.
Purpose
The main objective of this paper is to highlight the unprecedented growth of Islamic banking and finance in the contemporary finance world. It captures the advancements of Islamic banking and finance industry across the tools, systems, sectors, markets and over 75 countries from Africa, Asia, Europe and North America.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper deals with the paradigm of Islamic banking and finance. It constitutes a general review that bears special features, facts and figures over the recent developments of Islamic banking and finance across the globe. It takes stock of the growing institutional and infrastructure support for the Islamic banking and finance system in Muslim countries and Western financial markets.
Findings
The findings of the paper hold that Islamic banking and finance industry has been making breakthrough improvements to become a truly viable and competitive alternative to conventional systems at the global level. Islamic banking and finance institutions have acquired booming grounds in the Middle East, South East and South East Asia. These growing Islamic hubs have been acting as a launching pad to promote Islamic banking in Western business and financial markets. There are some core factors contributing to the recent success of Islamic banking and finance, such as spiraling oil prices worldwide, prolonged boom in the Middle Eastern economies, product innovation and sophistication, increasingly receptive attitude of conventional regulators and information technology advancements that have been acting as a catalyst for the Islamic banking and finance industry to go global. Given all growth patterns, Islamic banking may be able to win over the majority of customers from the Muslim world that constitutes almost 24 per cent of the world's population (over 1.3 billion), and other ethical groups across the globe in times ahead.
Research limitations/implications
The paper takes stock of on‐going developments in Islamic banking and finance industry worldwide. It deals with latest information, facts and figures, which however do not amount to a substantive volume to allow statistical testing and analysis to figure out the main factors and their actual contributions in making Islamic banking and finance emerge as the fastest growing industry of the global finance. This paper mostly bears a subjective outlook.
Originality/value
The paper aims to attract the global attention towards the fastest growing industry of the contemporary world of finance. It presents the case of the Islamic banking and finance industry in the most powerful, comprehensive and logical fashions to remove all misgivings about it in some circles, and let it be seen as an industry adding more ethical, competitive, flexible and diversified tools and systems to global financial markets. The paper highlights the increasing moral and material support that Islamic banking has been enjoying from Muslim governments and the public, and Western market players and regulators. It draws attention towards the growing number of products, systems, infrastructures and supporting institutions of Islamic banking over the recent years. The current trends of Islamic banking industry worldwide captured in this paper can tell all about its strength and weakness, future prospects and ambitions to become a truly innovative, competitive and integrated part of contemporary global finance.
This paper investigates the impact on financial stability of bank competition in emerging markets by taking into account crisis periods. Based on a broad set of commercial banks in Asia over the 1994-2009 period, the empirical results indicate that a higher degree of market power in the banking market is associated with higher capital ratios, higher income volatility and higher insolvency risk of banks. In general, although banks in less competitive markets hold more capital, the levels of capitalization are not high enough to offset the impact on default risk of higher risk taking. Nevertheless, during crisis periods, specifically the 1997 Asian crisis that has directly affected Asian banks, market power in banking has a stabilizing impact. A closer investigation however shows that such findings only hold for countries with a smaller size of the largest banks, suggesting that the impact of bank competition is conditional on the extent to which the banking industry may benefit from too-big-to-fail subsidies. Overall, this paper has policy implications for bank consolidation policies and the role of the lender of last resort.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the income structure of Islamic banks in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries and to explore the effect of the diversification of banks' earning on risks that may harm these latter.
Design/methodology/approach
Using data from 2002‐2008 for 42 Islamic banks, this article provides descriptive and analytical analysis and multiple regression equations.
Findings
This article reveals that greater reliance on the income share of the profit‐loss‐sharing products is associated with higher risk and higher insolvency risk for both listed Islamic banks and non‐listed Islamic banks. However, no effect has been observed between the operation income of non‐profit‐losses‐sharing products and risk levels. That is why listed banks prefer to invest less in non‐profit‐loss‐sharing products than in profit‐loss‐sharing products.
Research limitations/implications
Financial regulators in emerging Islamic financial market should help Islamic banks to find equilibrium between the expansion of the Islamic financial market and respect for the raison d'être of Islamic finance: the profit and loss sharing mechanisms.
Originality/value
To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first article that empirically tests why Islamic banks prefer to invest less in profit‐loss‐sharing products. Also, this article contributes to studying the relationship between Islamic finance and risk.
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to initially contribute the literature linking the global financial crisis and the Islamic finance model which is competent of playing down the severity and frequency of financial crises, by introducing the financial system based on sharing in the risk. It links credit expansion to the growth of the real economy by allowing credit primarily for the purchase of real goods and services which the seller owns and possesses, and the buyer wishes to take delivery. It also requires the creditor to bear the risk of default by prohibiting the sale of debt, thereby ensuring that he evaluates the risk more carefully. It is important for everyone’s future that we study the current crisis in order to develop sustainable financial practices and in quest of a new business model based on sharing the profit and loss.
Design/methodology/approach – The divergence approach is used for exploring possibilities and constraints of inherited situations by applying critical thinking and analysis through the published literature in Islamic finance. This is to create new understandings of international finance and using new banking business model towards better design solutions for the current global financial crisis and preventing more collapse in the future.
Findings – A new business model for the banking system based on non-interest-based transactions but profit and loss sharing should be in practice at the financial system. The financial institutions should encourage business and trade activities that generate fair and legitimate profit. In Islamic finance, there is always a close link between financial flow and productivity. This intrinsic property of Islamic finance contributes towards insulating it from the potential risks resulting from excess leverage and speculative financial activities which are part of the root causes of the current financial crisis.
In this paper, an attempt has been made to explore the determinants of credit risk in the banking system with a particular interest toward the Islamic banking industry. We analyze the link between credit risk and a set of bank-specific and macroeconomic along with institutional variables using two complementary approaches. First, we investigate the factors of credit risk using one-step generalized method of moments (GMM) system estimator. Then, we explore the feedback between credit risk and its determinants in a panel vector autoregressive (PVAR) model. We have used a sample of Middle Eastern, North African (MENA) and Asian countries to apply our model. The major purpose of this paper is to find factors that could explain credit risk within the interest-free banking system relative to the interest-based one.
The 1997/98 financial crisis forced the Indonesian government to inject capital into selected banks, introduce deposit insurance and change capital requirements. This study investigates the relation between highly concentrated ownership and bank risk-taking using a sample of 52 insured private commercial Indonesian banks during the 1995–2003 period. For restructured banks, ownership concentration is positively related to overall risk, and negatively related to credit and liquidity risks, especially during the relaxed capital adequacy requirement period. Liquidity risk is reduced when the government and owners contribute additional capital, and credit risk is lowered as the government removes bad loans from problematic banks.
We examine the impact of adopting International Accounting Standard 39 – Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement (IAS 39) by non-US commercial banks cross-listed in the US on earnings volatility and its risk relevance. As IAS 39 requires the recognition of unrealized fair-value gains and losses for a larger set of financial and derivative-financial instruments, and the impairment charges for loans and receivables, we expect and find that IAS 39 adoption increased earnings volatility in IFRS-adopting firms from 2005 onwards. Furthermore, both hedge accounting and the fair value option under IAS 39 are designed to reduce mixed-measurement volatility and to improve the sensitivity of firm risk measures to earnings volatility. We also find that the relationship between credit ratings (proxy for risk) and earnings volatility increases for IFRS-adopting firms after 2005. The evidence is consistent with the argument that IAS 39 increases the credit relevance of earnings volatility.
Using detailed ownership data for a sample of European commercial banks, we analyze the link between ownership structure and risk in both privately owned and publicly held banks. We consider five categories of shareholders that are specific to our dataset. We find that ownership structure is significant in explaining risk differences but mainly for privately owned banks. A higher equity stake of either individuals/families or banking institutions is associated with a decrease in asset risk and default risk. In addition, institutional investors and non-financial companies impose the riskiest strategies when they hold higher stakes. For publicly held banks, changes in ownership structure do not affect risk taking. Market forces seem to align the risk-taking behavior of publicly held banks, such that ownership structure is no longer a determinant in explaining risk differences. However, higher stakes of banking institutions in publicly held banks are associated with lower credit and default risk.
This paper investigates risk and stability features of Islamic banking using a sample of 553 banks from 24 countries between 1999 and 2009. Small Islamic banks that are leveraged or based in countries with predominantly Muslim populations have lower credit risk than conventional banks. In terms of insolvency risk, small Islamic banks also appear more stable. Moreover, we find little evidence that Islamic banks charge rents to their customers for offering Sharia compliant financial products. Our results also show that loan quality of Islamic banks is less responsive to domestic interest rates compared to conventional banks.
This study attempts to ascertain the perceptions of Islamic bankers (chief financial officers and risk managers) about the nature of risks, risk measurement and risk management techniques in their banks. It covers 28 Islamic banks in 14 countries using a questionnaire survey. The results indicate that Islamic banks are mostly exposed to similar types of risks to those in conventional banks, but that there are differences in the level of the risks. The findings of the study have both theoretical and policy implications for the issue of transparency, with particular reference to risk reporting in Islamic banks.Journal of Banking Regulation (2009) 10, 153-163. doi:10.1057/jbr.2008.27
This paper examines whether Asian banks are still prone to moral hazard in the aftermath of the 1997 Asian crisis. Using a sample of commercial banks from 12 Asian countries during the 2001-2007 period,our empirical findings highlight that greater market power in the banking market results in higher instability. Although banks are better capitalized in less competitive markets their default risk remains higher. A deeper investigation however shows that such behaviour is dependent on the economic environment. Higher economic growth contributes to neutralize greater risk taking and higher instability in less competitive markets.
This study examines the relation between accounting and capital market risk measures for a sample of 46 listed Asian banks during the period 1998–2003. By applying a panel data analysis that includes a control for country-specific factors, the results show that the standard deviation of the return-on-assets and loan-loss-reserves-to-gross-loans are significantly related to total risk. Also gross-loans-to-total-assets and loan-loss-reserves-to-gross-loans are significantly related to non-systematic risk. These results indicate that in these Asian countries, firm-specific risk is more important than systematic risk and the results are robust even though significant differences exist across Asian countries in banking activities, capital adequacy requirements, and deposit insurance protection.
A unique feature of Islamic banking, in theory, is its profit-and-loss sharing (PLS) paradigm. In practice, however, we find that Islamic banking is not very different from conventional banking. Our study on Malaysia shows that only a negligible portion of Islamic bank financing is strictly PLS based and that Islamic deposits are not interest-free, but are closely pegged to conventional deposits. Our findings suggest that the rapid growth in Islamic banking is largely driven by the Islamic resurgence worldwide rather than by the advantages of the PLS paradigm and that Islamic banks should be subject to regulations similar to those of their western counterparts.
Motivated by the liberalisation and harmonisation of financial systems in Europe, we investigate whether the observed shift into non-interest income activities improves performance of small European credit institutions. Using a sample of 755 small banks for the period 1997–2003, we find no direct diversification benefits within and across business lines and an inverse association between non-interest income and bank performance. Our findings are robust to a set of sensitivity analyses using alternative samples and controlling for the regulatory environment. Furthermore, the results provide circumstantial evidence for the presence of economies of scale. The absence of benefits of diversification confirms findings for other banking markets and suggests small European banks enter lines of business where they currently lack expertise and experience. These results have implications for bank supervisors, regulators and bank managers.
This study investigates whether regulations have an independent effect on bank risk-taking or whether their effect is channeled through the market power possessed by banks. Given a well-established set of theoretical priors, the regulations considered are capital requirements, restrictions on bank activities and official supervisory power. We use data from the Central and Eastern European banking sectors over the period 1998–2005. The empirical results suggest that banks with market power tend to take on lower credit risk and have a lower probability of default. Capital requirements reduce risk in general, but for banks with market power this effect significantly weakens or can even be reversed. Higher activity restrictions in combination with more market power reduce both credit risk and the risk of default, while official supervisory power has only a direct impact on bank risk.
This paper analyses the determinants of the probability of default (PD) of bank loans. We focus the discussion on the role of a limited set of variables (collateral, type of lender and bank–borrower relationship) while controlling for the other explanatory variables. The study uses information on the more than three million loans entered into by Spanish credit institutions over a complete business cycle (1988–2000) collected by the Bank of Spain's Credit Register (Central de Información de Riesgos). We find that collateralised loans have a higher PD, loans granted by savings banks are riskier and, finally, that a close bank–borrower relationship increases the willingness to take more risk.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between bank risk and product diversification in the changing structure of the European banking industry. Based on a broad set of European banks for the period 1996–2002, our study first shows that banks expanding into non-interest income activities present higher risk and higher insolvency risk than banks which mainly supply loans. However, considering size effects and splitting non-interest activities into both trading activities and commission and fee activities we show that the positive link with risk is mostly accurate for small banks and essentially driven by commission and fee activities. A higher share of trading activities is never associated with higher risk and for small banks it implies, in some cases, lower asset and default risks.
This paper finds that dividend signaling hypothesis is able to explain the phenomenon of assets concentration in short and medium investments in Islamic Interest-Free banking (IIFBs). In this paper a dividend signaling model framework has been introduced, where in the process of maintaining a stable dividend, mangers of Islamic Interest-Free banking (IIFBs) will prefer to invest in investments that have more certainty about its return, leading to a heavy use of mark-up-pricing, which in turn concentrated on short and medium investments. The empirical results are found to be consistent with the prediction of our model. Dividends in Islamic Interest-Free banking (IIFBs) are found to be stable, and bank earnings cashflow is a major source of this stability. Moreover, there is evidence that the short and medium investments are more important in generating earnings than long-term investments.
This paper assesses potential diversification benefits in the U.S. banking industry from the steady shift toward activities that generate fee income, trading revenue, and other types of noninterest income. In the aggregate, declining volatility of net operating revenue reflects reduced volatility of net interest income, not diversification benefits from noninterest income, which is quite volatile and increasingly correlated with net interest income. At the bank level, greater reliance on noninterest income, particularly trading revenue, is associated with lower risk-adjusted profits and higher risk. This suggests few obvious diversification benefits from the ongoing shift toward noninterest income.
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