Passive Facebook Use and Depression

Abstract

In the current study we examined a psychological mechanism linking Facebook use to depression. A survey was conducted with 319 undergraduates about their passive Facebook use, their frequency of making upward social comparisons on Facebook, the emotions evoked through these comparisons, and their levels of depression. Half of the participants were given questions about the Facebook comparisons they made with their close friends, while the other half were given questions about the Facebook comparisons they made with acquaintances. Analysis of the whole sample revealed that upward Facebook comparison elicited assimilative emotions (inspiration, optimism, and admiration) more than contrastive emotions did (envy and resentment). A path model was developed in which passive use of Facebook predicted the frequency of making upward social comparisons, and, in turn, the frequency of making upward Facebook comparisons predicted depression through two routes: one through contrastive emotions and other through assimilative emotions. The results suggested that the model fits the data. As expected, the frequency of upward Facebook comparisons was associated with the increases in frequency of both contrastive and assimilative emotions, and the associations of these two types of emotions with depression were in opposite directions: Depression increased as the frequency of contrastive emotions increased, and it decreased as the frequency of assimilative emotions increased. The strength of the latter aforementioned association was stronger when the comparison targets were acquaintances rather than close friends.

Full text

Original Article
Passive Facebook Use and
Depression
A Study of the Roles of Upward Comparisons, Emotions,
and Friendship Type
Leman Pınar Tosun and Ezgi Kas
ßdarma
Department of Psychology, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
Abstract: In the current study we examined a psychological mechanism linking Facebook use to depression. A survey was conducted with 319
undergraduates about their passive Facebook use, their frequency of making upward social comparisons on Facebook, the emotions evoked
through these comparisons, and their levels of depression. Half of the participants were given questions about the Facebook comparisons they
made with their close friends, while the other half were given questions about the Facebook comparisons they made with acquaintances.
Analysis of the whole sample revealed that upward Facebook comparison elicited assimilative emotions (inspiration, optimism, and
admiration) more than contrastive emotions did (envy and resentment). A path model was developed in which passive use of Facebook
predicted the frequency of making upward social comparisons, and, in turn, the frequency of making upward Facebook comparisons predicted
depression through two routes: one through contrastive emotions and other through assimilative emotions. The results suggested that the
model fits the data. As expected, the frequency of upward Facebook comparisons was associated with the increases in frequency of both
contrastive and assimilative emotions, and the associations of these two types of emotions with depression were in opposite directions:
Depression increased as the frequency of contrastive emotions increased, and it decreased as the frequency of assimilative emotions
increased. The strength of the latter aforementioned association was stronger when the comparison targets were acquaintances rather than
close friends.
Keywords: upward comparison, passive Facebook use, emotions, depression
The psychological effects of Facebook use have been a con-
troversial issue. One the one hand, there are several studies
demonstrating that Facebook use may provide psychologi-
cal benefits to its users in such areas as enhanced social
capital (Burke, Marlow, & Lento, 2010; Ellison, Steinfield,
& Lampe, 2007), connectedness (Deters & Mehl, 2013),
friendship quality (McEwan, 2013), as well as perceived
social support and reduced stress (Nabi, Prestin, & So,
2013). On the other hand, there are several other studies
demonstrating that Facebook use can be linked to some
negative psychosocial variables such as loneliness (Kross
et al., 2013;Lou,Yan,Nickerson,&McMorris,2012;
Tandoc, Ferrucci, & Duffy, 2015), negative mood
(Sagioglou & Greitemeyer, 2014), anxiety (Verduyn et al.,
2015), and reduced life satisfaction and low self-esteem
(Chen, Fan, Liu, Zhou, & Xie, 2016; Chen & Lee, 2013).
Depression is one of six mental health domains that are
related to Facebook use (Frost & Rickwood, 2017). Similar
to many of the other aforementioned psychological health
outcomes, the relationship of depression with Facebook
use has been studied extensively, yet the empirical
evidence is equivocal. In most studies (mostly with US
samples) a positive relationship with Facebook use and
depression has been found, yet the effect sizes were gener-
ally small (Vahedi & Zannella, 2019). However, some have
identified a negative relationship. For instance, Wright and
colleagues (2013) found a negative association between
social support satisfaction on Facebook and depression
among American college students. Park, Lee, Kwak, Cha,
and Jeong (2013) showed that there was a negative associ-
ation between the number of Facebook friends and depres-
sion among Korean students. Furthermore, some research
indicates no significant relationship at all: According to
the findings of Banjanin, Banjanin, Dimitrijevic, and Pantic
(2015), neither the time spent on social networking sites
(SNSs) nor the SNS-related activities were related to depres-
sion in a Serbian student sample. This mixed pattern of
findings was clarified when the distinctions between
various types of Facebook usages were taken into account
(for a review, see Verduyn et al., 2017). Broadly, Face-
book uses could be categorized into two as active and
passive. According to the literature, active usage is mostly
related to positive psychological outcomes, while passive
usage is mostly related to negative psychological outcomes.
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In several studies, some psychological mechanisms have
been offered to explain how passive Facebook use is related
to negative outcomes (Appel, Gerlach, & Crusius, 2016).
The level of involvement in upward social comparisons
on Facebook and the level of feeling negative emotions
(mainly envy) after making these comparisons are among
the explanatory mechanisms. However, there are studies
showing that not only negative emotions, but also positive
ones are elicited by passive use of SNSs. For instance, social
comparisons on those sites were shown to be related to the
elicitation of inspiration (Meier & Schäfer, 2018), hope
(Nabi & Keblusek, 2014), and pride (Utz & Muscanell,
2018). In a similar vein, in the current study, we pointed
to the importance of examining the effects of each discrete
emotion evoked by Facebook exposure on individuals’
depression levels separately. We sought for how the emo-
tions elicited by upward social comparisons mediate the
relationship between passive Facebook use and depression.
More specifically, we tested Smith’s(2000) model of social
comparison emotions in Facebook context. Smith suggested
that upward comparisons may trigger either contrastive
emotions (envy, resentment, and depression/shame) or
assimilative ones (inspiration, optimism, and admiration).
In the current study, we tested the idea that the frequency
of upward comparisons made after passive Facebook use
may be associated with either an increase or a decrease
in students’depression levels depending on the emotions
evoked after these comparisons. Furthermore, we argued
that Facebook users feel assimilative emotions rather than
contrastive ones. This is especially true when their compar-
ison targets are close friends (strong ties) rather than
acquaintances (weak ties). In order to test this, we asked
half of the sample some questions about their comparisons
with close friends and the other half about their compar-
isons with acquaintances. We also developed a hypothetical
model in which passive Facebook use and depression were
linked to each other through upward comparisons and com-
parison-based emotions (both assimilative and contrastive);
we then tested it in both halves of the sample separately.
We examined whether the effect sizes of assimilative and
contrastive emotions on depression vary as a function of
the comparison target.
Theoretical Background
Social Comparisons and Emotions as Mediators
Between Facebook Use and Psychological Outcomes
In their offline life, people make many social comparisons;
they compare themselves either with some established
norms or with people similar to themselves (Corcoran,
Crusius, & Mussweiler, 2011). These comparisons may be
upward, downward, or nondirectional. In online life, social
comparisons are even more pervasive. Specifically, SNSs
offer many opportunities for comparisons. Since they
facilitate selective self-presentation (Kim & Lee, 2011;
Lee-Won, Shim, Joo, & Park, 2014), SNSs provide many
chances especially for upward comparisons with similar
others. Several studies have shown that social comparisons
mediate the relationship between Facebook use and some
negative outcomes. For instance, according to Chou and
Edge (2012), the longer people use Facebook, the stronger
their belief that others are happier than themselves, and
the weaker their acceptance of the idea that life is fair.
According to the results of another study, Facebook compar-
isons (either upward, downward, or nondirectional) medi-
ated the relationship between the number of daily
Facebook logins and depressive symptoms (Steers,
Wickham, & Acitelli, 2014).Vogel,Rose,Roberts,and
Eckles (2014), however, provided evidence that upward
and downward Facebook comparisons may differ in terms
of some psychological health outcomes that they produce.
According to their study, upward comparison was related
to reduced self-esteem, while downward comparison was
related to enhanced self-esteem.
In the literature, not only a cognitive mechanism like
social comparison, but also emotional ones have been
offered as factors explaining why Facebook use is related
to negative psychological outcomes. For instance, Krasnova,
Wenninger, Widjaja, and Bruxmann (2013) found that the
feeling of envy fully mediated the relationship between
the intensity of passive Facebook use and reduced life satis-
faction. Similarly, Tandoc et al. (2015) showed that Face-
book surveillance (passive use) did not lead to depression
unless it triggered feelings of envy. Also, Verduyn et al.
(2015) found that when envy was controlled for, the associ-
ation between passive Facebook use and the users’well-
being was not significant. In all this research, it is consis-
tently claimed that Facebook envy is derived from upward
comparisons that individuals make while using Facebook
passively (Krasnova et al., 2013;Tandocetal.,2015;
Verduyn et al., 2015). These studies have demonstrated
the relationship of envy with the passive use of Facebook
in general, rather than demonstrating that envy increases
specifically with the increase in making upward compar-
isons on Facebook. Also, they exclusively focused on a
negative emotion –envy –and its negative outcomes.
In more recent studies, however, some researchers have
shown that there are a variety of emotions that are conse-
quences of social comparisons on SNSs –envy is only one
of those potential emotions –and the outcome of social com-
parisons on Facebook might not be necessarily detrimental
for the users. For instance, Lin and Utz (2015) showed that
when Facebook users read positive news on Facebook, espe-
cially about someone whom they have strong ties with, they
usually experience positive emotions, such as feelings of
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happiness and “benign envy”(a desire to improve oneself by
getting similar achievements to others’). In another study,
Meier and Schäfer (2018) found that the frequency of mak-
ing comparisons on Instagram increases both benign and
malicious envy. According to their results, only benign envy
increases inspiration, and through this way, the users’gen-
eral positive affect increases.
Smith (2000) developed a theory to explain individuals’
emotional reactions to social comparisons in an offline
context. His theory is in harmony with Tesser’s(1991)
self-evaluation model, which is a broadening of Festinger’s
(1954) social comparison theory. According to Smith
(2000), social comparison-based emotions may be differ-
entiated using a number of distinctions. Each emotion
can be categorized in terms of (a) whether it results from
an upward or a downward comparison, and (b) whether it
produces a positive or negative experience. Furthermore,
he suggested that each emotion involves a characteristic
focus of attention –either on the self, the other, or a dual
focus on the self and the other. Smith’s(2000) typology
suggests that the psychological consequences of compar-
isons depend on which types of emotions are evoked.
In the current study, we aimed to test Smith’s ideas on
online context. However, as most comparisons on Face-
book are upward, we studied the emotions felt after upward
comparisons only. Also, we ignored the differences of emo-
tions in terms of desirability (positive vs. negative for self-
vs. other) and focus of attention (self- vs. other-focused);
rather, we concentrated on the distinction between assim-
ilative and contrastive emotions. Therefore, the current
study involves an investigation of upward assimilative emo-
tions (which are positive) and upward contrastive emotions
(which are negative). Previously, Park and Baek (2018)
tested Smith’s idea in an online context. They collected
data from a national survey sample in Korea, and their
study showed that assimilative emotions felt after compar-
isons toward networked others on Facebook increase
Facebook users’life satisfaction, and contrastive ones
decrease their life satisfaction. In the current study, differ-
ent from Park and Baek (2018), we examined which
networked others (close friends vs. acquaintances) make
any difference in (a) which emotions are triggered more
(assimilative vs. contrastive) and (b) the consequences of
these emotions on depression.
Facebook Friendship Types
There are various forms of relationships that people estab-
lish or maintain on Facebook: People may follow the posts
of celebrities or public figures (Panger, 2014); they may
maintain their relationships with close friends (strong ties);
and/or they may activate relationships with casual acquain-
tances such as classmates, neighbors, or friends of friends
(weak ties; Ellison et al., 2007;Tosun&Lajunen,2010).
It is important to distinguish types of Facebook friendships
because psychological outcomes of Facebook use may dif-
fer accordingly. For instance, Bessiere, Kiesler, Kraut, and
Boneva (2008) found that initiating new friendships on
the Internet is related to higher depression, whereas using
the Internet to communicate with existing friends and
family is related to lower depression. Similarly, a study on
Instagram use has demonstrated that the frequency of
Instagram use may be related to either increases or
decreases in individuals’depression levels depending on
whether they follow Instagram posts of either strangers or
friends (Lup, Trub, & Rosenthal, 2015). It should be noted
that the use of Facebook for communicating with strangers
is rare; Facebook is used more for communication with
close friends and casual acquaintances rather than for
communication with strangers (Ellison et al., 2007; Lampe,
Ellison, & Steinfield, 2007;Tosun,2012).
Although they are all called friends, Facebook users may
feel psychologically closer to some of their Facebook
friends (close friends) and feel more distant to others
(acquaintances). The emotional outcomes of comparing
oneself with close friends versus with acquaintances may
be different especially for Facebook users from cultural
contexts in which emotional interdependence is empha-
sized. In the current study, we collected data from a
Turkish sample. Turkey is a culture of “emotional interde-
pendency”(Kagitcibasi, 1996) different from Northern Eur-
ope and American societies in which independence is
stressed. In cultures of interdependence, individuals are
expected to define themselves in terms of their relation-
ships and feel connected to in-group members (e.g.,
Triandis, 1989). Also, as compared with people from
cultures of independence, they report higher levels of
“inclusion of other in self”with the in-group members
(Uskul,Hynie,&Lalonde,2004). Being interdependent
has some consequences for social comparison processes
in interpersonal relationships. A study conducted in the
offline context has shown that students having an interde-
pendent cultural background or stronger interdependent
self-construal feel worse after hearing about a fellow
student’s difficulties, and better after hearing about his/
her successes (White, Lehman, & Cohen, 2006). In the
current study, we aimed to bring these issues into the online
context. On the basis of the literature about comparisons in
the offline context, we expected the upward comparisons
on Facebook to produce assimilation effect, and to trigger
assimilative emotions among Turkish students –especially
when the comparison targets are close friends. Also, we
examined whether assimilative and contrastive emotions
felt after upward comparisons with networked others have
similar consequences on depression when those “others”
are psychologically close (close friends) or relatively remote
(acquaintances).
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L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
ßdarma, Passive Facebook Use, Upward Comparisons and Emotions 3
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The Current Study
The main aim of the current study was to better understand
the association between passive Facebook use and depres-
sion and the role of upward comparisons, and also the
upward comparison emotions defined by Smith (2000)in
this relationship. We expected social comparisons on
Facebook to trigger a wide range of emotions including
both assimilative and contrastive ones. More precisely, we
expected upward-assimilative emotions (UAE) to be felt
more often than upward-contrastive emotions (UCE) after
upward Facebook comparisons (UFC). Also, we expected
UAE to be triggered more often after making social
comparisons with close friends rather than acquaintances.
Hypothesis 1(H1): Users experience UAE more often
than UCE when they make UFC.
Hypothesis 2(H2): Users experience UAE more often
when they make UFC with close friends rather than
with acquaintances.
To refine our understanding of the process that relates
individuals’Facebook-use patterns with their depression
level, we put forward a conceptual model. As depicted in
Figure 1, we hypothesized that a person’s level of passive
Facebook use would be positively related to the frequency
of UFC (Hypothesis 3(H3)). In turn, these comparisons
would increase both UAE and UCE (Hypotheses 4and 5
(H4,H5)). Furthermore, UAE would be negatively related
to depression (Hypothesis 6(H6)), while UCE would be
positively related to it (Hypothesis 7(H7)). Additionally,
we tested whether the relationships between (a) UAE and
depression and between (b) UCE and depression were
moderated by the type of comparison target (close friends
vs. acquaintances).
Research Question 1(RQ1): Does the type of compar-
ison target (close friends vs. acquaintances) moderate
the relationship between UAE and depression, and
does it moderate the relationship between UCE and
depression?
Method
Procedure
The study made use of a cross-sectional survey design, for
which two questionnaires were prepared. Each participant
was given one questionnaire set. Although both sets
involved the same items, they were slightly different in
terms of the instructions given at the beginning of the three
measurement instruments: passive Facebook use fre-
quency, frequency of UFC, and the emotions felt after
upward comparisons on Facebook. In one set, the respon-
dents were instructed to think of their close friends,while
in the other set, they were instructed to think of their
acquaintances and rate the items accordingly. The differ-
ence between a close friend and an acquaintance was
explained to the respondents as follows:
Close friends: Those toward whom one feels emotion-
ally close and behaves intimately.
Acquaintances: Those toward whom one feels a lack of
emotional closeness and behaves formally.
Participants
The respondents were all volunteer students from a
university in Turkey. The close friends sample comprised
154 students (69 male, 80 female, five unknown) with a
Figure 1. Proposed conceptual model. UAE = upward-assimilative emotions. UCE = upward-contrastive emotions. UFC = upward Facebook
comparisons.
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4 L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
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mean age of 20.72 years (SD =2.48). The acquaintances
sample comprised 165 students (71 male, 85 female, nine
unknown) with a mean age of 20.56 years (SD =2.15).
Measures
Passive Facebook Use Frequency
This measurement was adapted from Koroleva, Krasnova,
Veltri, and Günther (2011). The participants were asked
how frequently they use Facebook for given activities,
involving indirect communications, with their close
friends/acquaintances. Items were rated on a 5-point scale,
ranging from 1(= almost never)to5(= almost every day).
Upward Social Comparison Frequency on Facebook
Respondents were asked how frequently they make upward
comparisons with their close friends/acquaintances on
Facebook on the following three domains: happiness,
physical attractiveness, and academic or career success.
A5-point scale ranging from 1(= almost never or never)to
5(= almost always) was used for rating.
Emotions Felt After Upward Social Comparisons
on Facebook
Participants were asked how often they experience each of
the following emotions after they make Facebook compar-
isons with people who are better than themselves: envy,
resentment, admiration, inspiration, and optimism. Envy
and resentment were representatives of UCE whereas
admiration, inspiration, and optimism represented UAE.
1
Respondents rated the frequency of experiencing each of
these emotions on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1(= never
or almost never)to5(= almost always).
State-Trait Depression Inventory
Trait depression subscale of the State-Trait Depression
Inventory was used. The scale was developed by Spiel-
berger, Ritterband, Reheiser, and Brunner (2003). It was
adapted to Turkish by Ozer and Ozer (2006). Trait depres-
sion subscale includes 10 items. Items were scored on a
4-point scale ranging from 1(= almost never)to4(= almost
always). An example item is “I feel hopeless.”
Inclusion-of-Other-in-the-Self-Scale (IOS)
We administered a one-item graphical measure developed
by Aron, Aron, and Smollan (1992). IOS is a measure
consists of seven pictures of two increasingly overlapping
circles, labeled self and target person. Respondents were
asked to rate their emotional closeness to the target person
(either close friend or acquaintance) by selecting one of the
seven pictures. Previously, the IOS Scale was found to be an
effective measure of [interpersonal] closeness as indicated
by its correlations with the Relationship Closeness Inven-
tory (r=.22) and Sternberg’s Intimacy Scale (r=.45;Aron
et al., 1992).
Reliability coefficients, mean values, and standard devia-
tions for all scales used in the study are given in Table 1.
Results
Comparison of Emotional Closeness Felt
Toward Close Friends Versus
Acquaintances
In order to verify that the different instructions given to the
two halves of the sample (think of your “close friends”vs.
“acquaintances”) were understood well by the respondents,
we needed to check whether the instructions made a differ-
ence in terms of participants’mental representations of the
comparison target in the expected way: Participants were
expected to report higher level of emotional closeness
toward close friends than toward their acquaintances. To
test this, an independent-samples ttest was conducted on
the mean closeness score of two subsamples. As expected,
there was a significant difference in the scores of closeness
for close friends (M=4.36,SD =1.79) and acquaintances
(M=2.13,SD =1.37), t(283)=12.28,p<.001,d=1.40.
Comparisons of Frequency of Feeling UAE
Versus UCE When the Target Person Is
Close Friend Versus Acquaintance
A2(emotion type: assimilative vs. contrastive) 2(target
person: close friend vs. acquaintance) repeated measures
ANOVA was conducted in order to test whether UAE were
felt more often than UCE after Facebook comparisons (H1),
and also to test whether UAE were felt more often after
Facebook comparisons when the target person was a close
friends than when they were acquaintances (H2).
The main effect for the emotion type was significant,
F(1,152)=122.629,p<.001,η
p
2
=.45. The two-way
1
Smith (2000) has defined three basic UCE (depression/shame, envy, and resentment) and three basic UAE (admiration, inspiration, and
optimism). Before the main study, we conducted preliminary tests in which we asked university students to what extent they felt each of those
six emotions after UFC with close friends/acquaintances. We analyzed the responses to see whether those six emotions clustered into two as
UCE and UAE, as suggested by Smith (2000). We observed that the mean value for the level of shame was significantly lower than all other
emotions, and contrary to our expectations, shame was clustered with UAE rather than with UCE. We decided to exclude shame from the
emotion list for the main study.
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L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
ßdarma, Passive Facebook Use, Upward Comparisons and Emotions 5
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interaction was also significant, F(1,152)=9.847,p<.01,
η
p
2
=.06. According to the results of post hoc pairwise
Bonferroni comparisons, UAE (M=2.66,SD =0.92)were
felt more than UCE (M=1.85,SD =0.98)afterUFC.The
UAEwerefeltmoreforclosefriends(M=2.85,SD =
0.93) than for acquaintances (M=2.47,SD =0.87). There-
fore, H1and H2were supported.
A series of independent-samples ttests were conducted
to examine which emotions were reported to be felt signif-
icantly more for one type of target person than another.
According to the results, each of the three UAE was felt
more when the target person was close friends than when
they were acquaintances, t(317)=3.16,p<.01,d=.35 for
inspiration, t(305)=3.51,p<.01,d=.33 for admiration,
and t(317)=2.95,p<.01,d=.37 for optimism. For none
of the UCE, however, was a significant difference found,
t(317)=1.61,p=.11, for both envy and resentment. Means
and standard deviations for each emotion for each target
person are presented in Table 1.
Correlational Analyses
The inter-correlations among the study variables for the
whole sample were calculated and are presented in Table 2.
In order to get a more detailed picture, inter-correlations
among study variables were also calculated separately for
the two subsamples: for the participants who answered
the “close friends”question set and for the ones who
answered the “acquaintances”question set. In both
subsamples, the frequency of UFC was found to be posi-
tively correlated with both UCE (r
close friends
=.23,p<.01
and r
acquaintances
=.35,p<.01)andUAE(r
close friends
=.35,
p<.01 and r
acquaintances
=.26,p<.01). In turn, UAE
(r
close friends
=.33,p<.001;r
acquaintances
=.27,p<.001)
and UCE (r
close friends
=.24,p<.01;r
acquaintances
=.38,
p<.01) were significantly correlated with depression in
the expected directions. The correlations are presented in
Table 3.
Model Tests
First, the measurement model was tested to assess the
extent to which the latent variables were represented by
predefined indicators. Second, a structural model in which
passive use of Facebook was linked to the frequency of
UFC, and the frequency of UFC was linked to both UAE
Table 1.Reliability coefficients, mean values, and standard deviations for the measurement instruments
Close friends Acquaintances Total
αMean (SD)αMean (SD)αMean (SD)tp
Passive use .79 2.91 (0.67) .76 2.73 (0.66) .78 2.81 (0.67) 2.35 .02
UFC .72 2.33 (0.79) .79 2.31 (0.87) .76 2.32 (0.83) 0.27 .79
UCE .78 1.75 (0.92) .80 1.95 (1.02) .80 1.85 (0.98) 1.77 .08
Envy 1.79 (1.05) 1.99 (1.10) 1.61 .11
Resentment 1.71 (0.98) 1.91 (1.13) 1.61 .11
UAE .77 2.86 (0.93) .79 2.47 (0.87) .79 2.47 (0.86) 3.85 .00
Inspiration 3.00 (1.03) 2.64 (1.02) 3.16 .01
Admiration 2.73 (1.14) 2.31 (1.00) 3.51 .01
Optimism 2.84 (1.16) 2.47 (1.07) 2.95 .01
Depression .86 2.17 (0.40) .87 2.67 (0.44) .87 2.43 (0.49) 10.77 .00
Note. UAE = upward-assimilative emotions; UCE = upward-contrastive emotions; UFC = upward Facebook comparisons.
Table 2.Correlations among study variables for the whole sample
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6
(1) Passive use –
(2) UFC .38*** –
(3) UAE .32*** .30*** –
(4) UCE .23*** .29*** .12* –
(5) Depression .06 .10 .30*** .37*** –
(6) Target
+
.13* .01 .10 .21*** .52*** –
Note.
+
Code 1: acquaintances, code 2: close friends. UAE = upward-
assimilative emotions; UCE = upward-contrastive emotions; UFC = upward
Facebook comparisons. *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001.
Table 3.Correlations among study variables for two subsamples.
Variable 1 2 3 4 5
(1) Passive use –.39** .31** .38*** .07
(2) The frequency of UFC .39** –.26** .35** .07*
(3) UAE .30** .35** –.02 .38**
(4) UCE .14 .23** .23** –.27***
(5) Depression .12 .20* .24** .33*** –
Note. The values below the diagonal are from the close friends subsample,
the values above the diagonal are from the acquaintances subsample.
UAE = upward-assimilative emotions. UCE = upward-contrastive emotions.
UFC = upward Facebook comparisons. *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001.
Journal of Media Psychology (2019) Ó2019 Hogrefe Publishing
6 L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
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and UCE, and, in turn, both UAE and UCE were linked to
depression was tested with multigroup moderation analysis
for the acquaintances and close friends samples (Model 1a
and 1b, respectively). AMOS 16 was used for testing.
Testing the Measurement Models
Measurement model specified five latent constructs,
namely, passive use of Facebook, frequency of UFC,
UAE, UCE, and depression. Because the depression scale
consists of two dimensions, these dimensions were
employed as the observed variable.
The model-fit indices for the measurement model with the
variables of Facebook use, comparison frequency, UAE,
UCE, and depression indicated that the model fit the data
reasonable well. The normed chi-square (w
2
/df)is1.47 and
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is
0.04, which indicate good fit. The model’s Goodness-of-Fit
Index is 0.91, Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI) is
0.87, and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) is 0.95,whichare
sufficient (Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, & Müller,
2003;Schumacker&Lomax,2010,p.76).
Testing the Structural Model
The model-fit indices for the structural model with the
variables of passive Facebook use, comparison frequency,
UAE, UCE, and depression provided evidence of a good
model fit (w
2
/df =1.70,GFI=.90,AGFI=.85,CFI=.92,
RMSEA = .05). As can be seen in Figure 2, passive use of
Facebook (for Model 1a: β=.54,p<.001;forModel1b:
β=.48,p<.001) was found to be associated positively with
the frequency of upward comparisons on Facebook.
According to the findings, when the frequency of upward
comparisons increases, both UAE (for Model 1a: β=.33,
p<.001;forModel1b: β=.46,p<.001) and UCE (for
Model 1a: β=.46,p<.001;forModel1b: β=.28,p<
.05) increase. Finally, as UAE increase, the level of depres-
sion decreases (for Model 1a: β=.51,p<.001;for
Model 1b: β=.24,p<.06). On the other hand, as UCE
increase, depression also increases (for Model 1a: β=.40,
p<.001;forModel1b: β=.34,p<.05). Thus, hypotheses
H3–H7were all supported.
Moderating Effects of Comparison Target
A two-group SEM analysis was used to test the moderating
effects of the comparison target by comparing the two sub-
groups (acquaintances vs. close friends). First, the free
model and the constraint model were compared by testing
the w
2
difference. If the groups were found to be signifi-
cantly different at the model level, then the difference of
each path was tested.
For the two subgroups, the free model provided a
chi-square value of 288.771 (df =170,p<.001). The fully
constrained model provided a chi-square value of 309.821
(df =185,p<.001). The chi-square difference (Δw
2
=
21.050,p<.001) was statistically significant, suggesting
that the groups are different at the model level. Therefore,
we tested the significance of the difference of each path.
According to the results, the only significant moderation
effect was between UAE and depression (p<.01). More
specifically, the negative association between partici-
pants’assimilative emotional response to UFC and their
depression level was higher when the comparison targets
Figure 2. Results of SEM analysis with the variables of passive Facebook use, UFC frequency, UAE, UCE, and depression. Values outside
brackets indicate acquaintances sample, between brackets indicate close friendship sample. UAE = upward-assimilative emotions. UCE =
upward-contrastive emotions. UFC = upward Facebook comparisons.
+
p< .06; *p< .05; **p< .001.
Ó2019 Hogrefe Publishing Journal of Media Psychology (2019)
L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
ßdarma, Passive Facebook Use, Upward Comparisons and Emotions 7
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were acquaintances (β
acquaintances
=.51)thanwhenthey
were close friends (β
close friends
=.24).
Discussion
As SNSs are being used extensively by a large number of
people in contemporary society, it is important to under-
stand the potential benefits and drawbacks of their use.
In the present study, we aimed to understand the psycho-
logical mechanisms that connect Facebook use to depres-
sion: making upward comparisons and eliciting social
comparison-based emotions. We did not find a direct rela-
tionship between passive Facebook use and depression;
rather our results provided support for a model that
explains the relationship between passive Facebook use
and depression through different pathways.
In previous studies, envy (malicious type) was suggested
as the main emotional outcome of upward comparisons on
Facebook. Furthermore, the elicitation of envious feelings
was offered as an explanation for the link between upward
comparisons and increased depression (Krasnova et al.,
2013; Tandoc et al., 2015;Verduynetal.,2015). Other stud-
ies have demonstrated that passive use of social media
elicited positive emotions as well as negative ones (Lin &
Utz, 2015; Meier & Schäfer, 2018; Nabi & Keblusek,
2014; Utz & Muscanell, 2018). Consistent with previous
studies, we have demonstrated that passive Facebook use
has a capacity to trigger a wide range of emotions. We have
categorized these emotions as assimilative and contrastive
emotions, as Smith (2000) suggested. According to our
results, Facebook users experience UAE (inspiration, opti-
mism, admiration) more frequently than UCE (envy,
resentment). Also, we found that UAE are felt more fre-
quently when the comparisons are made with close friends
rather than with acquaintances.
Unsurprisingly, in the current study, the psychological
outcomes of UAE and UCE were found to be opposite to
each other. More specifically, UAE were found to be related
to lower depression whereas UCE were found to be related
to higher depression. Theoretically, this finding confirms
Smith’s(2000) insights. Practically, there might an implica-
tion of this finding to clinicians and educators who are
required to provide recommendations for individuals’
Facebook use. These professionals might inform their
clients/students about how to regulate their emotional
reactions to UFC so that they can be protected from getting
depressed. In many previous studies of the psychological
outcomes of Facebook comparisons, “Facebook friends”
were considered as monolithic, with no consideration of
the varied relationships with those on the friends’list
(Krasnova et al., 2013; Steers et al., 2014; Tandoc et al.,
2015; Verduyn et al., 2015; Vogel et al., 2014). By contrast,
we examined how the outcomes of Facebook comparisons
differ depending on whether comparison targets were close
friends or acquaintances. First, we examined whether the
frequencies of experiencing UAE and UCE depend on
who the target persons are. According to our results, UAE
are felt more frequently for close friends than for acquain-
tances. The frequency of feeling, UCE however, was not
foundtodependonthetargetperson.
Furthermore, in the current study, we tested our model
that explains the relationship between passive Facebook
use and depression through UAE and UCE for these two
conditions: when the comparison target is close friends,
and when it is acquaintances. To us, the most interesting
finding is that the negative relationship between the
frequency of UAE and depression is higher when the target
person is an acquaintance than when they are a close friend.
These results are inconsistent with Lin and Utz’s(2015)find-
ings. According to their research, American participants
become happier when the good news comes from their
closer friends. According to our findings, the inconsistency
may stem from one of these two methodological differences
between the two studies: (a) the differences regarding what
the independent and dependent variables are exactly and
how they are measured, and (b) the differences regarding
the samples. More specifically, Lin and Utz’s(2015)study
and the current study are different in terms of the measure-
ment of dependent variables: While they used happiness as
dependent variable and measured participants’happiness
felt after reading a specific post, in the current study the
independent variable was trait depression. Also, the two
studies are different in terms of their independent variables
too. Lin and Utz (2015) asked their participants to report the
emotions evoked by the most recent posts sent by their
Facebook friends. However, we asked participants to report
how frequently they feel several emotions after making
upward comparisons on Facebook. An alternative explana-
tion for the inconsistent results of the two studies is as
follows: Cultures differ in terms of the social norms that pre-
scribe how people should feel in specific situations (Eid &
Diener, 2009). Our data come from a culture of interdepen-
dence where maintaining harmonious relationships with
in-group members is important. In these cultures, experi-
encing UAE rather than UCE might be seen as proper when
the target person is close friends. Since the cultural norms
do not put strong pressure on people to report feeling UAE
after comparisons with acquaintances, when people report
to feel UAE toward acquaintances, it is more likely to be
genuine. This might be why feeling UAE after comparisons
is found to be more strongly related to lowered depression
whenthetargetpersonisanacquaintance.InLinandUtz’s
(2015) study, however, the data are collected from the
Journal of Media Psychology (2019) Ó2019 Hogrefe Publishing
8 L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
ßdarma, Passive Facebook Use, Upward Comparisons and Emotions
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United States –a culture of independence. In such cultures
people might feel much less cultural pressure about report-
ing positive feelings after receiving good news about close
friends. In that sample, when people report that they feel
UAE after reading positive news from their closer friends,
it is likely to be genuine. It is no surprise that UAE emotions
are more strongly related to lower depression when the
target person is a closer friend.
Limitations
This study has some limitations regarding both the internal
and external validity. First, it was a cross-sectional survey,
and therefore the direction of causality between variables
is unknown. This is problematic in interpreting the results.
For instance, we found that UAE are significantly related to
depression only when the target persons are acquaintances.
We interpreted this to mean that social comparisons with
acquaintances have a larger impact. However, an equally
reasonable alternative explanation is that depressed people
might be less likely to get inspired from reading acquain-
tances’posts. Previously, this idea that causality of effects
mightbeintheoppositedirectionwassupportedbythe
findings of a cross-lagged longitudinal study with two waves
spaced 1year apart (Scherr, Toma & Schuster, 2019).
According to those findings, depression predicts Facebook
envy, and envy predicts Facebook surveillance. Relatedly,
there is evidence that the relationship between depression
and media use might not necessarily be linear (Scherr,
2018). Further studies are needed in order to better clarify
the strength of causality between passive Facebook use,
emotions, and depression. There is need for more longitu-
dinal and experimental studies in order to shed more light
on the relationship between these variables. Besides, in
futurestudies,itwouldbeabetterideatoexaminethe
intensity of emotions, rather than the frequency of emo-
tions. Also, in the current study, only UAE and UCE are
examined although assimilation and contrast are not the
only dimensions of social comparison-based emotions in
Smith’s categorization system. Self- and other-focused
emotions, and emotions felt after downward comparisons,
maybeexaminedinonlinecontextsinfuturestudies.
Another limitation regarding the internal validity is the lack
of measurement of state depression. If state depression had
been measured, it would be possible to see whether being
reminded about upward comparisons with acquaintances
triggers depressive symptoms.
With regard to external validity, it is a limitation that our
sample comprised a group of young adults from a single
university setting in a single country. For the generalizabil-
ity of results, the study should be replicated with diverse
demographic groups and in different cultural contexts.
In particular, whether the interaction between emotion type
and tie strength would be replicated in other cultures is an
open question.
Conclusion
Many individuals spend a considerable amount of time on
Facebook, and this can be either a depressing or gratifying
experience. In most previous research, it has been stressed
that passive Facebook use has a potential to lead to depres-
sion. In some others, however, it has been shown to be
associated with positive psychological outcomes. With the
current study, we provided new evidence that passive Face-
book usage may either enhance or reduce depression
depending on the emotions evoked. Our study is one of
very few that tested Smith’s(2000) categorization of emo-
tions in the context of Facebook. We showed that UAEs are
more common than UCEs –especially when the compar-
ison targets are close friends. Also, with this study we
demonstrated that while examining how UAE and UCE
are related to depression, it is important to take into
account the level of closeness of the comparison target
and the comparer. We believe that our study makes a valu-
able contribution to the literature in that it not only reports
direct associations between Facebook use and psychologi-
cal outcomes, but also tries to explain the mechanisms that
may account for these associations.
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History
Received October 2, 2018
Revision received July 26, 2019
Accepted October 2, 2019
Published online December 16, 2019
Publication Ethics
This research was approved by the Institutional Review Board of
the Bursa Uludag University, Turkey.
Open Data
The authors are willing to share their data, analytic methods, and
study materials with other researchers. The materials will be
available upon request.
Preregistration Statement
The authors have not preregistered this research.
ORCID
Leman Pınar Tosun
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1635-6629
Leman Pınar Tosun
Department of Psychology
Uludag University
Görükle Kapüsü
Bursa 16059
Turkey
pinart@uludag.edu.tr
Leman Pınar Tosun is an associate
professor of social psychology in the
Psychology Department at Bursa
Uludag University, Turkey. Her re-
search interests include interper-
sonal relationships and social
behaviors in various context, such as
social networking sites.
Ezgi Kas
ßdarma (MD, Bursa Uludag
University) is a PhD student and a
research assistant in the Psychology
Department at Bursa Uludag Univer-
sity, Turkey. Her research interests
include gender stereotypes, social
identity, and social media use.
Ó2019 Hogrefe Publishing Journal of Media Psychology (2019)
L. P. Tosun & E. Kas
ßdarma, Passive Facebook Use, Upward Comparisons and Emotions 11
https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/pdf/10.1027/1864-1105/a000269 - LEMAN PINAR TOSUN <pinart@uludag.edu.tr> - Tuesday, January 21, 2020 11:40:18 PM - IP Address:194.27.127.99