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Atmospheric Methane: Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

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The analysis is made of natural and anthropogenic sources of methane emission into the atmosphere-one of the important greenhouse gases. New quantitative estimates of methane intake from wetland ecosystems, municipal solid waste landfills, agricultural production, and rapidly developing oil and gas industry are given. The dynamics of oil and gas industry development and possible losses of natural gas are analyzed in the chain: oil and gas exploration-production-transportation-underground storage. Quantitative estimates of methane losses in this chain indicate the leading role of oil and gas industry in the methane dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere over the last 50 years. The ways of reducing methane emission into the atmosphere are suggested.
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SCHOLARS SCITECH RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
Scholars Journal of Research in Agriculture and Biology
www.scischolars.com
Atmospheric Methane: Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
V. V. Snakin1, S. V. Vlasov2, А. V. Doronin3, I. V. Chudovskaya4, I. V. Vlasova5, G. Freibergs6,
I. Sherbitskis7
1Lomonosov Moscow State University,RAS Institute of fundamental biological problems, Pushchino,
“Energodiagnostika” LLC, Moscow, Russia.
snakin@mail.ru
2LLC, Energodiagnostika, Moscow, Russia.
svvlasov@gazprom-energy.local
3LLC, Energodiagnostika, Moscow, Russia.
mr.doroninav@bk.ru
4LLC, Energodiagnostika, Moscow, Russia.
ichudovskaya@gmail.com
5LLC, Energodiagnostika, Moscow, Russia.
ivkononenko@gazprom-energy.local
6AS Conexus Baltic Grid, Riga, Latvia.
info@conexus.lv
7AS Conexus Baltic Grid, Riga, Latvia.
info@conexus.lv
Abstract
The analysis is made of natural and anthropogenic sources of methane emission into the
atmosphere one of the important greenhouse gases. New quantitative estimates of
methane intake from wetland ecosystems, municipal solid waste landfills, agricultural
production, and rapidly developing oil and gas industry are given. The dynamics of oil and
gas industry development and possible losses of natural gas are analyzed in the chain: oil
and gas exploration production transportation underground storage. Quantitative
estimates of methane losses in this chain indicate the leading role of oil and gas industry in
the methane dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere over the last 50 years. The ways of
reducing methane emission into the atmosphere are suggested.
Keywords: Animal husbandry: Methane emission sources: Methane in the atmosphere:
Methanotrophs: Natural gas: Oil and gas industry: Underground gas storage.
Introduction
One of the most serious environmental problems of today is the continuous and significant increase of methane (CH4)
concentration in the atmosphere, which is considered to be a significant potential factor in the global climate changes
(methane is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide according to the Kyoto Protocol, as it
accumulates the energy of infrared radiation 30 times more effectively than carbon dioxide). This simplest saturated
acyclic hydrocarbon (colorless and odorless) is the main component of natural (7799%), associated (3190%), damp
and marsh gases. It is non-toxic and produces narcotic effect only at high concentrations. The danger of its mixture with
air is associated with the decrease in the concentration of oxygen. It forms explosive and combustible mixtures with air.
To prevent the growth and reduce the content of methane in the atmosphere, it is important to understand the sources of
this phenomenon. However, there is no consensus on this point, in view of the fact that there are a lot of natural and
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anthropogenic processes with participation of methane. Since agricultural production (ruminant animals and rice sowing)
is referred to as the main source of anthropogenic methane in the atmosphere, this paper aims to assess the current supply
of methane into the atmosphere from the booming oil and gas industry and specify the ways to reduce the contribution of
this factor.
Dynamics of Methane Content in the Atmosphere
Methane is present in the atmosphere in low concentrations (1.581.68 ppm), but its atmospheric content increases
annually by 1% on average due to imbalance between the production and oxidation (Zavarzin and Clark, 1987; Blake and
Rowland, 1988; Galchenko et al., 1989; Kallistova, 2007). Until the 17th century, the concentration of methane in the
atmosphere remained almost constant, then it began to grow slowly and in the 1950s notably rapid growth in methane
concentration began. Since that time, the rate of methane concentration growth in the atmosphere has almost doubled.
Since the beginning of industrial development the concentration of methane in the atmosphere has increased from 700 to
1775 ppb (Climate…, 2016), changing significantly in the diurnal and seasonal cycles (maximum at night, in autumn and
winter). Some researchers noted a slowdown in methane concentration growth in the atmosphere in 20002006
(Dlugokencky et al., 2006; Rigby et al., 2008). Nevertheless, a continued growth of methane concentration at a rate of
0.41, 45% per year in the territory of Poland was noted in 2008-2011 (Stepnevska, 2012).
The data collected by NASA (see Figure 1) confirm the given variations in the dynamics of methane content in the
atmosphere in 19842014. From the 1980's to 1992 the amount of methane did not grow more than 12 ppb per year.
Then, for about a decade, the growth slowed down and did not increase 3 ppb per year. In 20002007 methane
concentration in the atmosphere leveled off. Since 2007 it has started growing again, and so far the growth is 6 ppb per
year.
The increase in methane concentration in the atmosphere is unambiguously associated with the increase in population
(see Figure 2) and human economic activity (Global..., 2016). At the same time, the growth of methane concentration
occurs almost twice as fast as the growth of carbon dioxide.
The growth of methane concentration in the atmosphere is countered by the chemical processes of its decomposition; the
effectiveness of this process is not high (Bazhin, 2000). Methane leaching from the atmosphere is slow due to its low
solubility in water. A more significant role in methane decomposition is played by methane-oxidizing bacteria
(methanotrophs), which "work" in the aerated upper soil layers.
Figure 1. Dynamics of the global annual increase of methane concentration in the atmosphere (ppb/yr) according
to NASA (Gismeteo, 2016)
Figure 2. Changes in carbon dioxide and methane content in the Earth's atmosphere and population growth
through time (Global…, 2016)
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So far there is no unambiguous answer regarding the specific reasons for methane concentration growth in the
atmosphere. Some scientists believe that the tropics have become more humid and, correspondingly, the amount of gas
emission has increased. Someone talks about the impact of changes in agriculture. Others point to the rapid growth of gas
production in the world, including the rectification boom of natural gas in North America and its periodic leakage.
The global distribution of methane on our planet is shown in Figure 3. Methane concentration is higher in the Northern
Hemisphere, due to more powerful natural and anthropogenic sources of methane.
Sources of Atmospheric Methane
Estimates of atmospheric methane emissions from various sources vary considerably. Table 1 shows the estimates of the
amount of methane released to the atmosphere from some natural and anthropogenic sources of both biogenic and
abiogenic origin, given in the research paper (Barber and Ferry, 2001).
According to (Anderson et al., 2010), the total intake of methane into the atmosphere is 566 million tons per year, among
them 37% come from natural sources, of which wetlands prevail (~170 million tons). At the same time, the share of
anthropogenic sources is ~357 million tons, which corresponds to estimates of anthropogenic methane emissions of 330
335 million tons given in the publication (Semenov et al., 2018). The main sources of these emissions are ruminants,
waste and wastewater, as well as the use of fossil fuels.
Figure 3. Distribution of methane as of January 2016 in the surrounding airspace at an altitude of about 6 km
according to NASA (Strange behavior…, 2016)
Table1. Sources of atmospheric methane
Sourceofmethane
Annual СН4 emission,
million tons
Biogenicsources
302665
Wetlands
120200
Termites
25150
Oceans
120
Tundra
15
Ricefields
70120
Livestockraising
80100
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Landfills
570
Abiogenicsources
48155
Methanegashydrates
24
Volcanoes
0.5
Coalmining
1035
Naturalgasleakage
1030
Industrial losses and leakage from wells
1545
Biomassburning
1040
Automobiles&Motorcycles
0.5
Biogenic and abiogenic sources
350820
The main natural sources of methane in the atmosphere are marsh systems up to 30% of all sources of supply by
average. However, due to large-scale drainage of bogs, the share of this source in total methane emissions is reduced and
cannot be the reason for the observed growth of its concentration in the atmosphere. Thus, nowadays about 60% of the
bogs in the woodlands of Russia and Belarus have been drained. Over the past century the area of wetlands in Belarus
has decreased from 4.13 to 2.3 million hectares due to their transfer to agricultural lands. In Europe, ~ 20% of marshes
have disappeared, and more than 50% do not produce peat. In the Netherlands and Denmark, less than 1% of mire has
remained in the natural state, and in Finland 60% of the marshes has been drained for forestry purposes (Vompersky,
2005).
Another participant in the methane migration system in the atmosphere is gas hydrates (methane hydrates), huge
untapped reservoirs of which are found at great depths in the permafrost zone reservoirs. On the one hand, the formation
of gas hydrates can be perceived as methane escape from the atmosphere: on the other hand, taking into account their
instability in case of increasing the temperature, they can be considered to be a possible source of methane emission into
the atmosphere.
The question of a possible abrupt release of methane from gas hydrate deposits during global warming (the so-called
“methane bomb”) is under discussion; there is information (Shakhova et al., 2007) on current emissions of methane into
the atmosphere in the Arctic Ocean in the form of “methane geysers”, the global scale of which is to be clarified.
The main sources of anthropogenic methane supply are solid domestic waste (SDW) landfills, agriculture, and oil and
gas industry (fields’ development, natural gas transportation, storage and utilization).
A wide range of gaseous compounds is formed at the solid domestic waste (SDW) landfills, the main of which is biogas,
consisting mainly of methane (4060%) and CO2 (3045%), several percent of nitrogen, and a large number of trace
pollutants. Active gas production at the landfill site begins after its closure, usually in a few years, when a balanced
methanogenesisis formed, and lasts for 2030 years, dying out gradually. According to IPCC, methane emissions from
the landfills surface are 3573 million tons per year, which corresponds to 612% of the total and 1020% of
anthropogenic emissions of this gas into the atmosphere. In the world practice, systems for biogas extraction and
collection are used at solid waste landfills. In Russia, such systems are not implemented even at large landfills, since the
use of biogas is restrained by the cost of generated electricity, which is 22.5 times higher than electricity produced by
burning fossil fuels or at nuclear power plants (Kallistova, 2007).
An important source of methane in the atmosphere is agricultural industry. Primarily, it is animal husbandry (livestock),
since the life-sustaining activity of many animals (food fermentation by cattle, sheep, camels, pigs) is accompanied by
the release of methane. For example, a hundred liters of methane per day can be formed in the gastrointestinal tract of a
cow. Rice growing is another source of methane. In the conditions of waterlogging during a significant part of the season
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a swamp gas is formed at paddy-fields under anaerobic conditions similar to bog systems. According to the estimates
given in Table 1, these two processes together contribute approximately 150220 million tons of methane per year.
Another important anthropogenic source of methane emissions into the atmosphere is oil and gas industry developing
rapidly in recent decades. Global natural gas production is continuously growing (see Figure 4). Since 1950 it has grown
more than 18 times! The reason for this is the high environmental friendliness of this energy source: natural gas is 75%
more favorable than diesel fuel and 50% than gasoline, the exhaust gases of methane engines are less harmful to
humans and practically do not contain carcinogenic components.
Figure 4. Global natural gas production dynamics, billion m3
In the course of drilling, transportation of oil and gas, removing and incomplete burning of associated gases, leakage
from underground gas storage facilities (UGSs), and in emergency situations a huge amount of natural gas enters the
atmosphere. Table 1 shows that in total oil and gas industry delivers 2575 million tons of methane into the atmosphere
annually (i.e. about 9% of total discharge).
However, let us consider this source in detail.
Methane in the Atmosphere and Development of Oil & Gas Industry
According to some authors (Shishko, 1991) annually about 83 % of all the produced gas goes into pipelines, i.e. up to
17% of sour gas (or 440 million tons) escapes. And this is only the beginning of gas supply chain!
The methane production cycle begins with geological exploration, which can sometimes lead to emission of significant
quantities of natural gas into the atmosphere as a result of process losses and accidents (see Figure 5).
As a rule, the emergency situations are of a one-time nature and probably do not contribute much to the emission of
methane into the atmosphere. For all the uncertainty of this source of methane, we can agree with the data given inTable
1 indicating that the losses amount to 1545 million tons per year.
Figure 5. Well Darvaz or "Door to the Underworld" (crater diameter ~ 60 m, depth ~ 20 m) man-made
landmark of modern Turkmenistan. It was formed in 1971 as a result of a failure during a faulty drilling of an
exploration well, and since then, the ignited natural gas is continuously burning day and night (Darvaz…, 2016)
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At the stage of oil production and treatment the so-called associated gas (AG) appears, up to 2/3 consisting of methane.
Depending on the production area, 1 ton of oil produces from 25 to 800 m³ of associated gas. With global oil production
of about 4.4 billion tons per year (2015), the estimated amount of associated gas is up to 1.3 billion tons per year. To
meet the required standards the associated gas (AG) is separated from oil and is subsequently either disposed or burned
(see Figure 6).
Figure 6. Typical AG flaring
According to the data provided by the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation (2016), the norms for losses of
associated gas (AG) produced in the country were reduced from 1.14% in 2010 to 0.33% in 2016. Minimum estimates of
current global methane losses in the composition of AG are about 10 million tons of methane a year.
According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation, out of 55 billion m3 (about 39
million tons) of annually produced AG in Russia, only 26% (14 billion m3) is recycled, 47% (26 billion m3) is used for
the oilfield needs or is written off as technological losses and 27% (15 billion m3) is burned in flares. It is not known
what part of the 26 billion m3of AG is released into the atmosphere; if 50% of the given value is taken as a basis, then the
estimate is 13 billion m3, or about 10 million tons per year only for Russia. It is important to note that the level of AG
beneficial use has increased significantly in the recent years (see Figure 7).
In this case it is necessary to take into account the incomplete flaring of gas, which in addition to unburned methane,
gives off a whole complex of dangerous pollutants (active black, carbon monoxide, etc.). The volume of soot emissions
during the AG flaring is approximately estimated as 0.5 million tons per year (Associated petroleum…, 2010). According
to the executive authorities, the fraction of flare units equipped with AG measuring devices in Russia is about 50%. At
the same time, in some regions less than 20% of flare units are equipped with AG measuring devices (Knizhnikov et al.,
2015).
Figure 7. The level of AG beneficial use as a percentage of total AG resources in Russia in dynamics for 1911-2014
according to the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation (Knizhnikov et al., 2015)
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It should be noted that AG flaringhas risen to such a level that it has become an important factor in light pollution (see
Figure 8), as it can be observed in Western Siberia and the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt).
Figure 8. Combined space images of the Earth light pollution at night according to NASA, 2012. The arrowsshow
a light spot in Western Siberia and Sinai in places of intensive oil production (Nighttime lights…, 2014).
In the near future, the planned production of gas hydrates will become an additional source of methane emission into the
atmosphere. For instance, Japan Oil, Gas & Metals National Corp. (Jogmec) announced the beginning of trial operation
of an underwater gas hydrate field (Smirnov, 2013); while the full-scale development of the field is planned after the
development of production technology suitable for industrial use.
Natural gas losses during transportation (in pipelines). Significant losses of natural gas occur during the operation of
transport gas mains equipment. It is the technological expenditure of gas occurring during the gas units’ adjustment and
testing, equipment installation and repair, various emergency situations. Part of the gas is lost due to imperfection of
technological equipment or methods used in gas hubs. At the same time, gas expenditure and losses can be conditionally
divided into explicit and implicit ones (Shishko, 1991).
Explicit losses can be detected by the sound, noticed due to manifestation of secondary characteristics, directly measured
or calculated, knowing the parameters of corresponding technological process. The primary explicit losses in the linear
part of the main gas pipeline are: gas leakage through fistulas, micro cracks, shut-off valves; losses during gas bleeding
and blowing of pipes during the connection of bends, jumpers, pulse tubes and other technological lines; losses during
periodic cleaning of gas pipelines’ internal cavity; emergency losses and losses during the repair work associated with
the pipeline sections’ discharge.
At compressor stations the explicit gas losses occur mainly: in the course of bleeding and blow down of compressor
piping during gas pumping units (GPA) start-ups and stops; during the purging of condensate collectors, dust collectors,
pulse tubes of instrumentation and automation; losses in the system of seals of GPA superchargers and other equipment.
Quantitative ratios of the main types of losses in the main gas transport can be seen in Table 2, which proves that more
than half of the gas losses (5456%) occur due to a breach of tightness of the structures, and therefore this is the part of
methane loss that enters the atmosphere. Totally, these losses amount to 894988 million m3, or taking into account the
methane density (~0.72), to 644711 million tons per year.
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Table 2. The main types of natural gas losses during its transportation through the main gas pipelines (Harris,
2015)
Main causes of gas losses
Losses, mlnm3
Losses, %
Gas losses during the repair of
linear part
78
Losses during the gas pipelines’
rupture and destruction
170180
1819
Losses due to the gas pipeline
leakage
8090
Losses due to the leaks in piping
340350
3540
Losses during the start-ups and
stops
1718
Gas losses in dust collectors
200250
2225
Total
894988
Implicit (latent) losses and gas expenditure are difficult to detect and measure; their quantity can be determined only
indirectly: by over-consumption of fuel gas at compressor stations while reducing the hydraulic efficiency of gas
pipelines’ linear sections; by deviations of GPA modes from optimal; fuel gas expenditure in the presence of overflows
of compressed gas in the pipelines of injection and input communications of gas pumping units and compressor stations
(CS); gas losses as a result of phase transformations in the gas pipeline (formation of the liquid phase and hydrates);
leakage due to condensate and water formed in the gas pipeline during the cleaning and degassing in waste heaters;
losses during the operation of regenerative GTUs at CS.
Approximately 2427% of gas losses take place in the course of technological operations at compressor stations. The
largest gas losses during the main gas pipelines’ transportation occur when compressing the fuel gas (about 80% of this
gas is burned in combustion chambers these are productive losses, the remaining 20% is the unproductive expenditure
of commercial gas). Reduction of such losses is a specific task and requires the development of special technologies.
Natural gas losses during the underground storage. At the beginning of 2016 680 underground gas storage facilities
(UGS) with a total working capacity of 413 billion cubic meters operated in the world, which corresponds to 12% of
global gas consumption in 2015 (Vinogradova, 2016). About 15% of natural gas is consumed from UGS in Russia, 20%
in Germany, 26% in Italy, 29% in France, 40% in Ukraineand up to 70 % in Latvia (Polohalo, 2009).
As of 01.01.2010 in Russia the number of underground gas storage facilities in operation was 25 with the commercial gas
volume 64.0 billion m3; the potential daily production at the beginning of the selection season (20092010) was 620
million m3/day (Aksyutin, 2010).
During the UGS operation methane escapes through untight technological assemblies, through wells’ construction
elements, through leaky geological rocks overlapping the UGS, and also in the course of emergency procedures. For
example, on October 23, 2015 a leak occurred in one of the 115 wells connected with huge underground natural gas
storage in California in Aliso Canyon, the fifth largest in the US. Because of the accident 11 thousand people were
evacuated; every day so much gas was in the air that one could fill a ball of the size of a football stadium. At the time of
gas emission maximum activity the rate of methane emissions in the entire Los Angeles County doubled. The leak was
closed on February 18; by that time almost 100 thousand tons of methane escaped into the atmosphere (Gismeteo, 2016).
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Data on gas technological losses during its underground storage are inconsistent. There is some tentative information
about the losses of 1.53% of active storage volume (Elizarova, 2011). At the same time, it is believed that geologic and
technological structure of reservoir losses and gas expenditure at the UGS depends on the geological and field type of
storage and its operation scheme. The most significant reservoir losses are typical for UGSmade in an aquifer of a flat-
lying deposit, which may amount to about 50% of the total gas volume. For storages made in aquifers of anticlinal traps,
the losses can amount to 30% of the total gas volume (Iskhakov, 2013). In this regard, the error in calculating the volume
of gas in the reservoir by balance and volume methods, depending on the specific characteristics of the object, can
amount to 20% of the total gas volume.
It is mentioned in one of the sources that at one of the gas storage facilities natural gas losses amounted to 1.5 billion m3
over a 30-year period of operation (Bukhgalter et al., 2002). It means that annually 0.036 million tons of methane
escaped from one UGS facility! At such rate, annually 24 million tons of methane will escape globally from 680 UGS.
And probably, this is not the maximum value.
However, estimation of these losses is associated with great difficulties, since it is impossible to determine with sufficient
accuracy the volume of gas in the storage. The total amount of gas losses in the storage system may not be revealed for a
number of years until it becomes noticeable.
When seeping through the cover rocks not all methane directly enters the atmosphere, because some of it is oxidized by
methanotrophic bacteria in the soil horizon. Calculations of methane leakage from artificial gas deposits prove that 6
10% of methane is retained by the soil mantle (Bukhgalter et al., 2017).
The activity of methane bacterial oxidation by soil is dynamic over time: oxidation does not occur in spring, it is
maximum in summer, it decreases in autumn. The amount of methane emissions depends on hydrothermal conditions and
on season, it also varies in dry and wet years. According to some researchers (Glagolev, Filippov, 2011), estimations of
methane absorption by soil have very poor accuracy, which clearly indicates poor knowledge of the problem of
absorption of soil methane. Nevertheless, it is believed that annual absorption of methane by soil in Russia is about 3.6
Mt/year, which falls within the estimates made by various authors.
The fact of methane emission through the rocks overlapping UGS is proved by the results of isotope studies of carbon in
gases extracted from water samples taken from water wells near the Inchukalnskoe underground gas storage facility
(Latvia). The calculations showed the availability of 4075% of anthropogenic methane in different samples, i.e. the
methane that was pumped into the UGS (Prasolov, Sergeev, 2005).
Summing up the results of the analysis, we can approximately estimate the amounts of methane (natural gas) entering the
atmosphere as a result of oil and gas industry activities (excluding emergency situations). The data given in Table 3 show
that the emission of methane (natural gas) into the atmosphere as a result of losses from global oil and gas complex can
amount to 693790 million tons per year, which is much higher than the values given in Table. 1. And this is without
taking into account the emergency situations occurring over and over again in different countries!
Table 3. Estimation of methane (natural gas) emission into the atmosphere as a result of oil and gas industry
activity
Losses,
mlntons/year
1545
10
644711
24
693790
Estimates of possible methane emission into the atmosphere as a result of oil and gas industry activity given in Table. 3
prove that we are facing the most powerful source of atmospheric methane replenishment, far exceeding all the biogenic
natural sources combined.
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Ways to prevent the growth of methane concentration in the atmosphere. Non-productive methane losses during
transportation can be decreased by using modern equipment and special technologies: minimizing emergency gas losses
at the linear part of main gas pipelines (MG) and compressor stations (CS); applying modern technologies for utilization
of gas emissions from gas mains system; applying the technology of dusting the parts of pipeline systems without
blowing into the atmosphere, reducing the consumption of fuel gas in off-design modes by optimizing the parameters of
compressor station equipment; excluding the over-expenditure of fuel gas due to physical deterioration of equipment
through reconstruction of compressor stations and modernization of gas compressor stations; improving the quantitative
gas estimation, applying reliable methods of measuring the MG productivity.
Therefore, the primary task is to reduce large losses of gas through leaks during production operations, both in the
compressor stations’ piping and in gas pipelines’ linear sections. To this effect, it is necessary to improve the design of
the units in order to improve the tightness, as well as to seek methods and develop special instruments for locating gas
leakages and their subsequent elimination.
To reduce natural gas losses it is important to use associated gas, which in Russia is largely due to the activities of
SIBUR holding company, the largest producer in petrochemical industry. The decision of the RF Government No. 7 of
08.01.2009, which calls for bringing the level of associated gas utilization to 95%, contributes to the promotion of this
initiative. In the US, Canada, France and other countries the laws have been passed prohibiting oil production and
treatment without utilization of associated gas.
In case of underground gas storage an important factor for reducing the risk of losses is proper selection of UGS
locations with a view to minimize reservoir losses, to prevent leakage of pipelines and production units, and application
of the method of equipment purging without gas emission into the environment.
To prevent the risk of methane contamination resulting from UGS operation, specialists of Energodiagnostika LLC
offered to use methanotrophs bacteria that live on methane (Vlasov et al., 2015; Snakin et al., 2014). The patent
"Method of ensuring environmental safety of underground gas storage facilities" (RU 2591118 C 2 dated 06.03.2014)
was received. The substance of the proposal is to remotely monitor the methane content in the near-the-ground
atmosphere and in the zones of piping assemblies. Based on the results of the monitoring, zones with high concentration
of methane are treated with a suspension of methanotrophic bacteria in saline solution. Methanotrophic suspension is also
pumped cyclically under a certain pressure and temperature into the critical zones of piping assemblies. This method
allows lowing the concentration of methane and thereby reducing not only the risk of ignition, but also the pollution of
the atmosphere taking advantage of one of the most effective greenhouse gases. Further development of this proposal can
become a significant contribution to implementation of the World Pact to Stop Global Warming, approved on December
12, 2015 in Paris by 195 countries.
At the same time, the main task is to increase the efficiency of methanotrophic bacteria by activating the methanotrophs
in natural conditions, as well as changing the ratio in their species composition in favor of methanotrophs that efficiently
"work" at low temperatures.
Preliminary experiments with natural methanotrophs extracted from soil near the Inchukalnskoe UGS (Latvia) proved
that the potential annual methane-oxidizing capacity of soil layer ~ 0.5 m is about 150 t/ha of methane. The analysis of
methane-oxidizing ability of soils has proven the possibility of increasing the activity of natural methanotrophs, which
undoubtedly can improve the environmental situation at the underground storage facilities by preventing methane
emission into the atmosphere (Snakin et al., 2017).
Conclusion
The study of methane concentration dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere shows its steady growth, especially in the latest
half a century, which results in an unreasonably high content of one of the most dangerous greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
There are no natural sources of methane emission into the atmosphere (bogs, volcanoes, wild animals), that could be
responsible for the observed growth in methane content in the atmosphere. Moreover, the role of these sources in
methane formation is steadily declining.
At the same time, the dynamics of methane concentration in the atmosphere is obviously synchronous with the increasing
human activity. Agricultural activity (livestock and rice growing) and oil and gas industry are among the main
anthropogenic sources of methane.
The analysis of losses of methane (the main component of natural gas) at various stages of oil and gas industry activity
proves that total losses of natural gas associated with the possibility of methane emission into the atmosphere amount to
about 700 million tons per year (without taking into account emergency situations), which far exceeds all other sources
of methane emission into the atmosphere.
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Planned production of methane hydrates can also become the source of additional methane emission into the atmosphere.
It is quite natural that we are talking about the approximate estimates, taking into account the multivalued nature of the
loss factors and sometimes the impossibility of their accurate calculation. But these estimates prove the growth of
methane concentration in the atmosphere over the last 50-70 years with the steadily growing natural gas and oil
production.
The decrease in the intensity of methane concentration in the atmosphere observed at the beginning of the current century
can be fully explained by several reasons: the steady increase in the use of associated gas, the improvement of pipeline
transport, and a slight decrease in the rate of gas production.
Nevertheless, there is much to be done in reducing the environmental risk associated with the growth of methane
concentration in the atmosphere, which is largely due to the need to tighten the control of natural gas losses in main
pipelines and piping assemblies, as well as the prospects for using methane-oxidizing bacteria (methanotrophs) in the
places of uncontrolled emission of methane, especially in case of undergroundgas storage.
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ISSN: 2456-6527
sjrabeditor@scischolars.com Online Publication Date: July 22, 2019 Volume 4, No. 1
Volume 4, No. 1 available at https://www.scischolars.com/journals/index.php/sjrab 274
Authors Biography with Photos
Valeriy V. Snakin Dr. Sci (Biol.), professor of Lomonosov Moscow State University,
Head of Landscape Ecology Laboratory of Institute of Fundamental biological problems of Russian
Academy of Science; head of Ecology Department of LLC «Energodiagnostika» (Moscow, Russia);
snakin@mail.ru;zhizn_zemli@mail.ru
Sergey V. Vlasov PhD, Director of LLC «Energodiagnostika» (Moscow, Russia);
svvlasov@gazprom-energy.local
Aleksey V. Doronin head of Well logging Department, LLC «Energodiagnostika»
(Moscow, Russia); mr.doroninav@bk.ru
Irina V. Chudovskaya head of Administrative Department, LLC «Energodiagnostika»
(Moscow, Russia); ichudovskaya@gmail.com;
Inna V. Vlasova head of Law Department, LLC «Energodiagnostika» (Moscow, Russia);
ivkononenko@gazprom-energy.local
Gints Fraibergs Board member, AS Conexus Baltic Grid (Riga, Latvia);
info@conexus.lv
Ivars Sherbitskis PhD, Head of Investment and Technical Development Department, AS
Conexus Baltic Grid (Riga, Latvia); info@conexus.lv
... Thus, most of the emissions in the form of acid oxides, mainly sulfur, are taken out of the city in the gas phase. The chemical processes of sulfur transformation, according to theoretical concepts [4][5][6][7] ...
Book
Full-text available
Dynamics of methane content alterations in the Earth's atmosphere in the conditions of globalization is analyzed and methane emission sources are estimated. Oil and gas industry is proved to be the most important anthropogenic source of atmospheric methane growth. Natural mechanisms of methane concentration regulation in the biosphere are considered. Particular attention is paid to the process of methane absorption by methanotrophic microorganisms and peculiarities of their functioning in extreme conditions. Methodology for reducing methane technogenic inflow into the atmosphere using methanotrophs is proposed. The book is addressed to oil and gas industry employees and everyone interested in the behavior of methane in the atmosphere, especially in connection with the atmospheric pollution and natural degradation of pollutants.
Article
Full-text available
METHANE IN THE ATMOSPHERE: DYNAMICS AND SOURCES This article is dedicated to the problem of the atmospheric concentration increase of one of the most dangerous greenhouse gases-methane, the main component of natural gas. The main natural and anthropogenic sources of methane emission are described in the article. The dynamics of oil and gas industry development and possible losses of natural gas are analyzed by the authors in the chain: oil and gas exploration-production-transportation-underground storage. Quantitative estimates of methane losses in this chain indicate the leading role of oil and gas industry in the methane increasing dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere over the last 50 years. The ways of possible reduction of methane emission into the atmosphere are suggested in the final part of the article.
Article
Full-text available
1] Over the past century, atmospheric methane (CH 4) rose dramatically before leveling off in the late 1990s. The processes controlling this trend are poorly understood, limiting confidence in projections of future CH 4 . The MOZART-2 global tropospheric chemistry model qualitatively captures the observed CH 4 trend (increasing in the early 1990s and then leveling off) with constant emissions. From 1991 – 1995 to 2000 – 2004, the CH 4 lifetime versus tropospheric OH decreases by 1.6%, reflecting increases in OH and temperature. The rise in OH stems from an increase in lightning NO x as parameterized in the model. A simulation including annually varying anthropogenic and wetland CH 4 emissions, as well as the changes in meteorology, best reproduces the observed CH 4 distribution, trend, and seasonal cycles. Projections of future CH 4 abundances should consider climate-driven changes in CH 4 sources and sinks.
Article
The average worldwide tropospheric mixing ratio of methane has increased by 11% from 1.52 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in January 1978 to 1.684 ppmv in September 1987, for an increment of 0.016 +/- 0.001 ppmv per year. Within the limits of our measurements, the global tropospheric mixing ratio for methane over the past decade is consistent either with a linear growth rate of 0.016 +/- 0.001 ppmv per year or with a slight lessening of the rate of growth over the past 5 years. No indications were found of an effect of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation-El Chichon events of 1982-83 on total global methane, although severe reductions were reported in the Pacific Northwest during that time period. The growth in tropospheric methane may have increased the water concentration in the stratosphere by as much as 28% since the 1940s and 45% over the past two centuries and thus could have increased the mass of precipitable water available for formation of polar stratospheric clouds.
50 years of underground gas storage in Russia
  • O E Aksyutin
Aksyutin O. E. (2010). 50 years of underground gas storage in Russia (http://www.gazprom.ru/f/posts/27/233865/50-years-underground-gas-storage-russia-ru.pdf) (in Russian).
Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Natural Sources
  • B Anderson
  • K Bartlett
  • S Frolking
  • K Hayhoe
  • J Jenkins
  • W Salas
Anderson, B., Bartlett, K., Frolking, S., Hayhoe, K., Jenkins, J. and Salas, W. (2010).Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Natural Sources, Office of Atmospheric Programs, US EPA, EPA 430-R-10-001, Washington DC.
Methanogenesis. Encyclopedia of life science
  • R D Barber
  • J G Ferry
Barber R. D. and Ferry J.G. (2001). Methanogenesis. Encyclopedia of life science (Nature Publishing Group) (www.els.net).
The tightness of underground gas storage facilities based on soil-ecological monitoring data
  • E B Buhgalter
  • B O Budnikov
  • N V Mozharova
Buhgalter E. B., Budnikov B. O., Mozharova N. V. (2017). The tightness of underground gas storage facilities based on soil-ecological monitoring data (http://www.ooomzm.ru/articles/38/) (in Russian).
Ecology of underground gas storage
  • E B Buhgalter
  • E V Dedikov
  • L B Buhgalter
  • A V Khabarov
  • B O Budnikov
Buhgalter E. B., Dedikov E. V., Buhgalter L. B., Khabarov A.V., Budnikov B. O. (2002). Ecology of underground gas storage. 431 p. (Moscow: «Nauka») (in Russian).
IPCC Working Group I Contribution to AR5
Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (2016). IPCC Working Group I Contribution to AR5. P. 465-570 (Bern, Switzerland).