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Autism and the right to education in the EU: policy mapping and scoping review of Nordic countries Denmark, Finland, and Sweden

DOI:10.1186/s13229-019-0290-4
Authors:
Robin van Kessel at The London School of Economics and Political Science
Robin van Kessel
Sebastian Walsh at University of Cambridge
Sebastian Walsh
Amber N V Ruigrok at University of Cambridge
Amber N V Ruigrok
Rosemary Holt
Rosemary Holt
Rosemary Holt
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Introduction: The universal right to education for people with disabilities has been highlighted by the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In this paper, we mapped policies addressing the right to education and special education needs of autistic children in Denmark, Sweden, and Finland. Methods: A policy path analysis was carried out using a scoping review as an underlying framework for data gathering. Policy mapping was performed independently by both lead authors to increase reliability. Results and discussion: The values of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities have been closely translated into the respective education systems of the countries under study, offering special education needs services and support in mainstream education with the aim of including as many children into mainstream education as possible. Even though the education systems are comparable, the approaches between the countries under study are slightly different. Denmark and Sweden have passed several policies specifically geared towards special education needs, while Finland incorporates this more in general education policy. Conclusion: All countries under study have incorporated the values of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in their respective education systems while emphasising the need to include as many children in the mainstream system as possible.
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... Dedication toward inclusive education was previously found to not only be aimed at improving the education system for children with SEN, but they can also be a result of economic considerations (van Kessel, Walsh, et al., 2019). According to other policy mapping articles, autism-specific policy is often barely present and the emphasis lies on general SEN policy (Roleska et al., 2018;van Kessel, Dijkstra, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Hrzic, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Steinhoff, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh, et al., 2019). ...
... Dedication toward inclusive education was previously found to not only be aimed at improving the education system for children with SEN, but they can also be a result of economic considerations (van Kessel, Walsh, et al., 2019). According to other policy mapping articles, autism-specific policy is often barely present and the emphasis lies on general SEN policy (Roleska et al., 2018;van Kessel, Dijkstra, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Hrzic, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Steinhoff, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh, et al., 2019). As such, this paper analyses the development of the education environment on a policy level in order to explore how (special) education policy itself was affected by the austerity measures. ...
... This methodology enables us to see policy creation as historical sequences and patterns and identify path dependence (Mahoney, 2000). The use of this methodology is validated by previous work of EDUCAUS that mapped education policy pertaining to autism (Roleska et al., 2018;van Kessel, Dijkstra, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Hrzic, et al., 2020; van Kessel, Steinhoff, et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh, et al., 2019), as well as other fields where it was used to investigate policy developments across different policy layers (Bunt et al., 2020;Neicun et al., 2019). Data were gathered through the use of a scoping review, which allows for rapid mapping of the key concepts that underpin a wide research area and is particularly suitable for exploring complex matters that have not yet been comprehensively reviewed (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005;Levac et al., 2010). ...
Education and austerity in the European Union from an autism perspective: Policy mapping in Ireland, Portugal, Italy, and Greece
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2021
en This study explores how autism and education policy are affected by austerity measures in Ireland, Portugal, Italy, and Greece by using a path dependence analysis. The implementation of mixed mainstream classrooms and improvements to infrastructure coincided with the ratification of inclusive education policy. Austerity measures appeared temporally associated with furthering of integration and inclusion policy for all countries under study, potentially due to the economic incentives of an integrated system. This trend is especially visible in Ireland, Portugal, and Greece, whereas lesser so in Italy. Even though the initial focus of this analysis was autism, the findings are applicable to the general area of special education needs due to the non-specific nature of national policies. 摘要 zh 本文通过路径依赖分析，探究了爱尔兰、葡萄牙、意大利和希腊的紧缩措施如何影响自闭症和教育政策。混合主流课堂的实行、基础设施的提升，与包容性教育政策的批准同时发生。紧缩措施似乎在时间上与各国融合政策及包容政策的延长相关，这可能归因于融合系统的经济激励。该趋势在爱尔兰、葡萄牙和希腊尤为明显，意大利的趋势较小。尽管本研究的最初重点是自闭症，但鉴于国家政策的一般性，研究发现也适用于特殊教育需求领域。 Resumen es Este estudio explora cómo el autismo y la política educativa se ven afectados por las medidas de austeridad en Irlanda, Portugal, Italia y Grecia mediante el uso de un análisis de dependencia de la trayectoria. La implementación de aulas convencionales mixtas y las mejoras a la infraestructura coincidieron con la ratificación de la política de educación inclusiva. Las medidas de austeridad aparecieron temporalmente asociadas con la promoción de la política de integración e inclusión para todos los países en estudio, posiblemente debido a los incentivos económicos de un sistema integrado. Esta tendencia es especialmente visible en Irlanda, Portugal y Grecia, mientras que es menor en Italia. Aunque el enfoque inicial de este análisis fue el autismo, los hallazgos son aplicables al área general de necesidades de educación especial debido a la naturaleza no específica de las políticas nacionales.
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... Recently, autism, SEN, and education policies in 20 EU Member States-covering 76,87% of the EU population (Eurostat, 2018)-have been mapped by the European Consortium for Autism Researchers in Education (EDUCAUS) using a path dependency framework. The aim of EDUCAUS was to systematically compare policy across all EU Member States against the vision of an education system that supports children with autism to fulfill their potential (Roleska et al., 2018;van Kessel, Dijkstra et al., 2020;van Kessel, Hrzic et al., 2020;van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh et al., 2019). Each policy analysis focused on a specific theme, including parental involvement ( , teacher education ( van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh et al., 2019), and teacher responsibilities ( van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020). ...
... The aim of EDUCAUS was to systematically compare policy across all EU Member States against the vision of an education system that supports children with autism to fulfill their potential (Roleska et al., 2018;van Kessel, Dijkstra et al., 2020;van Kessel, Hrzic et al., 2020;van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh et al., 2019). Each policy analysis focused on a specific theme, including parental involvement ( , teacher education ( van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020;van Kessel, Walsh et al., 2019), and teacher responsibilities ( van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020). Each review found IE to be present in national policies of most Member States, though many of the investigated countries also retain segregation-based frameworks. ...
... This study synthesizes the findings of the policy analyses by EDUCAUS, which comprises descriptive data on individual policies of the 20 investigated EU Member States (Roleska et al., 2018; van Kessel, Dijkstra et al., 2020; van Kessel, Hrzic et al., 2020; ; van Kessel, Steinhoff et al., 2020; van Kessel, Walsh et al., 2019). Information in each case was collected by means of a scoping review (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005;Levac, Colquhoun, & O'Brien, 2010) of the respective national policy repository and analyzed through a path-dependence analysis (Mahoney, 2000). ...
Inclusive education in the European Union: A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of education policy for autism Inclusive education in the European Union: A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of education policy for autism
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2021
Children with special education needs (SEN), such as children with autism, benefit from being included in education along with typical peers. However, development and implementation of inclusive education (IE) is considered difficult. This paper identifies conditions that facilitate IE development for children with autism in the European Union and benchmarks to track IE policy development. Education policy data from 30 legislative regions in the European Union were analyzed through a qualitative comparative analysis using eight conditions: a definition of SEN, the right to education for children with SEN, support for teaching staff, support services for children with SEN, individualized learning outcomes, parental involvement, and mixed mainstream classes. The right to education for children with SEN is implemented in all regions under study. Seven of the examined conditions were associated with IE: an established definition of SEN, support for teaching staff, support services for children with SEN, individualized learning outcomes, parental involvement, IE policies, and mixed mainstream classrooms. Mixed classrooms and support services for children with SEN were identified as necessary for IE. IE policies and support for teaching staff were present in all scenarios that facilitated IE. While the analysis was initially focused on autism, the policies consisted predominantly of general SEN policies, allowing the results to be interpreted in a wider context, beyond autism. Ultimately, mixed mainstream classrooms and support services for children with special needs were found essential for consistent IE development. Support for teaching staff and IE policies facilitate IE and should be further explored and implemented.
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... The policy mapping framework in this article is based on previously validated work. [19][20][21] Data were gathered through a scoping review and analyzed through a policy path dependence analysis. [22][23][24] Due to the absence of a comprehensive EU data source on autism and SEN policy, a modular approach was adopted to analyze the education policy environments under study. ...
... Consistent with previous work, [19][20][21] inclusion criteria consisted of (i) a scope relating to the right to education, national education system, disability laws, inclusion or SEN; (ii) aimed at children under 18 years; (iii) drafted by a governmental institution; and (iv) published after 1948. Constitutions were always included and no language limitations were set. ...
... Like previous work, [19][20][21] the data collection consisted of five steps in which governmental websites formed the primary source for data collection: (i) review and extract policies relevant to the education of children with SEN; (ii) develop a multi-layered search strategy for scientific databases (Google Scholar/PubMed); (iii) merge policy and academic publications conform the eligibility criteria; (iv) acquire further information through searching reference lists; and (v) merge all documents into one data repository for the purpose of this scoping review and path dependence analysis. Table 1 shows the policy repositories that were used per country. ...
Autism and education—international policy in small EU states: policy mapping in Malta, Cyprus, Luxembourg and Slovenia.
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2020
Background: Special education provides an array of support that can advantageously meet special education needs (SEN) of children with autism. This report maps autism and SEN policies, and tension of international legislation in Malta, Cyprus, Luxembourg and Slovenia. Methods: A policy path analysis was performed using a scoping review as fundamental methodological framework. Results: Education for children with SEN developed from limited education towards segregation, and further to integration, and inclusion in mainstream education. International policy has greatly influenced the education systems under study. The rights to education and to have SEN addressed have been adopted in all countries. Inclusion is seen to be gradually incorporated by Malta, Cyprus and Luxembourg—closely following values of international documents through concise SEN policies. Slovenia’s education system remains segregated, indicating potential tension. Conclusions: It appears that mainstream schools offer SEN services until no longer feasible for the child in the majority of investigated countries. Inclusion has become a guiding principle for most education systems under study. Finally, small states either commit to the implementation of inclusion or delay it and attempt to improve the education system for children with SEN in different ways.
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... Providing early support for the development and learning of children in ECEC is aligned with the principles of inclusion (Finnish National Agency for Education [EDUFI], 2014[EDUFI], , 2022United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 1994). One core issue concerning inclusion is children's right to high-quality education and pedagogical processes that support inclusion (Alijoki et al., 2013;Brandlistuen et al., 2015;Engvik et al., 2014;Syrjämäki et al., 2016;van Kessel et al., 2019). To achieve highquality ECEC for children with special educational needs (SEN), personnel must possess competencies for identifying and addressing children's individual needs in an inclusive setting (Hannås & Hanssen, 2016;Lundqvist et al., 2015;Marinósson & Bjarnason, 2014). ...
Mission impossible? Finnish itinerant early childhood special education teachers' views of their work and working conditions
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2022
Providing support to children in their younger years is prominent in Finnish early childhood education and care (ECEC), as most children need some form of support for learning and development during this stage. Itinerant early childhood special education teachers (ECSETs) are important resources in providing support to children with special educational needs (SEN). Previous research in Finland addresses areas where itinerant ECSETs predominantly work in contexts where Finnish is the medium of instruction. Therefore, it is of interest to examine itinerant ECSETs' views of elements affecting their work with supporting children with SEN in Swedish-medium ECEC settings. This research is explorative to its character and data was collected through a questionnaire sent to all itinerant ECSETs working in Swedish-speaking regions of Finland. Descriptive statistics were used to depict the work conditions for ECSETs'. The results show that ECSETs own professional ambition and children's support needs affect the work the most. Furthermore, inequality in ECSETs working conditions have direct consequences for practice. This study concludes with a discussion of how ECSETs' working conditions influence the support that children receive and areas that should be addressed to ensure equal and efficient learning for all children.
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... While this mandate was temporarily removed as the spread of the virus reduced during the summer of 2020, hybrid alternatives remained in many high schools (Folkhälsomyndigheten, 2021). Specifically for the present study, regular on-site mandates were implemented for group cycle 1 (2019), new mandates were implemented during group cycle 2 (2020), and hybrid alternatives were available for group cycle 3 (2020). Overall, the pandemic entailed similar changes to both group conditions including remote delivery. ...
School-based social skills group training (SKOLKONTAKT™): a pilot randomized controlled trial
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
Purpose Differences in socio-communicative behaviors contribute to social challenges for autistic learners at school and, in turn, are associated with increased risks of educational underachievement, social exclusion, and mental health issues. Given that intervention delivery in natural contexts may enhance skills generalization, build support capacities in society, and have practical advantages for youth and families, SKOLKONTAKT™ has been adapted from the clinically based social skills group training KONTAKT™ for mainstream educational settings to mitigate these risks. Methods A pilot, randomized controlled trial with active controls was conducted in a mainstream Swedish high school. Autistic learners and students with social skills challenges ( N = 33; M AGE = 17.5) were randomized to SKOLKONTAKT™ ( n = 17) or active control ( n = 16). Efficacy was measured at post and follow-up (3 months) on social skills [Social Skills Group Assessment Questionnaire (SSGQ); primary outcome] by parent-, self-, and (masked) teacher-report as well as self-reported life quality and social goal attainment. Results Despite COVID-19 challenges, 70.6% ( n = 12) completed SKOLKONTAKT™, and 87.5% ( n = 14) completed control groups. SKOLKONTAKT™ improved on a series of items on SSGQ as well as subjective life quality beyond controls. A larger proportion of social goals were attained, and side-effects were of little impact and proportionally fewer in SKOLKONTAKT™. Conclusion SKOLKONTAKT™ is a safe, feasible, and promising intervention option for autistic learners in mainstream educational settings. A larger-scale study is desirable to confirm the effects identified in this pilot study.
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... Instead, inclusion means to establish a rich, accessible learning environment that is adapted to all pupils' prerequisites (8). Scandinavian countries have in recent years taken political decisions towards implementing inclusion of youth with NDDs in education (9), seeking to operationalize the United Nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities and the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, a document signed by 92 nations, aiming to lead the progress towards inclusive education. 1,2 The concept of inclusion is viewed somewhat differently depending on history, social factors and culture (10). ...
Inclusive practice for students with neurodevelopmental disorders in Sweden
Article
Full-text available
'Inclusion' aims to achieve adaptation of the environment to the diverse prerequisites and needs of individuals, instead of demanding of individuals to cope with the challenges of a given context themselves exclusively. All Scandinavian countries have made formal decisions to enhance inclusive practice for children and adolescents with disabilities in educational settings, seeking to implement international conventions. We investigated current inclusive practice for students with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) in Swedish primary, secondary and high-schools using the 61-item INCLUSIO scale among N=4778 school staff with educational responsibilities in 68 public and private schools across 11 municipalities. Overall, school staff reported not to be well prepared to teach students with NDDs and that their school's implementation of concrete inclusive practice was limited. Findings indicate a gap between inclusive educational ambitions and current practice for students with NDDs. Enriched teacher education and supervision for NDDs, a shift in pedagogical views of NDDs and better collaboration between community services, as well as systematic evidence-based implementation plans driven by policy makers and educational authorities may help improve inclusive practice.
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... When a teacher has pedagogical competence, it will have a huge effect in the interaction of learning. Students become more caring, served, valued, listened to, strengthened by giving positive words, guided, experienced learning can develop their potential [24], [25]. Violence will not arise if the application of pedagogical competencies is carried out into learning interactions [26]. ...
Professionalism of Primary School Teachers in Selection of Learning Models and Media to Achieve Instructional Goals
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Nov 2020
This research aims to reveal the professionalism of primary school teachers in selection of models and media in the process of learning to teach at classroom. Teachers profession will never be replaced by anyone, especially at the elementary school level because it has a noble duty, which is to prepare the next generation to build nation. Therefore, researchers are interested in conducting research on the professionalism that teachers have in terms of the selection of models and media used. Model and media variables are chosen because they are one indicator of learning success. The type of research used is mixed research by presenting charts accompanied by reasons from respondents. The respondents in this study is teachers at the elementary school level of 23 respondents. The result of this study is an overview of the models and media that teachers use in the learning process of teaching. Hopefully through this research can be a professional teaching reference material, especially for elementary school teachers in learning management that appeals to students.
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Nordic challenges related to exclusion and local responses in Swedish, Finnish, and Norwegian urban compulsory education
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Although the Nordic educational models have traditions of inclusion , researchers have found strong evidence that they can reproduce inequalities for minoritized groups attending primary and lower secondary schools. Following Luhmann's system theory, this structurally orientated study identifies problems in the educational system that are caused by communication at the institutional level and in the translation of inclusive goals in urban educational institutions. We synthetise literature focusing on Norway, Sweden, and Finland to investigate the differences between the Nordic educational systems' explicit welfare goals and the gap between equity as an ideology and a system output from the functionally differentiated urban compulsory education. This review focuses on 113 peer-reviewed academic articles published during the last decade (after January 2012 until December 2021) that examine educational inequality and margin-alisation in Nordic urban schools. Our analysis is based on system theories highlighting three crucial discussions of inequality in the three Nordic systems: residential segregation and school areas, the impact of performance evaluations, and discriminatory support measures. Moreover, the results indicate differences in communication in the different countries.
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Psychological and pedagogical Support in the Finnish Education System
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2022
The article reviews the ways of organizing psychological and pedagogical support for schoolchildren in Finland. The Finnish education system ranks highly in educational rankings (PEARLS, PISA) and is aimed at solving two problems: qualitative education, physical and mental health of students. The article analyzes programs aimed at ensuring the psychological health and well-being of Finnish schoolchildren: a three-stage support program for children with special educational needs, health lessons, including blocks on mental health, the Kiva anti-bullying program, the career guidance and counseling system, the work of nurses. It is concluded that psychological and pedagogical support in Finnish schools is carried out by a large number of specialists: teachers, professional consultants, nurses, health education teachers, psychologists, special teachers, tutors, consolidated in special working groups to solve specific problems.
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Autism and education—The role of Europeanisation in South‐Eastern Europe: Policy mapping in Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia
Article
  • Sep 2022
South‐Eastern Europe only recently was required to adapt their domestic law to adhere to European Union legislations and standards. As such, it forms an excellent case study on how and to what extent the ‘Europeanisation’ process is interacting with the development of special education needs (SEN) policy, particularly focusing on autistic children. This scoping review mapped autism and special education policies of Bulgaria, Romania, and Croatia and investigated how Europeanisation interacted with autism and educational policy through a path dependence analysis. Our research shows that education for children with special needs started with segregation during communist time. EU accession since then has influenced disability policies and contributed to establishing inclusive education for all students. One particular Romanian policy resulted in children with special needs not having to compete with typical children for school submission. Ultimately, the majority of policies addressed special education needs in general. Only Romania adopted specific autism policy. Inclusive education is being developed in all countries.
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Autism and the right to education in the EU: Policy mapping and scoping review of the United Kingdom, France, Poland and Spain
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Autistic people may have different educational needs that need to be met to allow them to develop their full potential. Education and disability policies remain within the competence of EU Member States, with current educational standards and provisions for autistic people implemented locally. This scoping review aims to map EU and national special education policies with the goal of scoping the level of fulfilment of the right to education of autistic people. Methods Four EU countries (United Kingdom, France, Poland and Spain) were included in this scoping review study. Governmental policies in the field of education, special education needs and disability law were included. Path dependency framework was used for data analysis; a net of inter-dependencies between international, EU and national policies was created. Results and discussion Each country created policies where the right to free education without discrimination is provided. Poland does not have an autism specific strategy, whereas the United Kingdom, France and Spain have policies specifically designed for autistic individuals. Within the United Kingdom, all countries created different autism plans, nevertheless all aim to reach the same goal—inclusive education for autistic children that leads to the development of their full potential. Conclusion Policy-making across Europe in the field of education has been changing through the years in favour of autistic people. Today their rights are noticed and considered, but there is still room for improvement. Results showed that approaches and policies vastly differ between countries, more Member States should be analysed in a similar manner to gain a broader and clearer view with a special focus on disability rights in Central and Eastern Europe.
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What Is the Male-to-Female Ratio in Autism Spectrum Disorder? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Article
Objective: To derive the first systematically calculated estimate of the relative proportion of boys and girls with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) through a meta-analysis of prevalence studies conducted since the introduction of the DSM-IV and the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision. Method: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. The Medline, Embase, and PsycINFO databases were searched, and study quality was rated using a risk-of-bias tool. Random-effects meta-analysis was used. The pooled outcome measurement was the male-to-female odds ratio (MFOR), namely the odds of being male in the group with ASD compared with the non-ASD group. In effect, this is the ASD male-to-female ratio, controlling for the male-to-female ratio among participants without ASD. Results: Fifty-four studies were analyzed, with 13,784,284 participants, of whom 53,712 had ASD (43,972 boys and 9,740 girls). The overall pooled MFOR was 4.20 (95% CI 3.84-4.60), but there was very substantial between-study variability (I2 = 90.9%). High-quality studies had a lower MFOR (3.32; 95% CI 2.88-3.84). Studies that screened the general population to identify participants regardless of whether they already had an ASD diagnosis showed a lower MFOR (3.25; 95% CI 2.93-3.62) than studies that only ascertained participants with a pre-existing ASD diagnosis (MFOR 4.56; 95% CI 4.10-5.07). Conclusion: Of children meeting criteria for ASD, the true male-to-female ratio is not 4:1, as is often assumed; rather, it is closer to 3:1. There appears to be a diagnostic gender bias, meaning that girls who meet criteria for ASD are at disproportionate risk of not receiving a clinical diagnosis.
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Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America
Book
  • Nov 2015
Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier are political scientists who use comparative historical research to discover and evaluate patterns and sources of political change. Their work is an overall analysis of Chile, Brazil, Uruguay, Colombia, Argentina, Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico, plus case studies of four distinct pairs in that group: Chile/Brazil, Uruguay/Colombia, Argentina/Peru, and Venezuela/Mexico. In addition, the Colliers meticulously describe and discuss their methods for the study including the limitations of their approach. The authors specifically focus on why and how organized labor movements in the first half of the twentieth century were incorporated into the political process in the eight Latin American countries they study. They analyze the role played by political parties, central government control, worker mobilization, and conflict between radical vs. centrist political philosophies and activities.
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