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“Abrazame Que Ayuda” (Hug Me, It Helps): Social Support and the Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Depression among US- and Foreign-Born Latinxs in the USA
Abstract
Background
Higher level of social support is known to mitigate the effect of ethnic discrimination on depression symptoms, yet little is known as to which type of social support may be most effective for ameliorating the negative health effects of perceived ethnic discrimination among Latinxs varying in nativity status. The purpose of this study is to examine the association between perceived ethnic discrimination and depression among US- and foreign-born Latinxs, and to identify specific types of social support that may buffer the aforementioned association in this population.
Methods
Data from 1340 Latinx respondents (70% US-born; 30% foreign-born) collected from the Texas City Stress and Health Study (TCSHS) was used in this study. The primary outcome was depression, and it was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Revised (CESD-R).
Results
Findings showed that higher perceived ethnic discrimination were associated with higher depressive symptoms for both foreign-born and US-born Latinxs, with higher levels of social support, specifically positive interaction support, being associated with lower depressive symptoms for both groups. Importantly, results also showed that regardless of nativity status, higher levels of affectionate support mitigated the adverse association between ethnic discrimination and depressive symptoms.
Conclusion
This study provides evidence that higher levels of positive interactions and affective support may be significant factors in helping Latinxs cope with ethnic discrimination. This information is essential to inform the development of interventions aimed at building resilience in the face of discrimination among the largest and fastest growing ethnic group in the USA
... Since the passage of this act, there has been a decline in the usage of benefits such as SNAP and Medicaid [22]. To help process systemic and intrapersonal discrimination, immigrants often turn to social support stemming from relationships between individuals and their neighbors, coworkers, or friends who might share similar experiences, as well as churches or local Latinx organizations that can offer safe spaces but also share knowledge on how to better navigate these stressful situations [23,24]. Such support has been found to mitigate the effects of perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. ...
... Such support has been found to mitigate the effects of perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. Individuals who reported lower levels of social support described dealing with more stressors indicating poorer mental health [23,24]. However, upon arrival, immigrants may lack such connections and knowledge of enclaves that could facilitate this sort of protective factor and remain vulnerable to the effects of perceived discrimination. ...
... Conversely, we found a negative and significant correlation between perceived discrimination and social support, indicating that for those who report feeling more support within their community also report experiencing less discrimination. Our findings support previous studies in which social support helped mitigate the adverse effects of perceived discrimination originating from legislation, other individuals, or law enforcement and served as a protective factor against depression for Latinx immigrants [21,23,24]. Results of our t-tests indicate that there are no significant differences in levels of perceived discrimination, social support, and mental health among both subgroups in our sample. ...
There is a growing number of immigrants arriving in the USA, with the majority being of Latinx descent. Coupled with this increase, there has also been growing anti-immigration legislation which impacts the experiences this group faces and creates additional concerns for those who are residing in this country without documentation. Experiences of overt and covert discrimination and marginalization have been shown to relate to poorer mental and physical health outcomes. Drawing from Menjivar and Abrego's Legal Violence Framework, this paper explores the impact of perceived discrimination and social support on the mental and physical health of Latinx adults. We further observe whether these relationships differ based on participants' concerns about their documentation status. This data comes from a community-based participatory study conducted in a Midwestern County. Our analytic sample was comprised of 487 Latinx adults. We found social support to be related to fewer self-reported days of mental health symptoms for all participants regardless of documentation status concern. Perceived discrimination was found to be related to worse physical health for participants with concerns about their status. These findings point to the pernicious role of discrimination for Latinx's physical health and the importance of social support as an asset beneficial for their mental health.
... The overall Hispanic Paradox posits that, when compared to their US-born counterparts and those who remain in their country-of-origin, foreign-born immigrants exhibit greater health outcomes including self-rated health, mortality, reproductive health, BMI, and mental health (Adames, Chavez-Dueñas, Fuentes, Salas, & Perez-Chavez, 2014;Garcini et al., 2020). Several explanations for this health-protective effect abound. ...
... Some researchers have concluded that exposure to U.S. society may be deleterious for some immigrant health outcomes due to the stresses of everyday life and acquisition of unhealthy habits that increase with duration of stay in the host country and acculturative processes (Jones et al., 2018;Reyes et al., 2020;Escovar et al., 2018). Despite the abundance of literature exploring the breadth of the Hispanic Paradox, a majority of the work supporting the paradox has revolved around physical health and not mental health outcomes (Garcini et al., 2020). ...
... Although the Salmon Bias Hypothesis (Garcini et al., 2020;Okeke-Ihejirika, Creese, Frishkopf, & Wane, 2020;John, de Castro, Martin, Duran, & Takeuchi, 2012) and the Selection Theories (Adames et al., 2014;John et al., 2012) have been used to understand the Hispanic Paradox, Biosocial Theory (Löwe et al., 2008;Harris & McDade, 2018) may provide a unique perspective in providing a different perspective towards the Hispanic Paradox when considering the context of history of health conditions and self-rated health. The Biosocial Theory incorporates the dynamic, bidirectional interactions between biological (e.g. ...
This study investigates how mediating (e.g. history of health conditions) and moderating (e.g. self-rated health) factors are associated with nativity status on depression and anxiety in Mexican immigrants. Using data from the 2019 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), results found a significant direct association between nativity status and anxiety and depression. Additionally, the association between nativity status and mental health was mediated by the history of health conditions, and self-rated health was a significant moderator in both mediation models. Study findings are discussed within the context of barriers to care, current literature, and strengths-based interventions. Future research can expand upon these findings by examining the specific types of physical and mental health conditions that may support the Hispanic Paradox, as well as how self-efficacy and internal locus of control are associated with the paradox within this population.
... Understanding how PR men experience and cope with discrimination at both structural and individual levels of society, and the subsequent impact that discrimination has on their wellbeing, will provide insight into sources of strength and resilience (e.g., support networks, cultural values; Luthar et al., 2000;Marks et al., 2020;Salazar et al., 2016). Social support and Latinx cultural values (i.e., familismo) are considered potential protective factors that can buffer against the negative impact of discrimination (e.g., Cariello et al., 2022;Garcini et al., 2020;Walker et al., 2022). However, the majority of known studies do not focus on community relationships and other cultural values such as simpatía, operationalized as the "tendency to prefer and create social interactions characterized by warmth and emotional positivity while also avoiding conflict and/or overt negativity, as a cultural factor relevant to Latinos" (Acevedo et al., 2020, p. 419). ...
... For example, several men spoke about the protective effect of embracing the cultural significance of social connection through family interactions and positive interpersonal interactions, which influenced their own agency in helping others, and the benefits of increased community support on their health. Literature has identified discrimination and social exclusion as a risk factor that impacts the well-being and health of Latinxs (e.g., LeBrón & Viruell-Fuentes, 2020;Martínez et al., 2022;Torres et al., 2022) and identified social support as protective against discrimination experiences (e.g., Bostean et al., 2019;Garcini et al., 2020;Lee et al., 2020;Organista & Ngo, 2019). Our findings This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Objectives: Structural and interpersonal discrimination can lead to social exclusion and limited social integration, inhibiting the use of support networks to gain access to health-protective material and social resources. Social support theories suggest that connectedness may moderate the link between discrimination and health risk. This study examined how risk factors (i.e., structural and interpersonal discrimination) further marginalize Puerto Rican men by limiting access to social support. We also aimed to identify resiliency factors, such as cultural values related to social interactions and community support, which may be protective for these men’s well-being. Method: We conducted 40 semistructured interviews with a stratified purposeful sample of Puerto Rican (92.5%) men aged 25–70 (Mage = 50.7) in the U.S. Northeast. A hybrid deductive and inductive thematic qualitative analysis was used to analyze data. Results: Participants discussed how structural and interpersonal discrimination result in inequities and barriers to resources and services (e.g., lack of adequate shelter, insecurity, employment) which impacted their well-being through the inability to access fundamental support for survival. The men identified cultural values (e.g., familismo, simpatía) and emphasized the importance of community support as protective factors that may provide a respite from the difficulties of navigating discrimination experiences. Conclusion: Findings suggest discrimination limits Puerto Rican men’s ability to access resources, which has a detrimental impact on their well-being. Identifying social support beyond the family, and considering cultural values related to support, can enhance community interventions by focusing on incorporating multiple forms of support that may improve Puerto Rican men’s health.
... Jakubiak and Feeney (2019) found that receiving more physical touch from a spouse while discussing a stressor was related to lower stress levels, higher self-esteem, and greater perceptions of being able to overcome the stressor. Greater affectionate support, which included hugging, helped reduce the adverse impact of the stress of ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms (Garcini et al., 2020). Moreover, a combination of high physical touch and high emotional/instrumental support can be protective against high blood pressure (Lee and Cichy, 2020). ...
... This relationship held even after adjusting for covariates, lagged dependent variables, and selection effects. This is in line with a growing literature on the positive impact of physical touch for health and well-being (e.g., Cohen et al., 2015;Field, 2014;Garcini et al., 2020;Lee and Cichy, 2020). Research on physical touch has also shown that it is related to lower stress and greater feelings of being able to overcome stress (Jakubiak and Feeney, 2019), which is relevant in the context of the stressful time of living in a global health crisis. ...
Objectives:
Growing research on the impact of physical touch on health has revealed links to lower blood pressure, higher oxytocin levels, and better sleep, but links to inflammation have not been fully explored. Physical touch may also buffer stress, underscoring its importance during the stressful time of living in the COVID-19 global pandemic - a time that has substantially limited social interactions and during which physical touch has been specifically advised against.
Methods:
We analyze nationally representative longitudinal data on older adults (N=1124) from the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project using cross-lagged path models.
Results:
More frequent physical touch is significantly related to a lower likelihood of subsequent elevated inflammation.
Discussion:
These findings highlight the importance of finding safe ways to incorporate physical touch, even in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Social support, encompassing the presence of individuals available to offer aid during challenging situations [27], functions as a safeguard against the onset of loneliness symptoms [28,29]. Complementary to this, hope, denoting optimistic prospects for the future [30], likewise acts as a shield against loneliness symptoms [31]. ...
This study examines factors associated with symptoms of loneliness among a sample (n = 213) of mostly Mexican-origin adults at risk of chronic diseases in Southern Arizona’s Pima, Yuma, and Santa Cruz counties. It uses baseline data from a community-based participatory research partnership and multinominal logistic regression models. Controlling for chronic diseases and sociodemographic characteristics, perceived social support and hope exhibit negative main effects on loneliness when comparing individuals who experienced loneliness for 5–7 days in the preceding week with those who did not encounter such feelings during the same period (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 0.49 and 0.47; 95% confidence interval, CI = 0.34–0.73 and 0.29–0.75, respectively). However, when considered together, perceived social support and hope display a positive and statistically significant combined effect on loneliness (AOR = 1.03; 95% CI = 1.01–1.06). Holding all covariates constant, individuals reporting loneliness for 5–7 days exhibit a relative risk ratio of 1.24 (95% CI = 1.06–1.46) for a one-unit increase in physical problem severity compared to those who do not experience loneliness. Moreover, being 65 years old or older (AOR = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.03–0.84), and having been born in Mexico and lived in the US for less than 30 years (AOR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.02–0.74) are associated with negative main effects on loneliness when comparing individuals who experienced loneliness 1–2, and 5–7 days in the preceding week with those who did not feel loneliness during the same timeframe, respectively. Recognizing the crucial role of loneliness in shaping health outcomes for Mexican-origin adults, our findings underscore the significance of fostering supportive environments that not only enhance well-being but also cultivate robust community bonds within the US-Mexico border region.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-024-19199-x.
... Studies among other populations have likewise found social support availability, particularly emotional social support, is associated with positive psychological well-being (Ajrouch et al., 2010;Garcini et al., 2020;Qin et al., 2020). The effectiveness of social support in mitigating the harmful effects of discrimination on mental health in pregnancy and postpartum may vary depending on the type of support received, the timing and source of that support, and the receiver's perceptions of the support. ...
... First, the Hispanic paradox is an epidemiological phenomenon resulting from observations of better health outcomes despite poor social determinants. 23,24 This paradoxical phenomenon has been attributed to various factors, including selective migration of healthier individuals, protective cultural factors, and family dynamics resulting in strong social support. 25 For many health outcomes, this paradox has been reported with a direct association between nativity status and mental health issues among Hispanics. ...
This study aimed to examine changes in health behaviors and outcomes during early-pandemic (2020) vs pre-pandemic (2019) years by age groups and race/ethnicity. Multivariable logistic regressions were conducted using Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System datasets from 2019 (n = 418 268) and 2020 (n = 401 958). All participants reported less likelihood to exercise (aOR, .78; 95% CI: .73-.83) and have poor physical health (aOR, .91; 95% CI: .86-.98) but more likelihood to have excellent general health (aOR, 1.33; 1.17-1.53) during 2020 vs 2019. Compared to 2019, during 2020 (i) Blacks were more likely to exercise (aOR, 1.24; 95% CI: 1.02-1.51) and have excellent general health (aOR, 1.69; 95% CI: 1.13-2.54); (ii) Hispanics were less likely to exercise (aOR, .80; 95% CI: .74-.88), but more likely to have excellent general health (aOR, 2.44; 95% CI: 1.79-3.33) and mental health (aOR, 1.41; 95% CI: 1.15-1.72); and (iii) Whites were less likely to exercise (aOR, .58; 95% CI: .50-.67) and have good physical health (aOR, 0.89; 95% CI: .82-.95). All age groups, except 18-24 years, were less likely to exercise by 18%-39% during 2020 vs 2019. Furthermore, the 55-64 years age-group was 36% more likely to report excellent general health but 14% less likely to have good physical health. Identifying the most vulnerable racial/ethnic and age groups is pivotal to prioritizing public health resources and interventions to mitigate the impact of health crises.
... Beyond increased information and awareness, cohesive neighborhoods also may provide Latina young adult immigrants with supportive social networks that improve their access to health care (Flores et al., 2022) through various mechanisms. For example, supportive social networks may normalize preventive care (e.g., cancer screenings; Pichardo et al., 2022) and encourage the avoidance of health risk behaviors (De La Rosa et al., 2010) by providing social support and encouragement from friends and loved ones to be healthy (Garcini et al., 2020). Of note, over half of the Miami-Dade population is foreign-born (54%; US Census Bureau, 2023), and 69% of Miami-Dade County identifies as Hispanic or Latino. ...
The present longitudinal study examined changes in perceived access to health care among a recently immigrated cohort of Latina young adults who were assessed annually during their first 3 years in the United States. A parallel process growth model of perceived access to health care and neighborhood collective efficacy was examined, accounting for socioeconomic indicators and immigration status. Five hundred thirty Latina young adults (ages 18–23) participated at baseline assessment, and approximately 95% were retained over three annual assessment time points. Participants’ mean level of perceived access to health care increased during their initial 3 years in the United States. Women who reported more of an increase in perceived access to health care tended to also indicate increased neighborhood collective efficacy relative to their peers during their first 3 years in the United States. Findings offer important information about the individual- and community-level factors that influence recently immigrated Latinas’ health care access.
... Moreover, depression has been found to contribute to experiences of perceived discrimination and to attenuate the likelihood of successful SUD treatment outcomes (Dodge, Sindelar, and Sinha 2005). Conversely, perceived discrimination may contribute to diminished psychological wellbeing (Garcini et al. 2020;Schmitt et al. 2014). In a study of persons with injection drug use, higher perceived substance use-related stigma was associated with lower access to healthcare (Lan et al. 2018). ...
This study sought to examine demographic, treatment-related, and diagnosis-related correlates of substance use disorder (SUD)-related perceived discrimination among patients receiving methadone maintenance treatment (MMT). Participants were 164 patients at nonprofit, low-barrier-to-treatment-access MMT programs. Participants completed measures of demographics, diagnosis-related characteristics (Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI-18) and Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ)), and treatment-related characteristics. Perceived discrimination was measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ("Not at all") to 7 ("Extremely") in response to the item: "I often feel discriminated against because of my substance abuse." Given the variable's distribution, a median split was used to categorize participants into "high" and "low" discrimination groups. Correlates of high and low discrimination were analyzed with bivariate and logistic regression models. Ninety-four participants (57%) reported high SUD-related perceived discrimination. Bivariate analyses identified six statistically significant correlates of SUD-related perceived discrimination (P < .05): age, race, age of onset of opioid use disorder, BSI-18 Depression, DEQ Dependency, and DEQ Self-Criticism. In the final logistic regression model, those with high (versus low) SUD-related perceived discrimination were more likely to report depressive symptoms and be self-critical. Patients in MMT with high compared to low SUD-related perceived discrimination may be more likely to report being depressed and self-critical.
... As posited by the "shift-and-persist" perspective [71], perhaps individuals who used only passive coping have accepted the pervasive nature of unfair treatment as a part of life and may have developed ways to persist through these experiences. Latinxs who only used active coping strategies could have accrued and benefited from health-promoting psychosocial reserves such as increased sense of autonomy [72], control [73], and emotional support [74]. Evidence suggests active coping behaviors (e.g., problem-solving) have buffering effects [75], whereas active coping dispositions such as high-effort control exacerbate the harmful effects of discrimination. ...
Background
Discrimination has been posited as a contributor of sleep disparities for Latinxs. The strategy used to cope with discrimination may reduce or exacerbate its effects on sleep. This study examined whether different types of discrimination (everyday and major lifetime discrimination) were associated with sleep indices (quality, disturbances, efficiency) and whether coping strategy used moderated associations.
Method
Data of Latinx adults (N = 602; 51% women, 65% Dominican, Mage = 46.72 years) come from the Latino Health and Well-being Project, a community-based, cross-sectional study of Latinxs in Lawrence, MA. Multiple linear regressions were estimated separately for each sleep outcome.
Results
Everyday discrimination was significantly associated with poorer sleep quality and greater disturbances; major lifetime discrimination was significantly associated with worse sleep across the three sleep indices. Coping strategy moderated associations between discrimination and sleep. Compared with Latinxs who used passive coping, those who used passive–active coping strategies had poorer sleep quality the more they experienced everyday discrimination. Latinxs who used any active coping strategy, compared with passive coping, had greater sleep disturbances the more frequently they experienced major lifetime discrimination.
Conclusions
Findings show that everyday discrimination and major lifetime discrimination are associated with different dimensions of sleep and suggest that coping with discrimination may require the use of different strategies depending on the type of discrimination experienced.
... Restrictive immigration policies and an anti-immigrant sociopolitical climate "expose families to heightened levels of discrimination, hate crimes, and threat of deportation jeopardizing ties within (parent and children) and among families" (Ay on et al., 2018., p301). Discrimination is associated with increased psychological distress and depression among Latina immigrants (Ay on et al., , 2020Garcini et al., 2020), as is the threat of deportation (García, 2018;Salas, Ay on, & Gurrola, 2013). Moreover, an ecological transactional model has been proposed to understand how anti-immigrant rhetoric and restrictive immigration policies and enforcement practices can function as a form of psychological violence for some children in Latinx immigrant households. ...
Grounded in an ecological transactional model, this mixed-method study describes the impact of the 2016 presidential election and ensuing anti-immigrant climate on Latina immigrant mothers (n = 30) with authorized and unauthorized legal status and their children in New York City. Mothers’ narratives, collected between March and June 2019, indicate that the anti-immigrant climate precipitated family discussions about immigration, racism, ethnicity and legal status at home. Media coverage of anti-immigrant policies and immigration enforcement activities, threats of immigration raids via the news and social media, and bullying at school caused child distress and prevented mothers from delaying discussions about immigration with their children. Mothers were distressed not only due to worries about their own legal vulnerability, but also by the inability to assuage children’s distress. Mothers indicated that their children felt unsafe due to the immigration climate and had difficulties focusing in school. Mothers also indicated that, regardless of child age, their children experienced a range of separation anxiety symptoms including worry about being separated from loved ones and fear of being away from home. A significant proportion of mothers reported elevated symptoms of depression on the PHQ-2 (31%) and psychological distress on the Kessler-6 (26%). Quantitative analysis indicates that immigration-related discrimination contributes significantly to maternal depressive symptoms and psychological distress. Mothers’ narratives triangulate these quantitative findings; mothers conveyed feelings of disillusionment, sadness, anxiety, anger, distress and frustration due to experiences of discrimination at their children’s schools and due to an inability to access mental health supports for their children. Mixed methods inform our understanding of how a charged anti-immigrant political climate affects parent-child-school interactions and the mental health of Latina immigrant mothers and their children. Implications are discussed.
... About nine out of ten African American older adults are born in the USA compared to four out of ten Latino older adults [8,9]. Yet, foreign-born Latino older adults may have worse physical and mental health compared to U.S.-born Latino older adults, which may allude to a myriad of migration experiences [10][11][12]. It is well documented that African American and Latino older adults in the USA suffer from excessive co-morbidities, undiagnosed and uncontrolled medical chronic conditions, and insufficient access to medical care, all of which impact their healthcare utilization, particularly ED utilization and hospital admissions [13][14][15][16]. ...
Objectives
This study uses a theoretical model to explore (a) emergency department (ED) utilization, (b) hospital admissions, and (c) office-based physician visits among sample of under-resourced African American and Latino older adults.
Methods
Nine hundred five African American and Latino older adults from an under-resourced urban community of South Los Angeles participated in this study. Data was collected using face-to-face interviews. Poisson and logistic regression analysis were used to estimate the parameters specified in the Andersen behavioral model. Predictors included predisposing factors, defined as demographic and other personal characteristics that influence the likelihood of obtaining care, and enabling factors defined as personal, family, and community resources that support or encourage efforts to access health services.
Results
African American older adults have a greater frequency of hospital admissions, ED, and physician visits than their Latino counterparts. About 25%, 45%, and 59% of the variance of the hospital admissions, ED utilization, and physician visits could be explained by predisposing and enabling characteristics. Lower health-related quality of life was associated with a higher number of hospital admissions, ED, and physician visits. Financial strain and difficulty accessing medical care were associated with a higher number of hospital admissions. Being covered by Medicare and particularly Medi-Cal were positively associated with higher hospital admissions, ED, and physician visits.
Discussion
Compared to African American older adults, Latino older adults show higher utilization of (a) emergency department (ED) utilization, (b) hospital admissions, and (c) office-based physician visits. A wide range of predisposing and enabling factors such as insurance and financial difficulties correlate with some but not other types of health care use. Multi-disciplinary, culturally sensitive, clinic- and community-based interventions are needed to address enabling and predisposing factors that influence ED utilization and hospital admission among African American and Latino older adults in under-resourced communities.
... Perceived family resilience showed protective effects moderating the association between perceived discrimination and self-reported internalizing symptoms overall, as well as depressive symptoms and somatic symptoms, but only a promotive effect against anxiety symptoms. Extant data suggest that resilient Latinx families show high rates of physical and verbal expressions of affection, which moderate the relationship between discrimination and some internalizing symptoms (Garcini et al., 2019). These expressions of affection may be particularly relevant as a buffer against internalizing disorders, given their capacity to increase positive affect (Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015)-a mood state most protective against depressive and somatic symptoms as opposed to anxiety symptoms (Davis & Suveg, 2014;Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017). ...
Objective: There is a well-documented relationship between discrimination and increases in internalizing symptoms among rural Latinx youth. Among numerous assets in these adolescents’ lives, family resilience emerges as a culturally relevant and robust protective factor. However, it is still unclear whether family resilience is equally protective across different internalizing symptom clusters and whether this buffering effect is independent of other interconnected resilience sources.
Method: Latinx adolescents from an underserved rural community (n = 444; Mage = 15.74, SDage = 1.22; 51% male) reported on their internalizing symptoms, experiences of discrimination, and sources of resilience. We examined whether perceived family resilience moderated the association between perceived discrimination and self-reported depressive, somatic, and anxiety symptoms over and above adolescents’ sex, self-reported level of acculturation, as well as perceived individual and contextual resilience.
Results: Analyses showed that perceived discrimination experiences were robustly associated with higher levels of self-reported internalizing symptoms, while perceived family resilience was related to lower self-reported symptomatology. Closer examination revealed that perceived family resilience buffered the negative effects of perceived discrimination on self-reported depression and somatic symptoms, but not anxiety symptoms.
Conclusions: This study addresses a gap in the literature by identifying differential protective effects of family resilience that might be explained by cultural values and practices in rural Latinx families. Findings suggest that interventions that incorporate family members and promote supportive family environments may benefit rural Latinx youth with a broad range of internalizing symptoms.
Perceived discrimination has been found to be a common acculturative stressor among migrants negatively affecting their psychological acculturation process. Yet, a comprehensive review that focuses on how perceived discrimination is conceptualized and operationalized in the acculturation context is still missing. Furthermore, it is still unclear whether subtle and blatant forms of discrimination have been considered and compared in their effects in the acculturation literature, albeit some research suggests that the distinction between these two forms of discrimination is relevant and should be considered. Following the guidelines of the Joanna Briggs Institute, the present scoping review aimed to provide a systematic map of how perceived discrimination has been studied in the literature on first-generation adult immigrants’ psychological acculturation. A comprehensive search was executed in three databases (EBSCO, Scopus, and Web of Science), and 2,872 relevant sources were identified. A total of 143 studies were included after screening abstracts and full texts. A systematic coding scheme was then applied to all included articles. Results showed that 80% of the studies were cross-sectional and/or considered discrimination as a predictor of psychological outcomes, while other variables, for example, acculturation orientations and identity constructs, have been much less studied. Perceived discrimination was measured with over 50 different scales, yet only 10% of the studies made a clear conceptual difference between subtle and blatant discrimination. Moreover, the operationalization of these two forms of discrimination was often ambiguous. The present review identifies important knowledge gaps in the acculturation literature and draws recommendations for future research.
Communities provide resources, support, and identity to their members. Residents of well-supported communities with reliable access to health-promoting resources tend to have better health, less disability, and greater longevity. Hispanic populations tend to live longer than other race/ethnic groups despite documented social and economic disadvantages. Effort to disentangle characteristics of resilience in Hispanic communities, such as cultural factors, diet, or family orientation, has led to more questions than answers as these relationships are complex and multiple factorial.
Racial discrimination is a well-known risk factor of racial disparities in health. While progress has been made in identifying multiple levels through which racism and racial discrimination influences health, less is known about social factors that may buffer racism's associations with health. We conducted a systematic review of the literature with a specific focus on social connectedness, racism, and health; retrieving studies conducted in the United States published between January 1, 2012 and July 30, 2022, in peer-reviewed journals. Of the 787 articles screened, 32 were selected for full-text synthesis. Most studies (72%) were individual-level, cross-sectional, and among community/neighborhood, school, or university samples. Studies had good methodological rigor and low risk of bias. Measures of racism and racial discrimination varied. Discrimination scales included unfair treatment due to race, schedule of racist events, experiences of lifetime discrimination, and everyday discrimination. Measures of social connectedness (or disconnectedness) varied. Social connectedness constructs included social isolation, loneliness, and social support. Mental health was the most frequently examined outcome (75%). Effect modification was used in 56% of studies and mediation in 34% of studies. In 81% of studies, at least one aspect of social connectedness significantly buffered or mediated the associations between racism and health. Negative health associations were often weaker among people with higher social connectedness. Social connectedness is an important buffering mechanism to mitigate the associations between racial discrimination and health. In future studies, harmonizing metrics of social connectedness and racial discrimination can strengthen causal claims to inform interventions.
Using baseline data from three partnering federally qualified health centers, we examined factors associated with depressive symptoms among Mexican-origin adults at risk of chronic disease living in three counties in Southern Arizona (i.e., Pima, Yuma, and Santa Cruz). Multivariable linear regression models identified correlates of depressive symptoms for this population controlling for sociodemographic characteristics. Among 206 participants, 85.9% were female and 49% were between 45 and 64 years of age. The proportion of depressive symptoms was 26.8%. Low levels of physical pain and high levels of hope and social support were also reported. Physical pain was positively and significantly related to depressive symptoms (β = 0.22; 95% CI = 0.13, 0.30). Conversely, hope was negatively and significantly associated with depressive symptoms (β = −0.53; 95% CI = −0.78, −0.29). A better understanding of factors related to depressive symptoms among Mexican-origin adults is necessary to fulfill their mental health needs, as well as to achieve health equity and to eliminate health disparities in the US–Mexico border region.
The current study aims to examine the associations between neighborhood safety, racial‐ethnic discrimination, and depressive symptoms, as well as explore social support as a protective factor using the Minority Stress Model for three different BIPOC groups (i.e. African American, Puerto Rican, and Dominican). African American and Latino youth living in urban environments often encounter multiple stressors at the same time, and it is critical to learn more about how these stressors influence well‐being in tandem. The results showed that among African American youth safety concerns were associated with depressive symptoms while discrimination was associated with Latino youth's depressive symptoms.
Experiences of discrimination and mental disorder have been recognized as risks for suicidality. Yet, few studies have examined the direct and indirect effects of discrimination on suicidal ideation through mental disorder among Latino adults in the U.S. This study aimed to examine whether everyday discrimination and racial/ethnic discrimination is associated with suicidal ideation and if mental disorder (i.e., DSM-IV depressive, anxiety, and substance use) mediates the association. Discrimination was operationalized with self-reported discriminatory experience. This study applied a mediation analysis to the data from National Latino and Asian American Survey, 2002–2003. The key findings are: (a) everyday discrimination had an independent association with suicidal ideation as well as exerted an indirect effect through anxiety disorder. (b) Racial/ethnic discrimination was not directly associated with suicidal ideation, but its adverse effect on suicidal ideation was mediated by the depressive disorder. (c) Three types of mental disorder together accounted for approximately 32 and 42% of the impact of everyday discrimination and racial/ethnic discrimination on suicidal ideation, respectively.
In 2 meta-analyses, we examined the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being and tested a number of moderators of that relationship. In Meta-Analysis 1 (328 independent effect sizes, N = 144,246), we examined correlational data measuring both perceived discrimination and psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem, depression, anxiety, psychological distress, life satisfaction). Using a random-effects model, the mean weighted effect size was significantly negative, indicating harm (r = -.23). Effect sizes were larger for disadvantaged groups (r = -.24) compared to advantaged groups (r = -.10), larger for children compared to adults, larger for perceptions of personal discrimination compared to group discrimination, and weaker for racism and sexism compared to other stigmas. The negative relationship was significant across different operationalizations of well-being but was somewhat weaker for positive outcomes (e.g., self-esteem, positive affect) than for negative outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety, negative affect). Importantly, the effect size was significantly negative even in longitudinal studies that controlled for prior levels of well-being (r = -.15). In Meta-Analysis 2 (54 independent effect sizes, N = 2,640), we examined experimental data from studies manipulating perceptions of discrimination and measuring well-being. We found that the effect of discrimination on well-being was significantly negative for studies that manipulated general perceptions of discrimination (d = -.25), but effects did not differ from 0 when attributions to discrimination for a specific negative event were compared to personal attributions (d = .06). Overall, results support the idea that the pervasiveness of perceived discrimination is fundamental to its harmful effects on psychological well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
The authors propose that perceived discrimination has an effect on self-reported health statuses, which are known to affect future morbidity and mortality. A sample of 3,012 Mexican-origin adults from the Mexican American Prevalence and Services Study in California is utilized to test this hypothesis. Dependent variables include a self-rating of health and a count of self-reported chronic conditions; the key independent variable is a scale of overall discrimination specific to one’s Mexican origin. Results indicate that discrimination is related to poor physical health—net of controls for acculturation stress, national heritage, sociodemographic variables, and social support. Depression is identified as a major mechanism through which discrimination may affect physical health. Notably, job market stress/discrimination has a very strong association with poorer physical health, net of depression. Individual-level effects of discrimination found in this study, as well as institutional-level conditions and contextual effects, should be treated as crucial to future studies of individual-level physical health differentials.
Latinos are the fastest-growing ethnic minority group in the United States and face great envi- ronmental challenges (e.g., unemployment, loss of social support networks, displacement, and disruption of the family) as well as prejudice and discrimination. These contextual factors are significant risk factors for Latino depression. A behavioral treatment for depression, behavioral activation (BA), may be particularly relevant in treating Latino depression because of its empha- sis on contextual factors. This case study presents a cultural modification of BA for Latinos with depression. The treatment of a 25-year-old Latina illustrates a successful application. It suggests that, with some modifications, BA may be a suitable treatment for this population.
Posted 3/2000. Develops the hypothesis that intervention strategies that cultivate positive emotions are particularly suited for preventing and treating problems rooted in negative emotions, such as anxiety, depression, aggression, and stress related health problems. B. L. Fredrickson's (1998) broaden-and-build model of positive emotions provides the foundation for this application. According to this model, the form and function of positive and negative emotions are distinct and complementary. Negative emotions narrow an individual's momentary thought–action repertoire toward specific actions that served the ancestral function of promoting survival. By contrast, positive emotions broaden an individual's momentary thought–action repertoire, which in turn can build that individual's enduring personal resources. One implication of the broaden-and-build model is that positive emotions have an undoing effect on negative emotions. A range of intervention and coping strategies are reviewed. These strategies optimize health and well-being to the extent that they cultivate positive emotions. Cultivated positive emotions not only counteract negative emotions, but also broaden individuals' habitual modes of thinking and build their personal resources for coping.
This study examines Black, Latino, Asian American, American Indian and Biracial participants' (
N = 260) emotional and psychological reactions to encounters with racism, and the help-seeking strategies they used to deal with those reactions. This class of participants is important to study because its members are likely to live and/or work in racially diverse environments. Participants who reported direct experiences with racism had higher levels of anxiety, guilt/shame, hypervigilance, and positive emotions than those who did not. Racial harassment (hostility) was associated with more hypervigilant and anxious reactions than racial discrimination (avoidance). Help-seeking patterns indicated that people of Color were more likely to seek help from friends and family than from mental health professionals. Practice and research implications are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Surgeon General's report, "Culture, Race, and Ethnicity: A Supplement to Mental Health," points to the need for subgroup specific mental health research that explores the cultural variation and heterogeneity of the Latino population. Guided by cognitive anthropological theories of culture, we utilized ethnographic interviewing techniques to explore cultural models of depression among foreign-born Mexican (n = 30), Cuban (n = 30), Columbian (n = 30), and island-born Puerto Ricans (n = 30), who represent the largest Latino groups in Florida. Results indicate that Colombian, Cuban, Mexican, and Puerto Rican immigrants showed strong intragroup consensus in their models of depression causality, symptoms, and treatment. We found more agreement than disagreement among all four groups regarding core descriptions of depression, which was largely unexpected but can potentially be explained by their common immigrant experiences. Findings expand our understanding about Latino subgroup similarities and differences in their conceptualization of depression and can be used to inform the adaptation of culturally relevant interventions in order to better serve Latino immigrant communities.
The literature on neighborhoods and health highlights the difficulty of operationalizing "neighborhood" in a conceptually and empirically valid manner. Most studies, however, continue to define neighborhoods using less theoretically relevant boundaries, risking erroneous inferences from poor measurement. We review an innovative methodology to address this problem, called the socio-spatial neighborhood estimation method (SNEM). To estimate neighborhood boundaries, researchers used a theoretically informed combination of qualitative GIS and on-the-ground observations in Texas City, Texas. Using data from a large sample, we assessed the SNEM-generated neighborhood units by comparing intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) and multi-level model parameter estimates of SNEM-based measures against those for census block groups and regular grid cells. ICCs and criterion-related validity evidence using SF-36 outcome measures indicate that the SNEM approach to operationalization could improve inferences based on neighborhoods and health research.
This research evaluates the properties of a measure of culturally linked values of Mexican Americans in early adolescence and adulthood. The items measure were derived from qualitative data provided by focus groups in which Mexican Americans' (adolescents, mothers and fathers) perceptions of key values were discussed. The focus groups and a preliminary item refinement resulted in the fifty-item Mexican American Cultural Values Scales (identical for adolescents and adults) that includes nine value subscales. Analyses of data from two large previously published studies sampling Mexican American adolescents, mothers, and fathers provided evidence of the expected two correlated higher order factor structures, reliability, and construct validity of the subscales of the Mexican American Cultural Values Scales as indicators of values that are frequently associated with Mexican/Mexican American culture. The utility of this measure for use in longitudinal research, and in resolving some important theoretical questions regarding dual cultural adaptation, are discussed.
This article presents an expanded model of acculturation among international migrants and their immediate descendants. Acculturation is proposed as a multidimensional process consisting of the confluence among heritage-cultural and receiving-cultural practices, values, and identifications. The implications of this reconceptualization for the acculturation construct, as well as for its relationship to psychosocial and health outcomes, are discussed. In particular, an expanded operationalization of acculturation is needed to address the "immigrant paradox," whereby international migrants with more exposure to the receiving cultural context report poorer mental and physical health outcomes. We discuss the role of ethnicity, cultural similarity, and discrimination in the acculturation process, offer an operational definition for context of reception, and call for studies on the role that context of reception plays in the acculturation process. The new perspective on acculturation presented in this article is intended to yield a fuller understanding of complex acculturation processes and their relationships to contextual and individual functioning.
Perceived discrimination has been studied with regard to its impact on several types of health effects. This meta-analysis provides a comprehensive account of the relationships between multiple forms of perceived discrimination and both mental and physical health outcomes. In addition, this meta-analysis examines potential mechanisms by which perceiving discrimination may affect health, including through psychological and physiological stress responses and health behaviors. Analysis of 134 samples suggests that when weighting each study's contribution by sample size, perceived discrimination has a significant negative effect on both mental and physical health. Perceived discrimination also produces significantly heightened stress responses and is related to participation in unhealthy and nonparticipation in healthy behaviors. These findings suggest potential pathways linking perceived discrimination to negative health outcomes.
The authors evaluated the effects of cultural norms and social contexts on coping processes involved in dealing with perceived racial discrimination.
Cross-sectional data derived from personal interviews with Korean immigrants residing in Toronto were analyzed. Among the respondents, active, problem-focused coping styles were more effective in reducing the impacts on depression of perceived discrimination, while frequent use of passive, emotion-focused coping had debilitating mental health effects.
The present findings lend greater support to a social contextual explanation than to a cultural maintenance explanation of coping processes. They also suggest that, when empowered with sufficient social resources, racial minority individuals of diverse cultural heritages are more likely to confront than to accept racial bias.
The authors review the available empirical evidence from population-based studies of the association between perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination and health. This research indicates that discrimination is associated with multiple indicators of poorer physical and, especially, mental health status.
However, the extant research does not adequately address whether and how exposure to discrimination leads to increased risk of disease. Gaps in the literature include limitations linked to measurement of discrimination, research designs, and inattention to the way in which the association between discrimination and health unfolds over the life course.
Research on stress points to important directions for the future assessment of discrimination and the testing of the underlying processes and mechanisms by which discrimination can lead to changes in health.
The author discusses 3 variables that assess different aspects of social relationships—social support, social integration, and negative interaction. The author argues that all 3 are associated with health outcomes, that these variables each influence health through different mechanisms, and that associations between these variables and health are not spurious findings attributable to our personalities. This argument suggests a broader view of how to intervene in social networks to improve health. This includes facilitating both social integration and social support by creating and nurturing both close (strong) and peripheral (weak) ties within natural social networks and reducing opportunities for negative social interaction. Finally, the author emphasizes the necessity to understand more about who benefits most and least from social- connectedness interventions.
This study examined the relations between acculturative stress and psychological functioning, as well as the protective role of social support and coping style, in a sample of 148 Mexican American college students (67% female, 33% male; mean age = 23.05 years, SD = 3.33). In bivariate analyses, acculturative stress was associated with higher levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Moreover, active coping was associated with better adjustment (lower depression), whereas avoidant coping predicted poorer adjustment (higher levels of depression and anxiety). Tests of interaction effects indicated that parental support and active coping buffered the effects of high acculturative stress on anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms. In addition, peer support moderated the relation between acculturative stress and anxiety symptoms. Implications for reducing the effects of acculturative stress among Mexican American college students are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to assess psychological distress, perceived social support
and effective coping strategies among undergraduate students enrolled in social work
programme, and to identify the factors that impact psychological distress. Data were
collected from 234 junior (third-year) and senior-year (fourth-year) undergraduate social
work students from a large public university in central California. Data on demographics,
psychological distress (in terms of depression, anxiety and stress), coping and
perceived social support were collected voluntarily through survey questionnaires. The
sample reported moderate levels of depression and anxiety and a fairly high level of
perceived social support. Perceived social support was negatively correlated with depression,
anxiety and stress. Female students reported utilising more emotion-focused
and problem-focused coping strategies compared with male students. Avoidant coping
emerged as a significant predictor for psychological distress. Students in junior
year reported lower perceived social support and higher mean scores on psychological
distress compared to students in senior year. The current findings demonstrate the importance
of enhancing social support and encouraging positive strategies of coping
among social work students. The importance of enhancing support among students
to cope with the stress and pressure of academic demands are highlighted.
Implications for social work educators and administrators are discussed.
Objective: Despite growing evidence that discrimination may contribute to poor mental health, few studies have assessed this association among US Latinos. Furthermore, the interaction between discrimination and educational attainment in shaping Latino mental health is virtually unexplored. This study aims to examine the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms and the modifying role of education among a population of Mexican-origin adults.
Design: We utilized population-based data from 629 Mexican-origin adults (mean age = 52.8 years) participating the Niños Lifestyle and Diabetes Study (2013–2014). Perceived discrimination was defined as responding ‘sometimes’ or ‘often’ to at least one item on the 9-item Everyday Discrimination Scale. High depressive symptoms were defined as scoring ≥10 on the CESD-10. We used log-binomial and linear-binomial models to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and prevalence differences (PD), respectively, of high depressive symptoms for levels of perceived discrimination. Final models were adjusted for age, sex, education, cultural orientation, and nativity. General estimating equations were employed to account for within-family clustering.
Results: Prevalence of perceived discrimination and high depressive symptoms were 49.5% and 29.2%, respectively. Participants experiencing discrimination had higher depressive symptom prevalence than those never or rarely experiencing discrimination [PR = 1.94, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.46–2.58; PD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.12–0.27]. The strength of this association varied by education level. The association between discrimination and depressive symptoms was stronger among those with >12 years of education (PR = 2.69; PD = 0.24) compared to those with ≤12 years of education (PR = 1.36; PD = 0.09).
Conclusion: US Latinos suffer a high burden of depressive symptoms, and discrimination may be an important driver of this burden. Our results suggest that effortful coping strategies, such as achieving high education despite high perceived discrimination, may magnify discrimination’s adverse effect on Latino mental health.
Similar to non-Hispanic Blacks, Hispanics/Latinos experience a range of psychosocial and physical health challenges, including high rates of poverty, neighborhood segregation, discrimination, poor healthcare access, and high rates of obesity, diabetes, and undiagnosed and late-stage diagnosed diseases. Despite such risks, Hispanics generally experience better physical health and lower mortality than non-Hispanic Whites, an epidemiological phenomenon commonly referred to as the Hispanic or Latino health paradox. With the basic phenomenon increasingly well-established, attention now turns to the sources of such resilience. The current aims are to briefly examine the epidemiological paradox and highlight potential sociocultural resilience factors that may contribute to the paradoxical effects. We conclude with presentation of a framework for modeling sociocultural resilience and discuss future directions for psychological contributions.
Background and objectives:
Emerging adulthood is often marked with elevated symptoms of anxiety and depression. Hispanic emerging adults may face cultural stressors such as ethnic discrimination that further increase levels of anxiety and depression symptoms. The study aims were to examine if (a) self-esteem mediated effects of ethnic discrimination on symptoms of anxiety and depression, and (b) if gender moderated the indirect effects of discrimination.
Design:
The study design was cross-sectional self-report.
Method:
Two moderated mediation models were tested, with 1,084 Hispanic emerging adults (ages 18-25) enrolled in institutions of post-secondary in the U.S.
Results:
Results indicated that (a) higher ethnic discrimination was associated with higher anxiety symptoms (β = .05, p = .04), higher depression symptoms (β = .06, p = .02), and lower self-esteem (β = -.30, p < .001); (b) self-esteem mediated the associations of ethnic discrimination with anxiety and depression symptoms; and (c) gender moderated the indirect effects of discrimination, whereby self-esteem was a stronger mediator among men than women. Each moderated mediation model explained 26% of variability in symptoms of anxiety and depression, respectively.
Conclusions:
Findings suggest that the mediating effects of self-esteem linking ethnic discrimination with symptoms of anxiety and depression vary between gender.
Acculturation is the process by which immigrants acquire the culture of the dominant society. Little is known about the relationship between acculturation and suicidal ideation and attempts among US Hispanics. Our aim was to examine the impact of 5 acculturation measures (age at migration, time in the United States, social network composition, language, race/ethnic orientation) on suicidal ideation and attempts in the largest available nationally representative sample of US Hispanics.
Study participants were US Hispanics (N = 6,359) from Wave 2 of the 2004-2005 National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions (N = 34,653). We used linear χ2 tests and logistic regression models to analyze the association between acculturation and risk of suicidal ideation and attempts.
Factors associated with a linear increase in lifetime risk for suicidal ideation and attempts were (1) younger age at migration (linear χ(2)1 = 57.15; P < .0001), (2) longer time in the United States (linear χ (2)1= 36.09; P < .0001), (3) higher degree of English-language orientation (linear χ (2)1 = 74.08; P <.0001), (4) lower Hispanic composition of social network (linear χ (2)1 = 36.34; P < .0001), and (5) lower Hispanic racial/ethnic identification (linear χ (2)1 = 47.77; P <.0001). Higher levels of perceived discrimination were associated with higher lifetime risk for suicidal ideation (β = 0.051; P < .001) and attempts (β = 0.020; P = .003).
There was a linear association between multiple dimensions of acculturation and lifetime suicidal ideation and attempts. Discrimination was also associated with lifetime risk for suicidal ideation and attempts. Our results highlight protective aspects of the traditional Hispanic culture, such as high social support, coping strategies, and moral objections to suicide, which are modifiable factors and potential targets for public health interventions aimed at decreasing suicide risk. Culturally sensitive mental health resources need to be made more available to decrease discrimination and stigma.
This paper provides a review and critique of empirical research on perceived discrimination and health. The patterns of racial disparities in health suggest that there are multiple ways by which racism can affect health. Perceived discrimination is one such pathway and the paper reviews the published research on discrimination and health that appeared in PubMed between 2005 and 2007. This recent research continues to document an inverse association between discrimination and health. This pattern is now evident in a wider range of contexts and for a broader array of outcomes. Advancing our understanding of the relationship between perceived discrimination and health will require more attention to situating discrimination within the context of other health-relevant aspects of racism, measuring it comprehensively and accurately, assessing its stressful dimensions, and identifying the mechanisms that link discrimination to health.
This paper describes the development and evaluation of a brief, multidimensional, self-administered, social support survey that was developed for patients in the Medical Outcomes Study (MOS), a two-year study of patients with chronic conditions. This survey was designed to be comprehensive in terms of recent thinking about the various dimensions of social support. In addition, it was designed to be distinct from other related measures. We present a summary of the major conceptual issues considered when choosing items for the social support battery, describe the items, and present findings based on data from 2987 patients (ages 18 and older). Multitrait scaling analyses supported the dimensionality of four functional support scales (emotional/informational, tangible, affectionate, and positive social interaction) and the construction of an overall functional social support index. These support measures are distinct from structural measures of social support and from related health measures. They are reliable (all Alphas greater than 0.91), and are fairly stable over time. Selected construct validity hypotheses were supported.
We examined the prevalence of depressive, anxiety, and substance use disorders among Latinos residing in the United States.
We used data from the National Latino and Asian American Study, which included a nationally representative sample of Latinos. We calculated weighted prevalence rates of lifetime and past-year psychiatric disorders across different sociodemographic, ethnic, and immigration groups.
Lifetime psychiatric disorder prevalence estimates were 28.1% for men and 30.2% for women. Puerto Ricans had the highest overall prevalence rate among the Latino ethnic groups assessed. Increased rates of psychiatric disorders were observed among US-born, English-language-proficient, and third-generation Latinos.
Our results provide important information about potential correlates of psychiatric problems among Latinos that can inform clinical practice and guide program development. Stressors associated with cultural transmutation may exert particular pressure on Latino men. Continued attention to environmental influences, especially among third-generation Latinos, is an important area for substance abuse program development.
The relationship between health status and Hispanic ethnicities, language, and nativity is poorly understood, due to the limitations and conflicting findings of previous studies.
To examine the effects of language and nativity on health status in Hispanic ethnic subgroups and non-Hispanic whites (whites).
Cross-sectional analyses of data from the 1998-2004 National Health Interview Survey linked to the 1999-2005 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Health status was regressed on race/ethnicity, interview language, and nativity, with adjustment for demographic and socioeconomic variables.
A total of 16,489 Hispanics (13,522 Mexicans, 778 Cubans, 1360 Puerto Ricans, and 829 Dominicans) and 45,422 whites.
SF-12 mental (MCS-12) and physical (PCS-12) component summary scores.
In adjusted analyses, Mexicans had significantly higher MCS-12 scores than other Hispanics and whites, with the largest advantage noted for Spanish-speaking Mexicans. Ethnic origin * nativity interaction effects were significant for both MCS-12 [adjusted Wald test, F (3236) = 7.27, P = 0.0001] and PCS-12 [F (3236) = 4.75, P = 0.0031]. Continental US-born Mexicans had worse mental and physical health status than non-US-born Mexicans. By contrast, continental US birth was associated with better mental health status for Cubans and Dominicans, and better physical health status for Puerto Ricans.
Complex interactions exist among language, nativity, ethnicity, and health status among Hispanics. Mexicans have better health status than whites and other Hispanics, and the moderating effects of nativity and language differ for Mexicans compared with other Hispanics. Future research should approach Hispanics as a diverse grouping rather than a monolithic entity.
More Latinxs have serious concerns about their place in America under Trump
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The Hispanic health paradox: from epidemiological phenomenon to contribution opportunities for psychological science
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