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THE FUTURE OF DWELLING: DENSITY
... However, with the increase in the global population and footprint of the built environment, some studies have reported a progressive increase in building sizes. Cerro discovered that between 1970 and 2015, there was a 79% increase in new US homes, although large family sizes (over five persons) decreased by 11.2% and single occupancy increased by 10.9% [29]. ...
... Open-plan design, which is frequently used, helps boost the multifunctionality and adaptability of the design and optimizes it for work and living [29,45]. These connect with other ideas, such as lean construction, which is a production management-based project delivery system that emphasizes the reliable and speedy delivery of value [46]. ...
... Other specific benefits arise from this design trend, the list of which suggests the need to showcase these benefits in specific contexts. Generally, smaller homes are easier to maintain, less costly to construct and purchase, more environmentally friendly, induce increased social life and communication between occupants, increase downsizing, and are generally accessible to more people owing to their affordability [29]. ...
The effects of buildings on the environment can be reduced with research-based alternative building designs. This study focuses on reducing the building space to lower the overall size of a building as a strategy to reduce the building’s embodied energy. The aim of this study was to investigate the initial embodied energy (IEE) of a residential building that was systematically reduced in size. Using input–output-based hybrid analysis, the IEE for three architecturally distinct four-bedroom residential prototypes (P1, P2, and P3) was calculated. The IEE for P1 (525 m2), P2 (266 m2), and P3 (109 m2) were 3555, 2008, and 1000 GJ, respectively. This indicates a 72% reduction in embodied energy consumption when the largest prototype (P1) was transitioned to the smallest (P3). When analyzing IEE/m2 and IEE/m2/occupant, it becomes apparent that larger spaces tend to have a lower IEE/m2. However, when the occupancy increases, the IEE/m2/occupant decreases by 25–33%. Therefore, considering occupant-centered design for residential buildings, the benefits of a large house are not justifiable. These findings can help inform decisions regarding the optimization of residential spaces to minimize environmental impacts.
Urban green space is purported to offset greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions, remove air and water pollutants, cool local climate, and improve public health. To use these services, municipalities have focused efforts on designing and implementing ecosystem-services-based "green infrastructure" in urban environments. In some cases the environmental benefits of this infrastructure have been well documented, but they are often unclear, unquantified, and/or outweighed by potential costs. Quantifying biogeochemical processes in urban green infrastructure can improve our understanding of urban ecosystem services and disservices (negative or unintended consequences) resulting from designed urban green spaces. Here we propose a framework to integrate biogeochemical processes into designing, implementing, and evaluating the net effectiveness of green infrastructure, and provide examples for GHG mitigation, stormwater runoff mitigation, and improvements in air quality and health.
To investigate the strength of the relation between the amount of green space in people's living environment and their perceived general health. This relation is analysed for different age and socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it is analysed separately for urban and more rural areas, because the strength of the relation was expected to vary with urbanity.
The study includes 250 782 people registered with 104 general practices who filled in a self administered form on sociodemographic background and perceived general health. The percentage of green space (urban green space, agricultural space, natural green space) within a one kilometre and three kilometre radius around the postal code coordinates was calculated for each household.
Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed at three levels-that is, individual level, family level, and practice level-controlled for sociodemographic characteristics.
The percentage of green space inside a one kilometre and a three kilometre radius had a significant relation to perceived general health. The relation was generally present at all degrees of urbanity. The overall relation is somewhat stronger for lower socioeconomic groups. Elderly, youth, and secondary educated people in large cities seem to benefit more from presence of green areas in their living environment than other groups in large cities.
This research shows that the percentage of green space in people's living environment has a positive association with the perceived general health of residents. Green space seems to be more than just a luxury and consequently the development of green space should be allocated a more central position in spatial planning policy.
The world's human population is becoming concentrated into cities, giving rise to concerns that it is becoming increasingly isolated from nature. Urban public greenspaces form the arena of many people's daily contact with nature and such contact has measurable physical and psychological benefits. Here we show that these psychological benefits increase with the species richness of urban greenspaces. Moreover, we demonstrate that greenspace users can more or less accurately perceive species richness depending on the taxonomic group in question. These results indicate that successful management of urban greenspaces should emphasize biological complexity to enhance human well-being in addition to biodiversity conservation.
Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an independent effect on health and health-related behaviours. We postulated that income-related inequality in health would be less pronounced in populations with greater exposure to green space, since access to such areas can modify pathways through which low socioeconomic position can lead to disease.
We classified the population of England at younger than retirement age (n=40 813 236) into groups on the basis of income deprivation and exposure to green space. We obtained individual mortality records (n=366 348) to establish whether the association between income deprivation, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality (circulatory disease, lung cancer, and intentional self-harm) in 2001-05, varied by exposure to green space measured in 2001, with control for potential confounding factors. We used stratified models to identify the nature of this variation.
The association between income deprivation and mortality differed significantly across the groups of exposure to green space for mortality from all causes (p<0.0001) and circulatory disease (p=0.0212), but not from lung cancer or intentional self-harm. Health inequalities related to income deprivation in all-cause mortality and mortality from circulatory diseases were lower in populations living in the greenest areas. The incidence rate ratio (IRR) for all-cause mortality for the most income deprived quartile compared with the least deprived was 1.93 (95% CI 1.86-2.01) in the least green areas, whereas it was 1.43 (1.34-1.53) in the most green. For circulatory diseases, the IRR was 2.19 (2.04-2.34) in the least green areas and 1.54 (1.38-1.73) in the most green. There was no effect for causes of death unlikely to be affected by green space, such as lung cancer and intentional self-harm.
Populations that are exposed to the greenest environments also have lowest levels of health inequality related to income deprivation. Physical environments that promote good health might be important to reduce socioeconomic health inequalities.
The case for small home design as a component of sustainability efforts
- Urban Us Housing
- Development
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of sustainability efforts. www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr-edge-featd-article-080816.html.
Form Based Codes; A Guide for Planners, Urban Designers, Municipalities and Developers
- D Parolek
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- P Crawford
Parolek, D., Parolek, K. & Crawford, P., Form Based Codes; A Guide for Planners,
Urban Designers, Municipalities and Developers, John Wiley: Hoboken, New Jersey,
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US houses are still getting bigger
- J Sparshott
Sparshott, J., US houses are still getting bigger, Wall Street Journal, 2 Jun. 2016.
Sustainability and Cities
- P Newman
- J Kenworthy
Newman, P. & Kenworthy, J., Sustainability and Cities, Island Press: Washington DC,
Ch. 3, 1999.