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Review of the Evidence on, and Fundamental Questions About, Efforts to Improve Executive Functions, Including Working Memory

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Abstract

This systematic review of executive function (EF) interventions is the largest such review thus far, including 179 studies from all over the world, reported in 193 papers. It covers all the ways that have been tried to improve EFs, including computerized and noncomputerized cognitive training, neurofeedback, school programs, physical activities, mindfulness practices, and miscellaneous approaches (e.g., drama and Experience Corps), at all ages. A little studied approach—mindfulness practices involving movement (such as taekwondo and t’ai chi)—shows the best results for improving EFs. Promising school programs are second. Both approaches show better results than any cognitive training. Third best at improving EFs is noncomputerized cognitive training. Perhaps these three approaches show better results than computerized training because they involve more in-person trainer-trainee interaction. The best-performing computerized cognitive-training method for improving EFs is Cogmed®. Support was lacking for claims that N-back training improves fluid intelligence. Resistance training and “plain” aerobic-exercise interventions (e.g., running or walking) show the least evidence of benefit to EFs of all methods. Results for aerobic exercise with more cognitive or motor-skill challenges are only slightly better. This probably reflects how physical-activity interventions have been structured, rather than that physical activity does not benefit EFs. For any intervention, trainers’ ability to make the training activity enjoyable and to communicate their unwavering faith in participants and the program plus the activity being personally meaningful and relevant, inspiring commitment and emotional investment in participants to the activity and to one another is probably what is most important.
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... Drawing on principles of cognitive training that have shown promise in traditional sports (Faubert & Sidebottom, 2012;Diamond & Ling, 2020;Yordanova et al., 2023), we hypothesize that: a) Various cognitive tasks relevant to FPS gameplay (such as those involving attention, rapid decision-making, AR, and information processing) will show performance differences among professional FPS players of different genders and skill levels. These differences will help identify the most relevant cognitive measures for FPS performance. ...
... The intervention mimicked the no switch and cue switch trials from the AR task; however, as participants only used one hand to hit the lights, there was no analogue for the motor switch trial. The improvements we observed within no switch and cue switch trials, and no improvement within motor switch trials is thus consistent with Diamond and Ling (2020). Cognitive skill transfer has been difficult to demonstrate in prior research (Bickermann et al., 2021). ...
... Despite these constraints, we are cautiously optimistic that the study provides a valuable starting point for future exploration of cognitive training interventions within a leading female esports team. The broad findings, that executive functions are trainable are consistent with similar interventions in other areas (Diamond & Ling 2020;Faubert & Sidebottom, 2012;Yordanova et al., 2023). Moreover, access to elite esports athletes is notably limited (Himmelstein et al., 2017;Thillier et al., 2023) and studies involving elite female athletes are extremely rare (Nolla et al., 2023). ...
Article
Objective : To identify cognitive performance markers for esports athletes and evaluate the impact of targeted noncomputerized cognitive training on professional female players. Methods : Study 1 compared cognitive performance of male ( n = 26), female subject team ( n = 5), and other female ( n = 12) professional first-person shooter players to identify cognitive areas of interest. Study 2 involved a 5-month light board cognitive training intervention with the subject team. Cognitive performance was assessed pre- and postintervention using nonparametric hypothesis tests. Results : Study 1 revealed performance differences primarily in action reprogramming tasks. In Study 2, significant improvements were observed in overall action reprogramming task performance, particularly in “no switch” ( p = .010) and “cue switch” ( p = .004) trials. Conclusion : Action reprogramming tasks may be of interest as a cognitive marker for first-person shooter player development. Targeted noncomputerized cognitive training may enhance these specific cognitive abilities in female athletes, potentially helping to close performance gaps. Implications : While promising, these results necessitate further investigation with larger sample sizes to verify effects and explore their sustainability. This study provides a foundation for developing tailored training strategies to promote gender equity in esports.
... As funções executivas (FE) e as habilidades de regulação emocional (RE) têm sido alvo de estudos devido à sua forte relação com o funcionamento cognitivo e emocional na infância, assim como em outros desfechos na vida adulta, como acadêmico, laboral e de sucesso pessoal (Diamond & Ling, 2020). Programas precoce-preventivos de estimulação das FE e RE são desenvolvidos mundialmente para otimizar o desenvolvimento infantil no contexto escolar Pandey et al., 2018), antes de existir algum prejuízo cognitivo na vida da criança. ...
... Programas precoce-preventivos de estimulação das FE e RE são desenvolvidos mundialmente para otimizar o desenvolvimento infantil no contexto escolar Pandey et al., 2018), antes de existir algum prejuízo cognitivo na vida da criança. Tais ações interventivas visam ao alcance amplo da abordagem de prevenção e/ou de estimulação precoce, com melhor balanço custo-benefício para a saúde e a economia mundiais, em comparação aos desfechos mais limitados das intervenções remediativas clínicas e individuais (Diamond & Ling, 2020;Pandey et al., 2018). ...
... Essa hipótese é baseada na literatura que sugere que a integração de estratégias de regulação emocional com o desenvolvimento das funções executivas potencializa os benefícios, conforme o modelo bidirecional de Blair e Ursache (2011). Além disso, espera-se que o grupo de intervenção exclusivo de FE tenha desempenho superior aos controles nos desfechos, dado que participou de uma intervenção direcionada e com base em evidências anteriores que demonstram os benefícios significativos que a estimulação das funções executivas pode proporcionar (Diamond & Ling, 2020). ...
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As funções executivas (FE) e a regulação emocional (RE) estão associadas à base dos desenvolvimentos cognitivo e socioemocional de crianças. Em vista da corrente de intervenções neuropsicológicas em FE, o presente estudo buscou investigar se uma intervenção de FE (programa PENcE) seria equivalente, superior ou inferior em relação à intervenção de FE em conjunto com estratégias de RE (programas PENcE e REPENcE) no desempenho executivo, emocional e escolar de alunos do Ensino Fundamental I que foram submetidos a programas de desempenho exclusivamente focados nas FE (PENcE) versus programa misto de FE e RE (PENcE+REPENcE) versus controles. Participaram 111 crianças, dividida em três grupos: grupo 1 recebeu uma intervenção mista com os programas PENcE e REPENcE, grupo 2 realizou somente o PENcE, e grupo 3 foi o grupo controle (currículo escolar). O grupo submetido à intervenção mista apresentou na avaliação pós-intervenção desempenho superior em um maior número de domínios, como, iniciação, velocidade de processamento, consciência corporal, e comunicação das emoções. Deste modo, percebe-se que um programa focado em habilidades de RE pode potencializar e incrementar os desfechos de um programa de estimulação cognitiva exclusivamente de FE.
... EF are essential for good school performance (Cortés Pascual et al., 2019;Dias et al., 2022;Staiano & Calvert, 2011), as well as for the proper development of individuals' socio-affective, vocational, academic, and planning skills (Bernier et al., 2010;Conklin et al., 2007;Jurado & Rosselli, 2007;Romero-López et al., 2018). They are also fundamental for success in marital harmony, health, and quality of life (Diamond & Ling, 2020). The healthy development and the maturation of cognitive functions in individuals are of utmost importance, as they are the cognitive foundation upon which other cognitive functions are built, such as reasoning, emotional control, planning ability, and task management. ...
... These data corroborate previous studies according to which elementary school children, after undergoing EF stimulation programs, both in the modality of computerized games (Dovis et al., 2015;Benzing & Schmidt, 2017) and from non-digital neuropsychological stimulation programs (Cardoso et al., 2019;Dias & Seabra, 2015), show improved performance gains on measures of inhibitory control when in comparison to groups of children who did not participate in the stimulation group in the programs. Thus, the results found reinforce those children submitted to stimulation through the use of Apollo & Rosetta for mobile devices in the school environment obtained improvement in impulse control, which may contribute to better outcomes in the course of development of these children, if these gains remain (Diamond & Ling, 2020). Improvements in this component are related to the ability to control behavior, to react or behave according to different situations, and to curb inappropriate impulses. ...
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Executive Functions are essential for good school performance as well as for the proper development of individuals’ socio-affective, vocational, academic, and planning skills. Investigations with digital games aimed at stimulating inhibitory control of the executive functions in the school environment, especially with typically developing children in Elementary School, are incipient. This study demonstrates the impact of an intervention carried out using a digital game on mobile devices to stimulate the executive component of inhibitory control, in elementary school children, in the classroom context. The study included 36 children (n = 36), from the 3rd and 4th years of a public school, classified into an experimental group (EG, n = 15), which received the intervention, and a control group (CG, n = 21), which continued with school activities regularly. Neuropsychological assessments were performed before and after the stimulation sessions. The EG used the game during 28 sessions, organized in 3 weekly sessions over 12 weeks, with an average of 20 min per session. The results show that the EG performed better in measures of processing speed and initiation, focused attention, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, indicating that children who participated in the intervention presented improvements in cognitive domains of executive functions and attention. Thus, this research verified the importance and feasibility of interventions to stimulate executive functions in children using a digital game designed for use in the school setting.
... Childhood is a crucial period for cognitive development, as stimuli at this stage will have lifelong effects [6]. Among the multiple cultural aspects that leverage childhood development, exercise has been highlighted by the literature for producing significant benefits for executive functions [7]. However, the literature still lacks stronger evidence and a better understanding of how these outcomes may be mediated and moderated by different variables of exercise, the context of the intervention, and the characteristics of the children. ...
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The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the relationship between physical fitness, executive function, and academic performance in children and adolescents. A total of 131 students (49% female) aged 10–15 years from a public school in Rio de Janeiro were assessed in executive functions (hearts and flowers, Corsi’s block, and digit span tasks), academic performance (Portuguese, reading, math, and overall school grade), physical tests (touch test disc, agility, lower limb and upper limb explosive strength), and anthropometric measurements. Regression results showed that the composite of sports-related fitness measures was the best predictor of executive functions (β = 0.472; t = −6.075 p < 0.001). Decision tree classifier analysis showed that the combination of factors that discriminated better and worse executive function groups were better performance in hand–eye coordination (TTD), math, and upper limb strength (ULEST). Sports-related fitness is significantly correlated with executive function. Hand–eye motor coordination has been identified as the most important predictor of improved cognitive outcomes, surpassing even academic skills. These findings should be considered in the design of physical activity programs in school settings, which may have a positive impact on child development, reflected in the reduction of academic and socioeconomic disparities.
... Indeed, lower working memory abilities have been tied to greater levels of substance use as well as reduced delay discounting (Khurana et al., 2017;Mitchell et al., 2005). A recent review has suggested that mindfulness practices have promising results for improvements in executive function, including working memory (Diamond & Ling, 2020). For example, mindfulness meditation has been shown to give rise to significant improvements in working memory abilities among adolescents (Quach et al., 2016). ...
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Child maltreatment impacts approximately one in seven children in the United States, leading to adverse outcomes throughout life. Adolescence is a time period critical for the development of executive function, but there is little research examining how abuse and neglect may differently affect the developmental trajectories of executive function throughout adolescence and into young adulthood. In the current study, 167 adolescents participated at six time points from ages 14 to 20. At each time point, adolescents completed behavioral tasks measuring the three dimensions of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility). Neglect and abuse in early life (ages 1–13) were reported at ages 18–19. Unconditional growth curve models revealed age-related improvement in all three executive function dimensions. Conditional growth curve models tested the prospective effects of recalled neglect and abuse on the developmental trajectories of executive function. The results revealed that neglect was associated with developmental changes in working memory abilities, such that greater levels of neglect during ages 1–13 were associated with slower increases in working memory abilities across ages 14–20. These findings highlight the adverse consequences of early neglect experiences shown by delayed working memory development during adolescence into young adulthood.
... Upon recognizing the requirement for EF, a teacher can also decide to approach these details as redundant extraneous cognitive load and attempt to minimize them (Diamond & Ling, 2019). It can be done by offering word problems without complicated and enticing situational backgrounds) or employ it as an avenue for students to practice coping mechanisms for inhibitory control difficulties (e.g., by warning about the potential trap of being misled by irrelevant details; Eitel et al., 2019). ...
... By including only studies involving yoga-based interventions, this meta-analysis demonstrates for the first time that school-based yoga may have beneficial effects on young children's executive functioning skills. This is in accordance with a recent systematic review of executive function interventions by Diamond and Ling (2019) who reported that mindfulness-based practices involving movement are more effective at improving executive functioning at all ages than a range of other interventions, including computerised and non-computerised cognitive training, neurofeedback, school-based programmes, physical activities such as resistance training and aerobic exercise, mindfulness practices, and miscellaneous approaches (e.g., drama, photography). ...
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Purpose: Executive functioning is said to be fundamental to human cognition and achievement. This meta-analysis aimed to establish what effect – if any – yoga delivered in school-settings has upon the executive functioning skills of children between three and seven years of age. Procedure: Databases screened were PubMed Central, Web of Science, CINAHL, Scopus, and PsycARTICLES. Studies involving a yoga-based intervention alongside a control group, and age-appropriate measures of executive functioning were included. In total, seven studies, involving 1080 participants, met the inclusion criteria. Findings: Meta-analysis of all seven studies demonstrated a significant (p < 0.001) small positive weighted average effect size (Cohen’s d) of 0.24 [95% CI 0.10, 0.39], evidencing that yoga may improve the executive functioning skills of children between three and seven years of age. Sub-group meta-analyses to examine the different domains of executive functioning (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility) revealed a significant (p = 0.007) small positive effect size (Cohen’s d) of 0.41 [95% CI 0.11, 0.70] for working memory, and a significant (p = 0.033) marginal positive effect size (Cohen’s d) of 0.18 [95% CI 0.01, 0.34] for inhibitory control. However, there were insufficient data for a sub-group meta-analysis of cognitive flexibility. Conclusions: Results are discussed in the context of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ executive functioning skills. Study limitations are considered, and it is acknowledged that further high-quality research is needed into the effect(s) of school-based yoga on executive functioning within this population before definitive conclusions can be drawn.
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Es creciente el interés en la investigación sobre el impacto positivo que tiene la reserva cognitiva en el desempeño ejecutivo. El objetivo de este estudio es describir y comparar la flexibilidad cognitiva (FC) según el nivel de reserva cognitiva (RC) en dos grupos etarios: 50 adultos y 50 personas mayores, de ambos sexos de la ciudad de Mar del Plata. Se implementó un diseño correlacional transversal, con hipótesis de diferencia de grupos. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron el Examen Cognitivo de Addenbrooke-III, el Cuestionario de Reserva Cognitiva, el test CAMBIOS y el Cuestionario de datos socioeducativos. Los resultados serán útiles para evaluar la FC y obtener valores normativos para la población adulta y mayor en nuestra región. El estudio evidenció una correlación positiva entre la RC y el desempeño en FC en ambos grupos. Se encontró que los adultos poseen un mejor desempeño en FC frente a los adultos mayores. Además, aquellos con una RC más alta mostraron un mejor desempeño en FC que aquellos con una RC más baja, lo que sugiere que la RC está asociada con un mayor nivel de FC, independientemente de la edad.
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Research examining cognitive models of parenting risk has linked poorer parental executive functioning capacities to increased risk for poor parenting outcomes including use of harsh discipline and problematic patterns of parent-child interaction. To better inform intervention and prevention efforts targeting parenting risk, there is a need to further articulate this association by identifying intermediaries between parents’ executive functioning capacities and parenting behavior. Social-cognitive models of parenting risk suggest that one such intervening factor is parents’ ability to form accurate appraisals during social situations, including accurate appraisals of others’ affect. We tested this assertion by examining the extent to which mothers’ accuracy for recognizing affect, presented in both auditory and visual modalities, explained associations between mothers’ executive functioning capacities and two indicators of parenting risk: maladaptive discipline responses and dyssynchronous patterns of parent-child interaction. Associations were tested among 95 mother-preschooler (48.4% female; average age 4.94 years) dyads, 31 of whom had histories of maternal perpetration of child neglect. Mothers exhibited high levels of social (92.6% non-White; average of 11.51 years of education; 65.3% single parents) and economic disadvantage (median family income of $19,000). Consistent with prior research, we found associations between lower maternal executive functioning capacities and higher levels of parenting risk. Using Hayes’ PROCESS Macro, we found that mothers’ affective misappraisals partially explained these associations although findings differed by sensory modality. Our findings suggest that poorer maternal executive functioning capacities contribute to inaccurate affect identification, which in turn may lead to maladaptive patterns of parent-child interaction and inappropriate discipline responses.
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This chapter describes the nature of working memory capacity (WMC), and addresses the nature of WMC limitations, their effects on higher order cognitive tasks, their relationship to attention control and general fluid intelligence, and their neurological substrates. Much of work explores these issues in the context of individual differences in WMC and the cause of those individual differences. Measures of WMC are highly reliable and highly valid indicators of some construct of clear relevance to feral cognition. Macroanalytic studies have demonstrated that the construct reflected by WMC tasks has a strong relationship with gF above and beyond what these tasks share with simple span tasks. The conflict might also arise from stimulus representations of competing strength. This two-factor model fits with current thinking about the role of two brain structures: the prefrontal cortex as important to the maintenance of information in an active and easily accessible state and the anterior cingulate as important to the detection and resolution of conflict.