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Production responses to diets supplemented with soybean meal, expeller soybean meal, or dry-extruded cottonseed cake by lactating dairy cows
Abstract
Objective
The objective of this trial was to evaluate the performance of lactating cows fed diets in which cottonseed cake (CSC) completely replaced either solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM) or expeller SBM (ESM) to evaluate value of CSC as either source of ruminal degradable or undegradable protein supplement.
Materials and Methods
Forty-eight mid-lactation Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block trial with a 3-wk standardization period followed by an 8-wk experimental period. Intake and production were monitored throughout the trial. The CSC was produced by dry extruding whole cottonseed at 121 to 149°C for 12 to 20 s. The resulting CSC contained approximately 33% CP with 45% ruminally degradable protein and 55% ruminally undegradable protein (DM basis). Treatments included (1) control diet supplemented with SBM and ESM (CONT), (2) CSC substituted for SBM (CSRDP), and (3) CSC substituted for ESM (CSRUP).
Results and Discussion
No differences were observed in DMI; milk yield; ECM yield; or percentage or yield of milk fat, lactose, or solids not-fat among treatments. No differences were observed in yield of milk protein, but milk protein percentage was less for CSRDP compared with CONT but not different from CSRUP. Milk urea nitrogen concentrations were less for CSRDP compared with CONT and CSRUP: 8.56, 7.58, and 9.27 mg/dL for CONT, CSRDP, and CSRUP, respectively. No differences were observed in change of BW or BCS during the trial among treatments.
Implications and Applications
Results of this trial indicate that the CSC can be substituted for SBM or ESM without affecting intake or milk yield and composition. The lower MUN observed for CSRDP suggests that substituting the CSC for SBM may have limited degradable N.
... In addition, the lower ADFI observed in the SBM group leads to higher apparent digestibility in the GE and CP through the increased residence time in the rumen. A previous study in which COM completely replaced either SBM or expeller SBM (ESM) demonstrated that in lactating dairy cows, the total tract digestible protein level was lower for the COM diet compared with soybean meal, containing more NDF, ADF, and EE [28]. In our study, the cottonseed meal had lower GE and CP digestibility than the SBM group. ...
Considering the frequently large price fluctuations for soybean meal, an alternative is the increased use of locally produced high-protein ingredients. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the total replacement of soybean meal with different sources of protein on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, serum parameters, rumen fermentation parameters, and bacterial communities in growing lambs. Sixty sheep with similar body weights (38.46 ± 0.71 kg) were distributed to one of five treatments: soybean meal (SBM); cottonseed meal (COM); peanut meal (PEM); rapeseed meal (RAM); and distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS). The experiment lasted 62 days with a 10-day adaptation period and a 52-day growing period. The results indicated that the body weight and average daily gain were not affected by different protein sources (p > 0.05), but the dry matter intake of the SBM group was lower than that of the other groups (p < 0.05); otherwise, the feed efficiency was higher (p < 0.05). The digestion of dry matter was higher in the SBM, COM, and RAM groups than in the DDGS and PEM groups (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, compared to the other groups, the SBM group had the highest digestion of gross energy and crude protein (p < 0.05). In addition, the concentration of glutathione peroxidase was highest in the SBM group (p < 0.05). Regarding the rumen fermentation, the SBM group had the highest concentration of NH3-N (p < 0.05). The rumen bacterial community was not affected by treatments (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the total replacement of soybean meal with cottonseed, peanut, rapeseed, or DDGS reduced digestibility but did not impact the body weight or average daily gain of growing lambs and had no effect on the immune function and rumen bacterial community; thus, they can be used to substitute the soybean meal.
... Recently, Webb et al. (2019) evaluated the effects of replacing soybean meal with cottonseed cake on dairy cow performance. The study was conducted on 48 midlactation Holstein cows of 190.7 ± 64.3 days in milk at the Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Tifton. ...
Cottonseed cake is the co-product of oil extraction from cottonseeds. Cottonseed meal is the term applied to the ground cottonseed cake from which most of the oil has been extracted. Cottonseed cake is used as a protein supplement and can replace soybean meal and other protein sources in the ration. It is a good source of protein, energy, fiber, phosphorus and vitamin E for dairy cows. However, the nutritional value of cottonseed cake depends on the method of oil extraction, proportion of husk and lint and degree of decortication. Cottonseed cake has relatively low rumen degradability and is therefore a good source of bypass protein for dairy cows.
Background
Numerous different seeds are utilized for edible oil extraction and seed by-products following oil extraction, known as oilseed cakes, represent roughly 50% of the original seed weight. Since oilseed cakes are rich in fibers, proteins and secondary metabolites, they are considered as promising candidates to be raw material to be consumed in a biorefinery for the production of high-value added products according to circular economy paradigms. Several studies have been performed on the potential uses of oilseed cakes derived from different plant species.
Scope and approach
This review, resulting from a collection of experimental results by databases, as well as by topic and keyword search, summarizes the current use of most oilseed cakes so far utilized, as well as that of additional four seed cakes obtained from plants having an economically significant relevance due to their food, nutraceutical or pharmaceutical properties: sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), hemp (Cannabis sativa), cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) and black cumin (Nigella sativa). Various attempts have been done to convert their protein content into a renewable source for producing biodegradable and edible plastics, potentially attractive mainly for food and agricultural industries, as substitutes of the highly polluting petroleum-based plastics.
Key findings and conclusions
Oilseed cakes are generally used as animal feed supplementation, plant fertilizer or soil compost due to their high protein, carbohydrate and nitrogen contents. More recently, novel exploitations of the seed oil cakes are under study, such as the production of biofuels and bioplastics. Therefore, oilseed cakes may represent an attractive feedstock for the development of biorefineries through the edible or not edible oil production.
Cottonseed is an economical source of protein and is commonly used in balancing livestock rations; however, its use is typically limited by protein level, fat content, gossypol, and the potential for aflatoxin contamination. There are numerous studies in the literature discussing gossypol and aflatoxin toxicities in livestock and processing methods for reducing gossypol levels in cottonseed. However, there is very limited information in the literature within the last 30 years on how aflatoxin is affected by processing. Evaluation studies were conducted to determine if an extrusion process affected gossypol and aflatoxin levels in cottonseed without negatively impacting the nutritional value of the product, and if these reductions were consistent with the literature. Results from the gossypol study showed a 71 to 78% decrease in free gossypol levels due to the extrusion process, which were lower than some reported methods of processing and consistent with others. Results from the aflatoxin studies showed reductions of 50% when the material was processed by two stages of extrusion at a temperature of 132°C. Similar reductions have been reported on roasting corn at temperatures of 140 to 143°C. The extrusion temperatures used in the evaluation studies did not significantly alter most of the nutritional values analyzed in the study. However, soluble protein was decreased at the higher temperatures. There were no significant differences in analyzed nutritional values based on multiple stages of processing. Results from the evaluation study indicate that extruding cottonseed to reduce gossypol and aflatoxin levels is an area of research that should be further explored, primarily due to the advances made in the aflatoxin and gossypol testing methods during the last 30 years.
Milk urea nitrogen (MUN) has been introduced as a means to estimate urinary nitrogen (N) excretion and protein status of dairy cattle. For Holstein cows, the amount of urinary N excreted (g/d) was originally reported to be 12.54 x MUN (mg/dl), but recently urinary N (g/d) was reported to equal 17.64 x MUN (mg/dl). The objectives of the present study were to evaluate models to predict urinary N and expected MUN, by using older and newer data sets, and to quantify changes that may have occurred in MUN measurements over time. Two data sets were used for model evaluation. Data set 1 was from the spring of 1998 and data set 2 was from the spring of 1999. Similar cows and diets were used in both studies. By using data set 1, the newer model underestimated MUN by an average of 3.8 mg/dl, whereas the older model was accurate. By using data set 2, the older model overestimated MUN by 4.8 mg/ dl, but the newer model was accurate. In the period between the two studies, the MUN measured appeared to decrease by an average of 4.0 mg/dl. By using current wet chemistry methods to analyze for MUN, urinary N (mg/dl) can be predicted as 0.026 x MUN (mg/dl) x body weight (kg). Because of changes in methodology that occurred in the fall of 1998, target MUN concentrations have decreased to 8.5 to 11.5 mg/dl for most dairy herds compared with previous target concentrations of 12 to 16 mg/dl.
Sixteen (8 ruminally cannulated) multiparous and 8 primiparous lactating Holstein cows were used in 6 replicated 4 x 4 Latin squares to test the effects of feeding supplemental protein as urea, solvent soybean meal (SSBM), cottonseed meal (CSM), or canola meal (CM) on milk production, nutrient utilization, and ruminal metabolism. All diets contained (% of DM) 21% alfalfa silage and 35% corn silage plus 1) 2% urea plus 41% high-moisture shelled corn (HMSC), 2) 12% SSBM plus 31% HMSC, 3) 14% CSM plus 29% HMSC, or 4) 16% CM plus 27% HMSC. Crude protein was equal across diets, averaging 16.6%. Intake and production were substantially reduced, and milk urea, blood urea, and ruminal ammonia were increased on urea vs. the diets supplemented with true protein. Although intake was lower in cows fed SSBM compared with CM, no differences were observed for milk yield among SSBM, CSM, and CM. Yields of fat and protein both were lower on CSM than on CM, whereas SSBM was intermediate. Milk urea and milk protein contents also decreased when CSM replaced SSBM or CM. Diet did not affect ruminal volatile fatty acids except that isobutyrate concentration was lowest on urea, intermediate on CSM, and greatest on SSBM and CM. Urinary excretion of urea N and total N was greatest on urea, intermediate on SSBM and CM, and lowest on CSM. Apparent N efficiency (milk N/N intake) was lower on the CSM diet than on the SSBM diet. Overall, production and N utilization were compromised when the diets of high-yielding dairy cows were supplemented with urea rather than true protein and the value of the true proteins.
A 6-wk randomized design trial with a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments was conducted to evaluate the production response of 48 Holstein lactating cows fed diets based on corn or forage sorghum silage harvested in the summer or fall and supplemented with soybean meal (SBM) or mechanically pressed cottonseed meal (CSM). Corn was planted in April and harvested in July (CSS), and a second crop was planted in August and harvested in November (CSF). Forage sorghum was planted in April, harvested in July (FSS), allowed to ratoon, and harvested again in November. Forages provided 41.67% of the dietary DM in the experimental diets, and CSM replaced a portion of the N provided by SBM. Cows were fed a corn silage–based diet for 2 wk before beginning the 4-wk experimental period. No differences were observed in DMI or milk yield among treatments. An interaction of forage source and protein supplement was observed for milk fat, which was lowest for CSF-CSM compared with the other treatments. No differences were observed in yield or concentration of milk protein, lactose, or solids-not-fat. An interaction was observed for efficiency of milk production, which was lowest for CSS-SBM and CSF-CSM compared with the other treatments. Concentrations of milk urea nitrogen were less for diets based on corn silage compared with forage sorghum and for CSM compared with SBM. Results of this trial indicate that diets based on corn silage or forage sorghum harvested in spring or fall and supplemented with CSM or SBM can support similar performance.
Twenty-four Holstein cows were used in six 4×4 Latin squares to evaluate the effects of substituting extruded-expelled cottonseed meal (Express™) for whole cottonseed and solvent soybean meal in diets for lactating cows. No differences were observed in milk and milk component yield among treatments. Percentages of fat, protein, solids-not-fat, and lactose in milk were similar among treatments. Replacing whole cottonseed with Express™ tended to reduce milk urea nitrogen but had no effect on milk protein percentage or yield. Cow acceptability of Express™ was excellent throughout the 84-day study conducted between late June and September when ambient temperature exceeded 100EF for 35 days. Long-term storage of Express™ in a commodity barn was not a problem. In vitro analysis of Express™ revealed that it contains approximately 75% rumen undegradable protein (RUP) with an intestinally absorbable dietary protein value of 53.4%. Express™ is an excellent source of RUP, and the protein fraction is highly digestible in the small intestine.
Four trials were conducted to evaluate effects of incorporating cottonseed meal or canola meal in dairy diets. In Ex- periment 1, 36 Holstein cows, 12 first lactation and 24 second or more lac- tations, were in two groups fed complete mixed diets containing either cottonseed meal or canola meal as the protein supplement. Yields of milk and milk components and feed intake were not affected by protein supplement. In Experiment 2, 6 Holstein cows in first lactation were fed diets of Experiment 1 in two periods of 3 wk to evaluate effects of protein supplement on milk com- position. Protein supplement did not affect fat, lactose, ash, total solids, total nitrogen, casein nitrogen, whey protein nitrogen, or nonprotein nitrogen content in milk. Diets of Experiment 1 were fed to four rumen-fistulated heifers (Experiment 3) for changes of ruminal fluid characteristics. Ruminal fluid sam- ples were collected at -1, 2, 4, and 8 h postfeeding. Volatile fatty acid and ammonia concentrations of ruminal fluid were not different for protein supplement. In Experiment 4, in situ disappearance of nitrogen and dry matter of protein sources in the rumen of a Holstein cow was studied. Disappearance of nitrogen and dry matter of protein supplements from nytex nylon bags was similar.
Nitrogen in selected feedstuffs was fractionated based on solubility in mineral solvents and detergent solutions. Six solvents with either a continuous mixing procedure at constant temperature or an intermittent mixing procedure at room temperature were compared for nitrogen solubility. Nitrogen solubility varied with type of solvent. Borate-phosphate buffer was more stable than other solvents. Borate-phosphate buffer had a correlation coefficient of .92 with insoluble nitrogen obtained with autoclaved rumen fluid. Insoluble nitrogens obtained by continuous or intermittent mixing techniques were not significantly different. The latter procedure is simple and avoids the need for special extraction equipment for estimation of nitrogen solubility. In most feedstuffs, a large fraction of soluble nitrogen was in the form of nonprotein nitrogen. Oats and peanut meal contained a significant amount of soluble true protein (43.3 and 24.3% of total nitrogen). Neutral detergent insoluble nitrogen and acid detergent insoluble nitrogen content of feed samples varied among feedstuffs and were not a constant proportion of neutral detergent or acid detergent fiber.
A scoring system with 1 to 5 scale was devised to measure body condition of dairy cows at any point during the lactation cycle. Cows were scored on appearance and palpation of back and hind quarters only. Relationships of body weight, frame size measurements, milk production, and characteristics related to the body condition scoring system were determined. During 18 too, 28 cows in each of 29 dairy herds were used for body measurements and body condition scores. Data were obtained from each herd at 3-mo intervals. Body weight and frame size measurements could not be correlated with body condition score. Dairy cows of greatest efficiency of milk production showed no significant increase in body condition during lactation, had fewer days open, but had lower per- sistency of lactation. Dairy cows that in- creased significantly in body condition during lactation were less efficient pro- ducers, had a greater number of days open, and had high body condition scores at the end of lactation. The body condition scoring system is a means of accurately determining body condition of dairy cows, independent of body weight and frame size.
There is a need to standardize the NDF procedure. Procedures have varied because of the use of different amylases in attempts to remove starch interference. The original Bacillus subtilis enzyme Type IIIA (XIA) no longer is available and has been replaced by a less effective enzyme. For fiber work, a new enzyme has received AOAC approval and is rapidly displacing other amylases in analytical work. This enzyme is available from Sigma (Number A3306; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). The original publications for NDF and ADF (43, 53) and the Agricultural Handbook 379 (14) are obsolete and of historical interest only. Up to date procedures should be followed. Triethylene glycol has replaced 2-ethoxyethanol because of reported toxicity. Considerable development in regard to fiber methods has occurred over the past 5 yr because of a redefinition of dietary fiber for man and monogastric animals that includes lignin and all polysaccharides resistant to mammalian digestive enzymes. In addition to NDF, new improved methods for total dietary fiber and nonstarch polysaccharides including pectin and beta-glucans now are available. The latter are also of interest in rumen fermentation. Unlike starch, their fermentations are like that of cellulose but faster and yield no lactic acid. Physical and biological properties of carbohydrate fractions are more important than their intrinsic composition.
Two 3 x 3 Latin square trials were conducted to determine the effect of the source of supplemental protein in diets containing wheat middlings on milk production and composition. Cottonseed meal or meat and bone meal was substituted for a portion of the soybean meal and provided 24.5% of the total dietary crude protein. Trial 1 was conducted during fall 1989, and trial 2 was conducted during summer 1993. During trial 1, no differences in production or composition of milk were found for primiparous cows fed the various protein supplements. Multiparous cows tended to have higher dry matter intakes and produced more milk with lower milk fat percentages when fed meat and bone meal than when fed soybean meal or cottonseed meal. No differences were found among supplements for other milk components or for the production of energy-corrected milk. In trial 2, primiparous cows tended to produce more milk, and multiparous cows tended to produce less milk, when fed meat and bone meal than when fed soybean meal. No differences were found for dry matter intake, milk composition, or production of energy-corrected milk. Cottonseed meal was equal to soybean meal in supporting milk production. Meat and bone meal tended to support higher productions of milk than did soybean meal, but production of energy-corrected milk was similar for both.
Mixed linear models were developed by animal breeders to evaluate genetic potential of bulls. Application of mixed models has recently spread to all areas of research, spurred by availability of advanced computer software. Previously, mixed model analyses were implemented by adapting fixed-effect methods to models with random effects. This imposed limitations on applicability because the covariance structure was not modeled. This is the case with PROC GLM in the SAS System. Recent versions of the SAS System include PROC MIXED. This procedure implements random effects in the statistical model and permits modeling the covariance structure of the data. Thereby, PROC MIXED can compute efficient estimates of fixed effects and valid standard errors of the estimates. Modeling the covariance structure is especially important for analysis of repeated measures data because measurements taken close in time are potentially more highly correlated than those taken far apart in time.
The objectives of this study were to describe the relationships between milk urea concentrations and nutritional management, production, and economic variables in commercial dairy herds. Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) test-day milk urea data, production data, and information on ration nutrient composition and feeding management programs were collected over a 13-mo period from 53 commercial Ontario dairy herds. Economic variables included gross milk revenue, feed costs, and income over feed costs. Herd mean milk urea concentrations had a positive relationship with dietary levels of crude protein (CP), rumen degradable protein (RDP), and rumen undegradable protein (RUP) and a negative relationship with dietary levels of nonfiber carbohydrates (NFC), forage:concentrate (F:C) ratio, NFC:CP ratio, and NFC:RDP ratio. These findings are consistent with experimental studies that used chemical methods of milk urea analysis. Herd mean milk urea concentration was not associated with feeding management (e.g., total mixed rations, component feeding, feeding frequency, or synchrony of forage and concentrate feeding).
In experiment 1, 24 midlactation, multiparous Holstein cows were used in six 4 x 4 Latin squares to evaluate extruded-expelled cottonseed (EEC) as a source of ruminally undegradable protein (RUP). Diets were formulated to contain: 16% crude protein (CP), 35% RUP (SBM16); 18% CP, 35% RUP (SBM18); 16% CP, 40% RUP using EEC (EC16); and 16% CP, 40% RUP using a fishmeal-blood meal blend (FBM16). Milk yields (37.2 kg/d) and percentages of milk fat, protein, casein, and SNF were similar across diets. Cows fed FBM16 consumed less dry matter (DM) (28.0 kg/d) than those consuming other diets (29.4 kg/d). In experiment 2, 18 midlactation, multiparous Holstein cows were used in six 3 x 3 Latin squares to determine the value of EEC as a replacement for whole cottonseed in lactating cow diets. Diets contained whole cottonseed (CS), EEC plus tallow (ECT), or EEC (EC). Diets were formulated to be similar in energy, N, and RUP. Milk yields (35.5 kg/d), DM intake (27.0 kg/d), and milk fat percent were similar across diets. Percentages of milk protein and SNF were higher for EC than CS or ECT. These production data suggest that EEC can replace whole cottonseed in isocaloric diets and can be partially substituted for soybean meal or a fishmeal-blood meal blend without affecting lactational performance. In situ ruminal degradation and in vitro ammonia N release indicate that processing of EEC was inadequate to protect the protein from ruminal degradation and EEC would not be a source of RUP.
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Official Methods of Analysis
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