Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.): botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses. A review

Abstract

Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L., Onagraceae) is one of important medicinal plants used especially in the treatment of urogenital disorders, including benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatitis. The therapeutic effects of E. angustifolium extracts comprise antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, immunomod-ulatory, antioxidant, and also antimicrobial activities. The aim of the present review was to provide the information on the botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses of E. angustifolium. This plant is a widespread circumboreal species of North America and Eurasia, tolerant in terms of habitat conditions, and often occupying man-made open habitats. Phytochemical studies on E. angustifolium resulted in the identification of about 250 different metabolites, including about 170 substances found for the first time in this plant in the last six years (2014-2019). Fireweed has an abundance of polyphenolic compounds, particularly ellagi-tannins. Oenothein B and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide are proposed as markers for the identification and standardization of the plant raw material. E. angustifolium exhibits significant phytochemical variability in relation to the geographical origin, plant part and time of harvest/vegetation phase. Survey of the ethnobo-tanical literature showed that the above-mentioned species has been widely used not only as a medicinal, but also as an edible, honey and decorative plant. botanical part, we described taxonomy, synonyms, and also morphology, ploidy, distribution and habitats of fireweed. The phytochemistry included the composition of the bioactive substances found in the plant raw material, with particular emphasis on the newly identified metabolites and with the description of the phytochemical variability of this species. In turn, the ethnobotanical characteristic aimed to present the traditional uses of E. angustifolium as a medicinal, edible, honey and decorative plant.

Full text

Vol. 65 No. 3 2019
International journal edited by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
DOI: 10.2478/hepo-2018-000
DOI: 10.2478/hepo-2018-000
REVIEW PAPER
Herba Pol 2019; 65(3): 51-63
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.): botany,
phytochemistry and traditional uses. A review
ARTUR ADAMCZAK1*, MARIOLA DREGER2, KATARZYNA SEIDLERŁOŻYKOWSKA1,
KAROLINA WIELGUS2
1Department of Botany, Breeding and Agricultural Technology of Medicinal Plants
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
Kolejowa 2
62-064 Plewiska, Poland
2Department of Biotechnology
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
Wojska Polskiego 71B
60-630 Poznań, Poland
*corresponding author: phone: +48 (61) 665-95-50, e-mail: artur.adamczak@iwnirz.pl
Summary
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L., Onagraceae) is one of important medicinal plants used especially in
the treatment of urogenital disorders, including benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatitis. The
therapeutic effects of E. angustifolium extracts comprise antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, immunomod-
ulatory, antioxidant, and also antimicrobial activities. The aim of the present review was to provide the in-
formation on the botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses of E. angustifolium. This plant is a widespread
circumboreal species of North America and Eurasia, tolerant in terms of habitat conditions, and often oc-
cupying man-made open habitats. Phytochemical studies on E. angustifolium resulted in the identification
of about 250 different metabolites, including about 170 substances found for the first time in this plant in
the last six years (2014–2019). Fireweed has an abundance of polyphenolic compounds, particularly ellagi-
tannins. Oenothein B and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide are proposed as markers for the identification and
standardization of the plant raw material. E. angustifolium exhibits significant phytochemical variability in
relation to the geographical origin, plant part and time of harvest/vegetation phase. Survey of the ethnobo-
tanical literature showed that the above-mentioned species has been widely used not only as a medicinal, but
also as an edible, honey and decorative plant.
Received: 2019-08-01
Accepted: 2019-09-20
Available online: 2019-09-30
DOI: 10.2478/hepo-2019-0018

52 A. Adamczak, M. Dreger, K. Seidler-Łożykowska, K. Wielgus
botanical part, we described taxonomy, synonyms,
and also morphology, ploidy, distribution and habi-
tats of reweed. e phytochemistry included the
composition of the bioactive substances found in the
plant raw material, with particular emphasis on the
newly identied metabolites and with the descrip-
tion of the phytochemical variability of this species.
In turn, the ethnobotanical characteristic aimed to
present the traditional uses of E. angustifolium as a
medicinal, edible, honey and decorative plant.
BOTANY
Taxonomy
Epilobium (Chamerion) angustifolium is classied to
the Onagraceae family, which consists of 22 genera
and approximately 650 species. e genus Chamer-
ion (Raf.) Raf. ex Holub (syn. Chamaenerion Ség.)
with eight species restricted to the northern hemi-
sphere (mainly in Eurasia) belongs to the Onagroi-
deae subfamily and Epilobieae tribe [18]. Relatively
oen, it is included in Epilobium L., which is the
largest genus in the Onagraceae [19-22]. However,
Chamerion clearly diers from Epilobium in terms
of ower structure, leaf arrangement and other
features [18, 23-25]. Molecular data also show that
Chamerion is a separate monophyletic group of
plants [26-28].
Synonyms
e Plant List [22] provides more than 40 synonyms
of the species described, with three of these being the
most commonly used: Epilobium angustifolium L.,
Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub and Chamae-
nerion angustifolium (L.) Scop. According to Holub
[23], Chamerion should be considered the correct
Latin name of this genus, while Chamaenerion is
an illegitimate name. On the other hand, Sennikov
[25] recently presented arguments for the restora-
tion of the older name Chamaenerion. However, in
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the consumption of herbal products and
the popularity of dietary supplements are growing
throughout the world. Nutraceuticals or functional
foods are intended to improve the state of health and
well-being and to reduce the risk of nutrition-asso-
ciated diseases, including cancer prevention. Fire-
weed (Epilobium angustifolium L.) is an important
medicinal plant used in the pharmaceutical, food
and cosmetic industries. It is particularly utilized
in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia
(BPH) and prostatitis [1]. Today, dietary supple-
ments or nutraceuticals containing E. angustifolium
components are widely available in many countries
in the form of tea, capsules, pills, water and alcohol
extracts/tonics. Fireweed extracts are also utilized
in creams, shampoos and other cosmetic products,
especially for acne.
E. angustifolium is a rich source of phenolic com-
pounds, especially hydrolysable tannins (ellagitan-
nins), avonoids, and phenolic acids [2-4]. Medici-
nal properties of reweed extracts have been attrib-
uted to the synergic eect of polyphenols and the
presence of the most abundant, compound – oeno-
thein B. is substance shows various pharmacolog-
ical activities, including anti-androgenic, antiprolif-
erative, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inammatory,
and immunomodulatory properties [5-10]. Addi-
tionally, E. angustifolium exhibits antimicrobial [11-
15], analgesic [16] as well as photoprotective and
antiaging [17] activities.
Recently, the number of publications concerning
the above-mentioned species has increased signi-
cantly. Screening of the Scopus database with the
keywords of 'Epilobium/Chamerion/Chamaenerion
angustifolium' found 416 document results, includ-
ing 80 articles published in the years of 2014–2019.
A new detailed summary is required not only for
phytochemistry and pharmacology of E. angustifoli-
um, but also in the case of scattered data on reweed
botany and ethnobotany.
e aim of the study was to provide an overview
of information available on the botany, phytochem-
istry and traditional uses of E. angustifolium. In the
Key words: rosebay willowherb, phytochemical composition and variability, ellagitannins, oenothein B,
ethnobotany
Słowa kluczowe: wierzbówka kiprzyca, skład i zmienność fitochemiczna, elagotaniny, oenoteina B,
etnobotanika

53
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.): botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses. A review
Vol. 65 No. 3 2019
subentire margin, and glabrous abaxial midribs,
as well as subglabrous stems and usually triporate
pollen. e polyploid plants of subsp. circumvagum
(n=36, 54) are generally luxuriant with taller stems,
larger leaves, owers and pollen. ey have leaves
with petioles 2–7 mm long, a cuneate base, denticu-
late margin, glabrous to very pubescent midribs, as
well as strigillose stems, at least in the upper section,
while pollen is usually a mixture of triporate and
quadriporate grains [36, 37].
Distribution and habitats
E. angustifolium is a widespread circumboreal spe-
cies occurring in the temperate zone of North Amer-
ica and Eurasia at a latitude from 25o to 70o north. It
grows both in the lowlands and in the mountains: in
Switzerland to 2530 m, in North America to 3960 m,
and in the Himalayas to an altitude of 4850 m a.s.l.
Diploid populations occur in colder climates: in
Greenland, Canada, Alaska, Siberia and northern
Europe, and also tend to develop at higher altitudes.
Tetraploids grow in warmer and drier habitats oc-
cupying the southern part of the range in Eurasia
and North America [18, 38, 39]. In turn, triploids
(n=27) appear in mixed-ploidy populations of bor-
der areas [40]. e hexaploid cytotype was reported
only in central Japan and the Yunnan province of
China [36, 41].
Fireweed is a common plant occupying man-
made open habitats, such as deforested or burned
this review, the name appearing most frequently in
the references will be used: Epilobium angustifolium.
E. angustifolium is commonly known as reweed
in the United States and rosebay willowherb in Brit-
ain [25]. Other names mentioned include: peren-
nial reweed, narrow-leaved reweed, great willow-
herb, willow herb, owering willow, French willow,
etc. [29, 30].
Morphology and ploidy
Fireweed is an herbaceous perennial with long
branched rhizomes and eshy stolons. Green stems,
frequently reddish, glabrous below and pubescent
above, are erect up to 2 m high. e willow-like
leaves are alternate, 3–20 cm long. E. angustifolium
blooms from June to September, developing large
raceme inorescences consist of a number of pink
(rarely white) owers (gure 1). ey are up to 3 cm
in diameter, zygomorphic, epigynous with a small
nectar-secreting disc, markedly protandrous. e
capsules, 4–8 cm long, contain small light brown
seeds (1.0–1.3 mm in length) with greyish white
hairs up to 13 mm long. One plant could produce
76 000 wind-dispersed seeds per year [31-33]. e
weight of 1 000 seeds is about 0.07 g [34] and with-
out the pappus reaches about 0.05 g [35].
E. angustifolium is a variable species diverse in
terms of morphology and ploidy. e diploid rep-
resenting subsp. angustifolium (n=18) has sub-
sessile leaves with an obtuse or subrounded base,
Figure 1
Epilobium angustifolium in the blooming phase (Krajewice, Poland)

54 A. Adamczak, M. Dreger, K. Seidler-Łożykowska, K. Wielgus
areas, roadsides and railway embankments. is
species also occurs on the edge of forests and thick-
ets, along streams, on rocky and scree slopes, as well
as in mountain meadows. E. angustifolium prefers
nutrient-rich and mesic-moist soils, but it is tolerant
in terms of habitat conditions [31-33, 36].
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
Chemical composition
Phytochemical studies on E. angustifolium result-
ed in the identication of about 250 dierent me-
tabolites, of which about 170 substances have been
found for the rst time in this plant in the last six
years [2, 3, 8, 42-50] (table 1). Polyphenols are the
most abundant and are represented by avonoids,
phenolic acids, and hydrolysable tannins (ellagitan-
nins). Other constituents such as lignans, steroids,
triterpenoids, fatty acids, and essential oils, have
also been identied. e structures of some bioac-
tive compounds are given in gures 2 and 3.
Flavonoids
About 50 dierent avonoids and their derivatives
have been identied in reweed extracts. ey in-
clude avonol aglycones: kaempferol, quercetin and
myricetin, which contain a single sugar moiety of
glucuronic acid, rhamnose, glucose, arabinose or
galactose. Quercetin-3-O-glucuronide is the most
dominant and characteristic avonoid of E. angus-
tifolium, contrary to myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside
(myricitrin), which is the main avonoid of the
other Epilobium species [51]. Recently, avonol gly-
coconjugates acylated with hydroxycinnamic acids
were also detected [50].
Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids and their derivatives are one of the
dominant groups of phenolics found in E. angus-
tifolium, and are important contributors to the
antioxidant [48] and therapeutic potential against
BPH of this species [49]. A great variety of these
compounds, including 39 substances (e.g., caeic,
ellagic, ferulic, gallic, protocatechuic acids and caf-
feoylquinic acid isomers), has been found in the
reweed [8, 43, 48-50].
Hydrolysable tannins
E. angustifolium contains a high level of ellagitan-
nins, which represent about 15% of the dry mass of
the herb [2]. Ellagitannins are bioactive polyphe-
nols belonging to the class of hydrolysable tannins,
characterized as hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP)
esters of sugar, mainly glucose. Both monomeric
(e.g., tellimagrandin I, gemin D) and macrocyclic
ellagitannins have been isolated from E. angusti-
folium herb [2, 3]. Oenothein B is a dimer which
includes two molecules of tellimagrandin I mono-
mers. Other macrocyclic ellagitannins – oenothein
A (trimer) and larger ellagitannins up to heptam-
ers – were also detected and characterized using
the UPLC-MS/MS method [2]. Oenothein B is a
principal bioactive compound and the most abun-
dant ellagitannin, whose content ranges up to 50%
of the total mass of oligomeric ellagitannins in the
extract [2]. Depending on the plant origin and
harvest time, oenothein B concentration in the raw
material varies from 2 to 4.5% [50, 52, 53]. is
compound has been considered to be the main
contributor to the anti-androgenic, antiprolifera-
tive and anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inammato-
ry as well as antimicrobial eects of E. angustifo-
lium extracts [4]. erefore, analysis of oenothein
B and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide contents is rec-
ommended to provide markers and a basis for the
plant raw material standardization [4, 6, 43, 51].
Lignans
Recently, phytochemical analyses of ethyl acetate
and n-butanol extracts obtained from the aerial
parts of E. angustifolium resulted in the identica-
tion of ve lignans, including pinoresinol and its
derivatives, and salicifoliol. However, these com-
pounds did not show the anti-BPH activity [49].
Steroids, terpenoids and fatty acids
Besides polyphenols, the aerial parts of E. angusti-
folium contain a lipophilic fraction rich in steroids,
terpenoids and fatty acids. e presence of campes-
terol, cholesterol, stigmasterol as well as β-sitosterol
and its derivatives was reported [49, 50, 54-56]. Fat-
ty acids (41 identied compounds) as well as triter-
penes (e.g., oleanolic, pomolic and ursolic acids) are
the main components of the lipophilic fraction of
E. angustifolium extracts [42].

55
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.): botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses. A review
Vol. 65 No. 3 2019
Figure 2
Chemical structures of tellimagrandin I (a), oenothein B (b), and oenothein A (c)

56 A. Adamczak, M. Dreger, K. Seidler-Łożykowska, K. Wielgus
Figure 3
Chemical structures of quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (a), myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside (b), kaempherol-3-O-arabinoside (c), caeic acid
(d), ellagic acid (e), 3-O-caeoylquinic acid (f), 5-O-caeoylquinic acid (g), campesterol (h) cholesterol (i), and β-sitosterol (j)

57
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.): botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses. A review
Vol. 65 No. 3 2019
Group of
compounds Compounds
Flavonoids Annulatin-O-arabinoside*, annulatin-O-glucoside*, annulatin-O-rhamnoside*
Kaempferol, kaempferol-3-O-arabinoside (juglalin), kaempferol-3-O-glucoside*, kaempferol-7-O-p-
coumaroylglucoside*, kaempferol-3-O-(6''-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-glucuronide, kaempferol-7-O-
glucuronide*, kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside, kaempferol-7-O-rhamnoside*, kaempferol-3-O-rhamnopyranoside*,
kaempferol-3-O-galloylhexoside*, kaempferol 8-O-methyl ether, kaempferol-3-O-[6"-(E)-p-coumaroyl]-
mannopyranoside*
Myricetin, myricetin-3-O-arabinoside, myricetin-3-O-galactoside, myricetin-3-O-galactopyranoside*, myricetin-
3-O-glucoside (isomyricitrin), myricetin-7-O-glucoside*, myricetin-3,5-O-diglucoside*, myricetin-3-O-
caeoylglucoside*, myricetin-3-O-glucuronide, myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside (myricitrin), myricetin-3-O-pentoside*,
myricetin-3-O-hexoside*, myricetin-3-O-galloylhexoside*
Quercetin, quercetin-3-O-arabinoside (guajaverin), 3-O-methylquercetin-O-arabinoside*, quercetin-3-O-
arabinofuranoside (avicularin)*, quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), quercetin-3-O-(6''-galloyl)-galactoside,
quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercetin), quercetin-7-O-glucoside*, quercetin-7-O-caeoylglucoside*, quercetin-
caeoylhexoside*, quercetin-7-O-p-coumaroylglucoside*, quercetin-3-O-p-coumaroylhexoside*, quercetin-3-
O-feruloylglucoside*, quercetin-7-O-[galloyl]-glucoside*, quercetin-O-[digalloyl]-glucoside*, quercetin-3-O-
galloylhexoside*, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (miquelianin), quercetin-3-O-glucuronide-6''-methyl ester*, quercetin
3-O-(6”-n-butyl glucuronide)*, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (quercitrin), quercetin-7-O-rhamnoside*, quercetin-3-
O-rutinoside (rutin)*
Phenolic acids and
their derivatives Benzoic acid*, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid*, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (protocatechuic acid),
protocatechuic acid methyl ester*, 4-glucosyloxy-3-hydroxybenzoic acid*, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde*, methyl
p-hydroxy benzeneacetate*, benzyl 1-O-glucopyranoside*, caeic acid, digalloyl caeic acid*, cinnamic acid,
p-hydroxycinnamic acid (p-coumaric acid)*, p-hydroxycinnamic methyl ester*, ellagic acid, ferulic acid,
gallic acid, digallic acid*, methyl gallate*, octyl gallate, gentisic acid, 3-O-caeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic
acid), 4-O-caeoylquinic acid (cryptochlorogenic acid)*, 5-O-caeoylquinic acid (neochlorogenic acid),
4-O-caeoylquinic acid methyl ester*, ethyl 4-O-caeoylquinate*, methyl chlorogenat*, 3-O-p-coumaroylquinic
acid, 4-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid, 5-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid, 5-O-coumaroylquinic acid methyl ester*,
3-O-feruloylquinic acid, 5-O-feruloylquinic acid, 3-O-feruloylquinic acid methyl ester*, galloylshikimic acid*,
syringoylquinic acid*, valoneic acid dilactone, valoneic acid dilactone methyl ester*, 1'-monodecarboxyvaloneic acid
dilactone*, vanillic aldehyde*
Hydrolysable
tannins 1,6-di-O-Galloylglucose*, 1,2,6-tri-O-galloylglucose, 1,4,6-tri-O-galloylglucose*, 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-galloylglucose,
1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloylglucose, 1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-4,6-HHDP-glucose, 2,3-di-O-galloyl-4,6-HHDP-glucose,
β-glucogallin*, digalloylglucose* and its isomer*, galloylconiferolglucose*, digalloylrhamnoside*, gemin D* and its
isomer*, isostrictinin*, oenothein A* and B, oxidized oenothein A derivative*, pedunculagin*, tellimagrandin I* and
II*, tellimagrandin I oligomers* from tetramer to heptamer
Lignans* Pinoresinol, pinoresinol-4-O-glucopyranoside, 4-ketopinoresinol, salicifoliol,
(7R, 8S)-3,5'-dimethoxy-4',7-epoxy-8,3'-neolignane-5,9,9'-triol
Steroids Campesterol, cholesterol, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol caprate, β-sitosterol capronate, β-sitosterol caprylate, β-sitosterol
glucoside (daucosterol), β-sitosterol (6"-O-acetyl)-glucoside, β-sitosterol palmitate, β-sitosterol propionate,
stigmasterol
Triterpenes Betulinic acid*, corosolic acid, maslinic acid, oleanolic acid, acetyl oleanolic acid*, oleanonic acid*, pomolic acid*,
ursolic acid, acetyl ursolic acid*, ursonic acid*, urs-12-ene-2α,3-diol*
Fatty acids Arachic acid*, arachidic acid, behenic acid, capric acid, caproic acid, caprylic acid, cerotic acid, tricosanic acid*,
tetracosanic acid*, pentacosanic acid*, hexacosanic acid*, heptacosanic acid*, octacosanic acid*, nonacosanic
acid*, heneicosanic acid*, 2-hydroxytricosanic acid*, 2-hydroxytetracosanic acid*, 2-hydroxyhexacosanic acid*,
2-hydroxyoctacosanic acid*, pentadecanoic acid*, nonadecanoic acid*, hexadecanedioic acid*, octadecanedioic
acid*, pentadecenic acid*, triacontanic acid*, 2-hydroxytriacontanic acid*, eicosenoic acid, eicosandioic acid*, lauric
acid, lignoceric acid, linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, γ-linolenic acid*, margaric acid*, melissic acid, montanic acid,
myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid*, stearic acid
Essential oil* ε-Amorphene, anethole, cis-anethole, trans-anethole, dihydroapofarnesal, cis-arbusculone, benzyl alcohol,
β-bisabolene, β-bourbonene, γ-cadinene, δ-cadinene, α-caryophyllene, β-caryophyllene, α-copaene, β-cubebene,
decanal, tridecane, tetradecane, n-decane, 2,6-dimethyl-7-octen-4-one, n-dodecane, γ-elemene, estragole, eugenol,
trans-α-farnesene, n-hexadecanol, trans-2-hexenal, cis-3-hexenol, cis-3-hexenyl hexanoate, cis-3-hexenyl pentanoate,
β-ionone, isogermacrene D, isopentyl butyrate, 3-methylbutyl-2-methylbutyrate, 2-methyl-cis-3-hexenylbutanoate,
cis-3-hexenyl isobutanoate, cis-3-hexenyl butyrate, linalool, pelargol, menthol, nonanal, cis-3-hexenol propanoate,
cis-3-hexen-1-yl-2-methylcrotonate, phenethyl alcohol, phenylacetaldehyde, dihydromyrcenol, tetrahydrofurfuryl
propionate, γ-terpinen-7-al, vomifoliol
Others Abscisic acid*, L-ascorbic acid, 2-hydroxybenzothiazole*, 1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid methyl ester*, ceryl alcohol,
chamaenerolide A*, charenol, chanerozan, choline, excavatine B*, benzofuran-2-carboxaldehyde*, 5-hydroxymethyl-
2-furancarboxaldehyde*, (E)-4-(5-(hydroxymethyl) furan-2-yl)but-3-en-2-one*, methyl 1-(2-oxo-4-quinolyl)
formate*, hematinic acid methyl ester*, loliolide*, n-nonacosan, n-butyl pyroglutamate*, serine, threonine
Table 1
Chemical compounds identied in Epilobium angustifolium
* – chemical compounds identied in E. angustifolium for the rst time in the last six years (2014–2019) [2, 3, 8, 42-50].

58 A. Adamczak, M. Dreger, K. Seidler-Łożykowska, K. Wielgus
Essential oils
Kaškonienė et al. [8, 45] identied nearly 50 dier-
ent compounds in essential oils of reweed (table
1). Anethole and caryophyllenes were the most fre-
quent constituents of the essential oil obtained from
plants growing in Lithuania, and they divided speci-
mens into two chemotypes [45].
Phytochemical variability
Fireweed is characterized by signicant inter-pop-
ulation variability. Investigations of Kaškonienė et
al. [8, 45] showed that the total content of phenolics
and avonoids in E. angustifolium herb harvested in
the massive blooming phase from dierent Lithu-
anian populations varies from 70.6 to 144.5 mg/g
and from 14.3 to 41.0 mg/g, respectively. In turn, the
levels of these compounds in the samples consisting
of leaves and owers, and obtained from 10 Finnish
populations, were 151–206 mg/g and 5.8–16.6 mg/g.
Additionally, the inter-population variability was
strongly expressed in the ratio of oenothein B and A
as well as in avonoid abundance, especially myric-
etin-3-O-glucoside and myricetin-3-O-glucuronide
[3]. e phytochemical variation of E. angustifo-
lium increases when dierent plant parts are ana-
lyzed, and the raw material is collected in various
development phases (table 2). Generally, the high-
est polyphenol content was recorded in the massive
owering phase [3, 44, 47, 50, 57]. Flowers and in-
orescences are distinguished by high amounts of
avonoids [3, 44, 47]. It was found that avonoids
and ellagitannins exhibit the most specic distri-
bution pattern within the whole plant [3]. Flowers
contained 10% more oenothein B and half as much
oenothein A as leaves.
TRADITIONAL USES
E. angustifolium is an interesting medicinal and wild
edible plant of the Northern Hemisphere. Its aerial
parts (herb and leaves) have been used in European
folk medicine to treat stomach disorders, liver and
prostate gland inammation as well as kidney and
urinary tract diseases [58, 59]. Traditional appli-
cation of this plant in phytotherapy also includes
migraine headaches, insomnia, anaemia, delirium
tremens, infections, colds, etc. Externally, reweed
is used as antiphlogistic and antiseptic agent for
treating mycoses, minor burns, skin rashes, ulcers,
wounds as well as inammation of the ear, nose, and
throat [4, 12].
In the USA, usage of E. angustifolium is
rec
ommended by herbalists in the case of colic with
chronic, non-inammatory diarrhea, gastroenteri-
tis, vomiting, dysentery, and prostatitis [60]. In Rus-
sia, reweed tea is oen consumed as a remedy for
stomach ulceration, gastritis, and sleeping disorders
[61, 62]. In the 19th century, an infusion prepared
from fermented leaves of E. angustifolium, called
Ivan or Koporye tea, was popular in England and
other Western European countries, and it constitut-
ed a very important export commodity of the Rus-
sian Empire. In turn, reweed roots and stems are
used in Chinese medicine for treatment of traumatic
injury, subduing inammation, and menstrual dis-
orders [49].
A survey of ethnobotanical literature shows that
medicinal properties of E. angustifolium have been
well known by the North American indigenous
peoples, especially in Canada and Alaska. e First
Nations in northern Ontario used it to treat inam-
mation, burns, boils, sores, rashes, mouth ulcers,
and yeast infections [63]. Among the Cree, macer-
ated roots were applied to boils or infections, and
leaves of this species were plastered on bruises. A
tea from the whole plant was prepared by the Woods
Cree of Saskatchewan against intestinal parasites,
and crushed roots were used to boils, abscesses, and
wounds. A decoction of reweed herb was made in
parts of Alaska and throughout the Arctic to initi-
ate secretion of breast milk. In turn, the Cheyenne
of Montana applied a tea from roots and leaves to
rectal haemorrhage [64].
E. angustifolium has been widely utilized as a veg-
etable. Its young shoots, harvested in spring before
blooming, were the source of the sweet and succulent
raw pith or aer cooking they were eaten like aspara-
gus [30]. e unopened buds were added to salads,
or pickled like capers [64], whereas the petals were
used for jelly [65]. e Inuit consumed underground
plant parts, aer boiling [64]. In turn, the Saami oc-
casionally collected the leaves of reweed, mainly for
mixing it with reindeer milk. In famine years, this
plant has been eaten by the settlers in northern Swe-
den. Fireweed was also reported in the 19th century
among emergency bread additives [66].
Due to the mass occurrence and blooming,
E. angustifolium belongs to the important honey
plants in Canada and Russia (especially Siberia).
In Alaska, a sugar syrup prepared with boiled clo-
ver and fireweed blossoms is also known under
the same name of fireweed honey [67]. In this

59
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.): botany, phytochemistry and traditional uses. A review
Vol. 65 No. 3 2019
region, rhubarb candy with fireweed vodka, jelly
from fireweed blossoms and ice cream with its
petals are made, too.
The stem fibres of E. angustifolium were used to
weave of fishing nets [30]. The fresh leaves were
utilized for preserving of bowstrings, whereas
flowers for waterproofing of mittens and rawhide
thongs [64].
Among the plants occurring in the North, E. an-
gustifolium is one of the most attractive species. Be-
cause of its easy cultivation, large and numerous
purple owers and deep red autumn foliage, it occa-
sionally grows as an ornamental. Fireweed was also
chosen as the oral emblem of Yukon, and it is on
the ag of this territory of Canada [65].
CONCLUSIONS
E. angustifolium is a valuable medicinal plant, used
especially in the treatment of urogenital disorders:
benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostati-
tis. In the North (Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia,
and Siberia), it has been traditionally used as an
edible, honey and decorative species, too. E. angus-
tifolium is a rich source of polyphenols: avonoids,
phenolic acids and ellagitannins. Phytochemi-
cal analyses resulted in the identication of about
250 metabolites, including about 170 substances
found for the rst time in this plant in the last six
years. Two bioactive compounds: oenothein B and
quercetin-3-O-glucuronide are proposed for the
identication and standardization of the reweed
raw material. E. angustifolium is characterized by
Source of
variability
Content of Plant part Harvest time Reference: [57]
Polyphenols Tannins Flavonoids
Plant part
and harvest
time
40.6–85.0 77.2–162.8 0.05–0.19 Roots
From May to
October (Estonia)
Conclusion:
Summer (July-August) is the
optimal time of harvest of
the plant raw material.
55.9–83.3 27.3–149.9 0.06–0.21 Stems
27.6–63.8 160.6–414.2 1.63–2.35 Leaves
34.1–34.7 279.0–361.5 1.55–2.09 Flowers
35.4–46.7 175.4–202.1 0.68–1.22 Fruits
Source of
variability
Content in herb during vegetation Content in dierent parts of plants Reference: [44]
Flavonoids Vegetation phase Flavonoids Plant part Vegetation phase
Vegetation
phase and
plant part
3.39 Intensive growing 12.57 Flowers
Massive blooming
phase
Conclusion:
Flowers and the herb in the
massive blooming phase
are the most valuable raw
material.
Conclusion:
Myricetin is the dominant
avonoid in owers.
9.03 Flower buds 6.27 Leaves
11.12 Massive blooming 2.26 Stems
9.10 Ripening of fruits
7.56 End of vegetation
Content of individual avonoids during the massive blooming phase Plant
part
Hyperoside Myricetin Quercitrin Quercetin Kaempferol
Plant part
2.34 8.75 1.45 0.02 0.02 Flowers
4.43 0.65 1.14 0.04 0.02 Leaves
1.76 0.12 0.37 0.01 0.01 Stems
Source of
Variability
Content of
Plant part Reference: [3]
Oenothein B Oenothein A Neochlorogenic
acid
Quercetin-3-
O-GlcA
Plant part
83.37 25.12 1.11 1.61 Flowers Conclusion:
e inorescence apex
exhibits the highest content
of oenothein B and A, while
the leaves are the richest in
neochlorogenic acid and
quercetin-3-O-glucuronide.
75.44 22.83 1.10 1.49 Flower buds
66.09 43.18 4.71 5.23 Leaves
148.28 52.14 1.36 1.48 Apex of inorescence
51.32 24.32 0.47 0.81 Bottom of inorescence
17.01–26.61 11.50–16.34 0.02–0.29 0.09–0.34 Vegetative part of stem
Quercetin-3-O-GlcA – quercetin-3-O-glucuronide.
Table 2
Phytochemical variability of Epilobium angustifolium (mg/g) in relation to the plant part and time of harvest/vegetation phase

60 A. Adamczak, M. Dreger, K. Seidler-Łożykowska, K. Wielgus
signicant phytochemical variability in relation
to the geographical origin, plant part and time of
harvest/vegetation phase. Flowers and the herb in
the massive blooming phase are the most valuable
plant raw material. e inorescence apex exhibits
the highest content of oenothein B and A, while the
leaves are the richest in neochlorogenic acid and
quercetin-3-O-glucuronide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
is work was funded by the Polish National Cen-
tre of Research and Development (grant no. PBS2/
A8/23/2013) and the Polish Ministry of Science and
Higher Education (contract number 205710/E-198/
SPUB/2016/1).
Ethical approval: e conducted research is not re-
lated to either human or animal use.
Conflict of interest: Authors declare no conflict
of interest.
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