Article

Cocoa Production Stability in Relation to Changing Rainfall and Temperature in East Java, Indonesia

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Abstract

Climate change as indicated by rising temperature and changing rainfall pattern has been known to affect cacao production in many production countries. However, studies on the effects of rainfall and temperature variability on the cacao production are rarely reported in Indonesia. Hence, the objective of this study is to evaluate the stability of cocoa production in relation to rainfall and temperature variability in order to develop sustainable production under climate change scenario. Research was conducted at a state owned company in Jember District, East Java, Indonesia from February to June 2015. Production and climatic data of 2010-2015 were evaluated using simple regression and correlation analysis. Results revealed that productivity fluctuated among months and among years. However, the fluctuation among months (s2 = 117.076) was lower than among years (s2 = 311.225). Rainfall and temperature showed variability among months and among years; and the fluctuation among months was lower in both rainfall and temperature. Rainfall at one to four months before harvest correlated with production (r=0.400-0.671; P= 0.000 to 0.001) and temperature at two to four months before harvest determined cocoa production (r=0.371-0.412; P=0.001-0.003). High monthly cocoa production coincided with decreasing temperature and rainfall for 4 to 5 months during pod development. The presented study implies that both short and long term strategies should be implemented under climatic variability to sustain cocoa production. It is recommended to apply production technology to stabilize micro climate temperature and to minimize the impact of high rainfall such as shade plant and canopy manipulation.

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... Faktor iklim merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi kakao yang tidak dapat dikendalikan oleh manusia (Lawal & Omonona, 2014). Perubahan iklim yang ditunjukkan dengan kenaikan suhu dan perubahan pola curah hujan diketahui mempengaruhi produksi kakao di banyak negara penghasil (Santosa et al., 2018). ...
... Curah hujan berperan penting dalam menentukan kualitas buah kakao (Tjahjana et al., 2014). Ada korelasi yang signifikan antara bulanan produksi kakao dan curah hujan (Santosa et al., 2018). Tanaman kakao sangat rentan terhadap perubahan suhu. ...
... Jika dilihat dari Tabel 4, produksi kakao mengalami peningkatan pada saat curah hujan dan intensitas (hari hujan) mulai meningkat. Perubahan iklim yang ditunjukkan dengan kenaikan suhu dan perubahan pola curah hujan diketahui mempengaruhi produksi kakao di banyak negara penghasil (Santosa et al., 2018). ...
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... *Corresponding author; email: wachjarade@yahoo.co.id challenges related to poor soil fertility, pest and disease attacks and climate change effects (ICCRI, 2015;Santosa et al., 2018). From 2012 to 2016, cocoa bean production in Indonesia decreased to 658,399 tons indicating a 11.09% decline grown in an area of 1.72 million hectares indicating a 3.03% decrease in area under production (Ditjenbun, 2017). ...
... In Indonesia, cocoa cultivation generally relies on NPK fertilizers from inorganic sources; although cocoa intercropping to optimize fertilizer input is also common (Santosa et al., 2005). Santosa et al. (2018) speculated that high rainfall will have a detrimental effect on cocoa plantation because of high nutrient leaching and disease outbreak. Therefore, there is a need to improve fertilizer management in relation to climate change in order to conserve soil nutrients in the plantation. ...
... Phenologically, cacao tree is able to produce pods throughout the year. However, cocoa production might fluctuate depending on water availability (ICCRI, 2015;Santosa et al., 2018). In general, it takes 5 -6 months or about 143 -170 days from anthesis to pod ready to be harvested (ICCRI, 2015), at which first phase (75 days) started from fertilization followed by a 40-day of slow growth and a 35-day of fast growth resulted in pod length about 11 cm, and the second phase (120 days) characterized by pods enlargement (ICCRI, 2006). ...
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... On the other hand, there is a substantial difference between the temperature of the day and the night. Previous research on cocoa plantations in East Java showed that the increase in temperature within 2-4 months before harvest time had a negative impact on production [17]. Similarly, in Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta, the changes in air temperature are one of the factors affecting fluctuations in cocoa yields [18]. ...
... Dry months for 1-6 months before harvest reduce the cocoa pod quality in Sukabumi, West Java [19]. Meanwhile, decreased rainfall 2-4 months before harvest has negatively impacted cocoa production in East Java [17]. In 2019, a prolonged drought in Lampung reduced the number of cocoa pods, even causing crop failure [20]. ...
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... Rainfall seemed to have a higher impact than temperature. However, other parameter could interfere, such as genotype and pedoclimatic conditions [160]. Cupuassu are also sensitive to water deficit. ...
... Like cocoa, it grows better in shaded areas and would be more productive when grown intercropped with other species [161]. It takes short-and long-term strategies to maintain cocoa production [160]. Cupuassu could be a good strategy to satisfy the producer with new growing areas and the consumer, who are looking for new products with traceability, ethics, and original flavor. ...
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... Tanaman kakao sangat rawan terhadap perubahan suhu yang dengan mudahnya tidak dapat diabaikan karena akan berdampak pada pertumbuhan dan perkembangan tanaman. Adanya perubahan suhu yang akan mempengaruhi produksi hasil tanaman kakao (Santosa et al., 2018;Yoroba et al., 2019;Ardiani et al., 2022) e. Angin Angin dapat berpengaruh terhadap kerusakan mekanis dan menurunkan kelembaban sehingga berdampak pada kematian tanaman. Secara efektif, maksimum kecepatan angin yang tepat pada tanaman kakao sekitar 4m/detik (Indah et al., 2014). ...
Book
Hama dalam arti luas adalah semua bentuk gangguan baik pada manusia, ternak dan tanaman. Pengertian hama dalam arti sempit yang berkaitan dengan kegiatan budidaya tanaman adalah semua hewan yang merusak tanaman atau hasilnya yang mana aktivitas hidupnya ini dapat menimbulkan kerugian secara ekonomis. Adanya suatu hewan dalam satu pertanaman sebelum menimbulkan kerugian secara ekonomis maka dalam pengertian ini belum termasuk hama. Namun demikian potensi mereka sebagai hama nantinya perlu dimonitor dalam suatu kegiatan yang disebut pemantauan (monitoring). Secara garis besar hewan yang dapat menjadi hama dapat dari jenis serangga, moluska, tungau, tikus, burung, atau mamalia besar. Mungkin di suatu daerah hewan tersebut menjadi hama, namun di daerah lain belum tentu menjadi hama.
... This chart shows that rainfall has the most influence on cocoa crop yield. This prediction is supported by a study that rainfall is high correlated with cocoa crop yield prediction, especially four months before harvest activity [23], [44]. Figure 11. ...
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... In Jember, high monthly rainfall and temperatures two, three, and four months before harvest were detrimental. Meanwhile, high monthly cocoa production coincided with lower temperatures and rainfall for four to five months during the development of cocoa pod [13]. Rainfall plays an important role in determining the quality of cocoa pods [14]. ...
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... The country's cocoa production is primarily carried out by smallholders (94%), private companies (3%), and state-owned enterprises (3%) (Rubiyo and Siswanto, 2012). Although Indonesia's cocoa plantation is highly competitive in bean production on a global scale (Tresliyana et al., 2015) and relatively less vulnerable to climate change (Santosa et al., 2018a), low cocoa bean productivity remains a significant concern. According to Fahmid et al. (2018), the average productivity of cocoa in Indonesia is 175% lower than that of Malaysia and 22% lower than that of Ivory Coast. ...
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The nursery phase plays a crucial role in rejuvenating cocoa plantations as it significantly impacts the quality and productivity of the mature trees in the field. However, despite its significance, there remains a lack of understanding regarding its contribution to the water footprint (WF) in cocoa production. This study aims to assess the WF of various propagation techniques to promote sustainable nursery practices. Data on nurseries were collected at the Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute in Jember, East Java, Indonesia, from June 2017 to January 2018. The results revealed that propagation accounted for a total WF ranging from 74.28 to 319.41 m3.ha-1 of established cocoa trees, with an average of 186.68 m3. This total WF consisted of 9.02 to 12.89 m3 (7.69%) attributed to seed production and 61.39 to 283.34 m3 (92.30%) attributed to the nursery phase. Among the different nursery techniques studied, the production of true seedlings exhibited the lowest WF, followed by side grafting. To optimize cocoa rejuvenation and minimize WF, it is crucial to carefully select the appropriate nursery technique. Further evaluation is necessary to explore the potential benefits of implementing precision irrigation techniques to reduce WF during the nursery phase. By focusing on sustainable nursery practices, we can enhance the overall sustainability of cocoa production.
... The problem with the limiting factor of water availability, namely rainfall, can be done by managing the irrigation system [27]. Excessive rainfall and drought will affect cocoa production [28]. Rainfall contributes to 79.48% of cocoa productivity, with the remaining 20.52% being influenced by various other factors [29]. ...
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... Tanaman kakao sangat rawan terhadap perubahan suhu yang dengan mudahnya tidak dapat diabaikan karena akan berdampak pada pertumbuhan dan perkembangan tanaman. Adanya perubahan suhu yang akan mempengaruhi produksi hasil tanaman kakao (Santosa et al., 2018;Yoroba et al., 2019;Ardiani et al., 2022) e. Angin Angin dapat berpengaruh terhadap kerusakan mekanis dan menurunkan kelembaban sehingga berdampak pada kematian tanaman. Secara efektif, maksimum kecepatan angin yang tepat pada tanaman kakao sekitar 4m/detik (Indah et al., 2014). ...
Book
Full-text available
Hama dalam arti luas adalah semua bentuk gangguan baik pada manusia, ternak dan tanaman. Pengertian hama dalam arti sempit yang berkaitan dengan kegiatan budidaya tanaman adalah semua hewan yang merusak tanaman atau hasilnya yang mana aktivitas hidupnya ini dapat menimbulkan kerugian secara ekonomis. Adanya suatu hewan dalam satu pertanaman sebelum menimbulkan kerugian secara ekonomis maka dalam pengertian ini belum termasuk hama
... Marahoué. If the precipitation and temperature variabilities can be associated to regional [7] [32] [33] and also to local [34] [35] [36] effects, cocoa production variability is significantly governed by climatic factors (e.g., rainfall and temperature) [16] [28] [30] [37]. Furthermore, several studies [38] [39] extend this dependence of cocoa production on climate to all agricultural production based on correlative statistics. ...
... Läderach et al. (2013) demonstrated that future climate change will affect cacao farming in Africa's largest cocoa producer countries. Santosa et al. (2018) showed that productions of cacao in Java-Indonesia fluctuates under climate variability. One strategy to mitigate the potential effects of climate change is to generate simple maps of the cacao regions in relation to spatial variation of climate and soils. ...
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... According to [6], high temperature can also cause stress indirectly due to the higher evapotranspirative demand of the air. Thus, some studies recommend the implementation of production technologies to stabilize the temperature of the microclimate and reduce the impacts of high rainfall, such as the use of shading plants and canopy manipulation [51]. ...
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Cocoa is a plant with origins in northwestern South America with high relevance in the global economy. Evidence indicates that cocoa is sensitive to a dry climate, under which crop production is reduced. Projections for future climate change scenarios suggest a warmer and drier climate in the Amazon basin. In this paper, we quantify the potential effects in cocoa production due to its edaphoclimatic suitability changes to the Brazilian Amazon biome and account for regional differences in planning occupation territories. We modeled the suitability of cocoa’s geographical distribution using an ensemble of 10 correlative models that were run in the “biomod2” library and projected to two future climate scenarios (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5) by 2050. Combining information on climate and soil suitability and installed infrastructure in the macro-regions of the Brazilian Amazon. We defined a zoning system to indicate how cocoa production may respond to climate change according to the current and future suitability model. Our results suggest that a reduction in precipitation and an increase in temperature may promote a reduction in the suitability of cocoa production in the Brazilian Amazon biome. In addition of the areas suitable for cocoa plantation, we found a 37.05% and 73.15% decrease in the areas suitable for intensification and expansion zones under RCP 4.5 and 8.5, respectively, compared with the current scenario. We conclude that there may be a need to expand land to cocoa production in the future, or else it will be necessary to plant a cocoa variety resistant to new climatic conditions. Besides, we recommend procedures to combat illegal deforestation to prevent the most critical climate change scenarios from occurring.
... Previous research [20] also explained that high rainfall can harm several metabolic processes that contribute to pod development. Cocoa is a crop that is susceptible to excessive rainfall and drought [21]. According [22], explained that the direct impact of climate change on productivity was drought (low water availability in the soil), which can reduce cocoa production and can even kill many cocoa trees. ...
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... These characteristics make a shaded cocoa system more efficient and guarantee long-term sustainable cocoa yields in comparison to the unshaded system. The studied rise in outputs of the former is further explained by the fact that cocoa is highly sensitive to changes of environmental conditions and requires shade for efficient physiological functioning [49,55]. Intercropping shade trees with cocoa is a common practice among farmers; as it ameliorates the negative impact of environmental stress. ...
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... Phenotypic plasticity evaluation is an important aspect concerning changing climate that had broad implications to crop and animal production (Santosa et al. 2018a;Arnold et al. 2019;Bonamour et al. 2019). Many agronomists address climate change to particular crops to the presence of abiotic stress due to flooding (water excess) or drought (water deficit) (Striker 2012;Dulbari et al. 2017;Santosa et al. 2018b). ...
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Long droughts and high rainfall as a result of climate change have an effect on reducing cocoa yields. This study aimed to study the effect of the 2019 drought on the growth and production of seven cocoa clones. The research was conducted from September 2019 to February 2020 in Cibinong Village, Way Ratai District, using a Randomized Block Design (RAK) with 3 replications and treatment of seven cocoa clones, namely BCL clones, BL 50, MCC 02, Sul 1, Sul 2, ICCRI 01, and ICCRI 03. The cacao plants used were 5 years old after side grafting using rootstocks of local varieties from seeds, with a monoculture planting system. The results showed that in 2019 Lampung Province experienced a long dry season with 7 dry months, namely from May to November, with a total rainfall of 1718 mm, and in August and September it did not rain at all. Clones had an effect on the number of cocoa leaves in November and February, but had no significant effect on the number of leaf flushes, number of flowers, number of pistils, and number of fruit. Long drought reduced leaf flush count, flower count, pistil number, and the number of small, medium, and large fruit. The long drought caused minor crop failures in the current year (in October) and major crop failures the following year (April). Key words : Cacao, clone, drought, growth, production
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The Indonesian cocoa sector has experienced tremendous growth in the past twenty five years with massive growth, driven by rapid expansion of smallholder farmer participation. Cocoa production provides the main source of income of millions smallholder farmers and their families in Indonesia. Smallholders contribute more than ninety percent of national production; the remainder comes from state-owned plantations and private estates. In parts of Indonesia, cocoa is responsible for the opening up of primary forests and the establishment of settlements in these previously forested areas. Cocoa intensification system, which increases the fragmentation of primary forests and is considered agriculturally unsustainable, is becoming common in Indonesia. This paper presents the synthesis that resulted from this review as well as the researcher’s critical appraisal of the state of the research field of intensification system and its effect under climate change which the objective remaining stakeholder relevant to the sustainable intensification of farming practices of the poor smallholder farmers in Indonesia.
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The West African cocoa belt, reaching from Sierra Leone to southern Cameroon, is the origin of about 70% of the world's cocoa (Theobroma cacao), which in turn is the basis of the livelihoods of about two million farmers. We analyze cocoa's vulnerability to climate change in the West African cocoa belt, based on climate projections for the 2050s of 19 Global Circulation Models under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change intermediate emissions scenario RCP 6.0. We use a combination of a statistical model of climatic suitability (Maxent) and the analysis of individual, potentially limiting climate variables. We find that: 1) contrary to expectation, maximum dry season temperatures are projected to become as or more limiting for cocoa as dry season water availability; 2) to reduce the vulnerability of cocoa to excessive dry season temperatures, the systematic use of adaptation strategies like shade trees in cocoa farms will be necessary, in reversal of the current trend of shade reduction; 3) there is a strong differentiation of climate vulnerability within the cocoa belt, with the most vulnerable areas near the forest-savanna transition in Nigeria and eastern Côte d'Ivoire, and the least vulnerable areas in the southern parts of Cameroon, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia; 4) this spatial differentiation of climate vulnerability may lead to future shifts in cocoa production within the region, with the opportunity of partially compensating losses and gains, but also the risk of local production expansion leading to new deforestation. We conclude that adaptation strategies for cocoa in West Africa need to focus at several levels, from the consideration of tolerance to high temperatures in cocoa breeding programs, the promotion of shade trees in cocoa farms, to policies incentivizing the intensification of cocoa production on existing farms where future climate conditions permit and the establishment of new farms in already deforested areas.
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Theobroma cacao is a tropical understory tree that is one of the most important perennial crops in agriculture. Treasured by ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica for over 3,000 years, the cocoa bean now supports a multibillion-dollar industry that is involved in the production and commercialization of chocolate, a treat appreciated worldwide. The cacao tree is originally from the Amazon rainforest and is currently grown in more than 50 countries throughout the humid tropics, serving as a major source of income for over 40 million people. Each year, more than 3 million tons of cocoa beans are produced, mostly by smallholder farmers in areas of high biodiversity. Notably, the cacao tree does not require direct sunlight and naturally grows under the canopy of other, taller trees. This characteristic often encourages farmers to preserve existing forests and to plant additional trees to shelter their cacao plants [1], thereby reducing the environmental impacts of cacao cultivation. Despite its great importance, the cacao tree is affected by a number of untreatable diseases that reduce fruit production and threaten our global supply of cacao. Among them, witches' broom disease (WBD) stands out as one of the most severe problems that affect this crop, accounting for production losses of up to 90%.
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Monthly observation of cocoa flushing, number of cherelle wilt (CW), number of small, medium and large pods of 6 clones was conducted for two years to study its dynamics for one year. A study was conducted in Kaliwining Experimental Station, 45 m asl. and D rainfall type (according to Schmidt & Ferguson), using ICS 13, ICS 60, TSH 858, Sulawesi 1, Sulawesi 2 and KW 165 clones of 8 years old. Each clone was planted intermittently in separate rows, replicated 6 rows. Correlation and regression analysis were done between variables and with rainfall data. The parallel research was conducted in the similar station to assess the accuracy of production estimation method by identify percentage of small pods (length 1—10 cm), medium (11—15 cm) and large pods (>15 cm) to grow until harvested. The study used 15th years old trees of Sulawesi 1, Sulawesi 2, KW 165, KKM 22, ICS 13 and DR 2 clones. Each clones was replicated 5 times. The result showed that intensive flushing (>50%) occured during January, March, September and November meanwhile no flushing during December and February. Correlation between rainfall and flushing was positive (r=0.27). Effect of clones on flushing frequency was similar but for flushing intensity was significant. KW 165 tended to be the lowest but TSH 858 tend to be the highest. CW occured for a year-round but the height level during May and June. Effect of clones was significant, KW 165 showed highest followed by Sulawesi 2. CW level showed positive correlation with number of medium (r=0.71) and big pods (r=0.55), except showed negative correlation with flushing intensity (r=-0.37) and rainfall (r=-0.51). High pod setting happened during May to November and low pod setting during December to March. In this aspect effect of clones were significant, the productive clones were Sulawesi 1, Sulawesi 2 and KW 165, but ICS 60 was the less. CW level during 1st semester was lower than at 2nd semester and clone effect was significant. The opportunity of small, medium and big pods to be harvested was similar among both semester. The opportunity of small, medium and big pods to be harvested were 8—56%; 57—83% and 77—96% respectively depend on the clones. In average, those opportunities were 27%, 72%, and 87% for small, medium and big pods respectively. Key words: flushing, cherelle wilt, pod setting, clones, yield prediction
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Cocoa consumption began in America and in the mid sixteenth Century it quickly spread to Europe. Beyond being considered a pleasant habit due to its rich sweet lingering taste, chocolate was considered a good nutrient and even a medicine. Traditionally, health benefits of cocoa have been related with the high content of antioxidants of Theobroma cocoa beans. However, the direct psychoactive effect due to methylxanthines in cocoa is notable. Theobromine and caffeine, in the proportions found in cocoa, are responsible for the liking of the food/beverage. These compounds influence in a positive way our moods and our state of alertness. Theobromine, which is found in higher amounts than caffeine, seems to be behind several effects attributed to cocoa intake. The main mechanisms of action are inhibition of phosphodiesterases and blockade of adenosine receptors. Further mechanisms are being explored to better understand the health benefits associated to theobromine consumption. Unlike what happens in other mammals -pets- included, theobromine is safe for humans and has fewer unwanted effects than caffeine. Therefore, theobromine deserves attention as one of the most attractive molecules in cocoa.
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Flooding is common in lowlands and areas with high rainfall or excessive irrigation. A major effect of flooding is the deprivation of O2 in the root zone, which affects several biochemical and morphophysiological plant processes. The objective of this study was to elucidate biochemical and physiological characteristics associated with tolerance to O2 deficiency in two clonal cacao genotypes. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with two contrasting clones differing in flood tolerance: TSA-792 (tolerant) and TSH-774 (susceptible). Leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence, chemical composition and oxidative stress were assessed during 40 d for control and flooded plants. Flooding induced a decrease in net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration of both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone showed changes in chlorophyll fluorescence, reductions in chlorophyll content and increased activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Flooding also caused changes in macro- and micronutrients, total soluble sugars and starch concentrations in different plant organs of both genotypes. Response curves for the relationship between photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and net photosynthetic rate (P N) for flooded plants were similar for both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone exhibited (1) nonstomatal limitations to photosynthesis since decreased in maximum potential quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm) values indicated possible damage to the PSII light-harvesting complex; (2) oxidative stress; (3) increased leaf chlorosis; and (4) a reduction in root carbohydrate levels. These stresses resulted in death of several plants after 30 d of flooding.
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O cacau, um dos mais importantes cultivos perenes no mundo, é quase exclusivamente explorado para a fabricação de chocolate. A maioria das variedades de cacau pertence a três grupos: Criollo, Forasteiro e Trinitário, que variam de acordo com a morfologia, genética e origem geográfica. É cultivado sob sombra de árvores de floresta ou como monocultivo sem sombra. As plântulas inicialmente mostram um crescimento ortotrópico com emissão de folhas relativamente independente do clima. A fase de maturidade inicia-se com a emissão de ramos plagiotrópicos que formam a copa. Nesse estádio, fatores ambientes exercem grande influência no desenvolvimento da planta. O crescimento e o desenvolvimento do cacaueiro são dependentes da temperatura, que afeta principalmente o crescimento vegetativo, florescimento e desenvolvimento do fruto. O alagamento do solo diminui a área folhar, a condutância estomática e taxa de fotossíntese, além de induzir a formação de lenticelas e raízes adventícias. Para a maioria dos genótipos a resistência à seca é associada ao ajustamento osmótico. O cacau produz flores caulescentes que começam sua deiscência à tarde e se abrem completamente no início da manhã seguinte com liberação de pólen para um estigma receptivo. Flores não polinizadas sofrem abscisão 24-36 h após a antese. A porcentagem de flores que se transforma em frutos é de 0,5 - 5%. Os mais importantes parâmetros determinantes do rendimento estão relacionados com: (i) interceptação da luz, fotossíntese e capacidade de distribuição de fotoassimilados, (ii) respiração de manutenção e (iii) morfologia do fruto e fermentação das sementes, eventos que podem ser modificados por fatores abióticos. Sombreamento pesado reduz a produção de sementes e aumenta a incidência de doenças. O cacau é uma espécie tolerante a sombra, no qual o sombreamento apropriado pode resultar em taxas fotossintéticas relativamente altas, crescimento e produção de sementes. No entanto, quando a disponibilidade de nutrientes minerais não é limitante, há uma correlação positiva entre produção de cacau e interceptação de luz. A alta produção de cacau a pleno sol requer maiores investimentos em proteção e nutrição do cultivo. A radiação anual e precipitação durante a estação seca explicam 70% das variações na produção anual de sementes.
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A study of the floral phenology of cocoa trees was carried out between 2006 and 2008 at Kubease in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, using one hundred cocoa trees from ten farm plots. The objective was to assess the contribution of floral phenology to the productivity of cocoa. Cocoa like all tropical tree species exhibited seasonally-related phenological patterns involving overlapping cycles under both intrinsic and extrinsic controls. However, unlike most tropical plants, flowering was in the rainy season. The production of new pods or cherelles increased during the major rainy season (June, July, and August), but was evenly distributed from the minor to the dry season. Production of small and medium pods peaked in August whereas production of large pods peaked in October. There was a positive correlation between new pod production and pods abortion (r = 0.69; n = 100; P < 0.05). Temperature, light intensity, and rainfall positively affected production of floral buds and production of open flowers. However, rainfall had the greatest influence on the phenological cycle of the cocoa plant. The floral phenological pattern also coincided with the activity of the main pollinators of cocoa which resulted in enhanced reproductive capacity for increased production of cocoa.
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The role of water in the development and yield of the coffee crop (Coffea arabica L.) is reviewed. A period of water stress, induced either by dry soil or dry air, is needed to prepare flower buds for blossoming that is then stimulated by rain or irrigation. Although attempts have been made to quantify the intensity and duration of stress required, these have not yet been specified in ways that are commercially useful. Water must be freely available during the period of rapid fruit expansion to ensure large, high-quality seed yields. Depending on the time and uniformity of flowering this can occur at times when rainfall is unreliable, particularly in equatorial areas.
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Production of non-functional pollen by plant reduces effectiveness of pollination. A study was carried out at Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan to determine the influence of rainfall and temperature on flowering intensity of selected clones of Upper Amazon cocoa ( Theobroma cacao ), as well as its pollen fertility. Eight clones of T. cacao used were T17/11, T7/12, T12/5, T86/45, C23, C64, C77 and Pa 24. The number of flowers at varying locations was recorded. The anthers were squashed in acetocarmine, and examined under the microscope to determine pollen fertility of each clone. The result showed that flowering intensity was regulated by rainfall and temperature and varied among the eight clones studied. The number of flowers produced by the various clones ranged from 128 for clone C23, to 415 for clone T86/45 in both January and May. The number of flowers produced on the ventral surface (V) of the clones was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that from the dorsal region. More pods per cushion would be produced if more of the flowers produced at the dorsal (lower or abaxial) region were pollinated by pollinators in the seed garden. Clone T86/45 had the highest pollen viability (92.11%), while clone T12/5 recorded the lowest pollen viability ( 81.06%).
Article
Kegiatan magang dilakukan di Sei Air Hitam Estate, Rokan Hulu, Riau, pada Februari sampai Mei 2012. Tujuan dari kegiatan ini adalah untuk menentukan hubungan karakter agronomi dan agroekologi dengan peramalan produksi kelapa sawit. Kegiatan magang terdiri dari beberapa pekerjaan yaitu sebagai karyawan harian lepas selama tiga minggu, sebagai pendamping mandor selama tiga minggu, dan sebagai pendamping asisten selama enam minggu. Pengamatan khusus dilakukan sebagai kegiatan tambahan misalnya mengevaluasi karakter agronomi dan agroekologi yang mempengaruhi produksi kelapa sawit. Hasil dari uji t-parsial mengindikasikan bahwa terdapat tujuh variabel yang mempengaruhi produksi kelapa sawit pada α=1% dan α=5% yaitu umur tanaman, aplikasi pemupukan, kelembaban udara, kecepatan angin, hari hujan, curah hujan, dan defisit air. Hasil analisis regresi menunjukkan bahwa terdapat enam model persamaan yang dapat digunakan untuk meramalkan produksi kelapa sawit di Sumatera.
Chapter
This chapter provides a detailed exploration into cocoa processing technology, from bean selection and quality criteria through to the different processing operations used for converting dried cocoa beans into cocoa liquor, powder and butter. Chocolate manufacturers therefore follow a strict set of guidelines and quality criteria if they are to produce products that maintain consumers' loyalty to their products. Cocoa is graded on the basis of the count of defective beans in the cut test, which reveals the presence of certain defects that may cause off-flavours and indicates the degree of fermentation of the beans, which has a bearing on the flavour and quality of the beans. There are five examples of the varied selection of bean blends in assorted products types and explanations of the reasoning involved in their selections: milk chocolate, light milk chocolate, high-quality semi-sweet chocolate, harsh bittersweet chocolate and semi-sweet cookie drop.
Article
Research was conducted in order to study relationship between harvest management and content of free fatty acid (FFA). Activities were carried out from February to June 2014 in North Sumatera Province. Effects of fruit quality and precipitation on FFA were analyzed by using multiple linier regression models. Results showed that FFA content significantly affected by percentage of delayed-processed bunches (restan) (P value = 0.045). Increasing level of delayed-processed bunches at rate of 1% increased FFA level of 0.001%. Percentage of over ripe, unripe and under ripe fruits and precipitation did not significantly affect FFA level. This research implies that control of delayed-processed bunch is important to maintain level of FFA
Article
Local communities across the Pacific Island region have long prepared for and managed extreme weather events. Strategies to cope with extreme weather, particularly cyclones and droughts, have involved using particular planting techniques, initiating innovative water storage practices, and employing food preservation tactics to survive. These local experiences and knowledge have been passed on between generations through stories and sharing practical know-how; however, very little formal documentation has transpired to date. This research attempts to document and synthesis these experiences and knowledge to safeguard them through written accounts but also demonstrate how Pacific communities can provide valuable, appropriate and effective strategies to prepare for and respond to extreme weather events. In-depth interviews (n = 40) were conducted with community members from three villages in Fiji (Naselesele, Qeleni and Yanuca) and three villages in Vanuatu (Piliura, Tassiriki and Lonamilo). While typically missing from community vulnerability and risk assessments in the Pacific, local experiences and knowledge are a core strength in enhancing adaptive capacity and planning community-based activities.
Article
Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire are the world’s leading cocoa (Thebroma cacao) producing countries; together they produce 53 % of the world’s cocoa. Cocoa contributes 7.5 % of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Côte d’Ivoire and 3.4 % of that of Ghana and is an important cash crop for the rural population in the forest zones of these countries. If progressive climate change affected the climatic suitability for cocoa in West Africa, this would have implications for global cocoa output as well as the national economies and farmer livelihoods, with potential repercussions for forests and natural habitat as cocoa growing regions expand, shrink or shift. The objective of this paper is to present future climate scenarios for the main cocoa growing regions of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire and to predict their impact on the relative suitability of these regions for growing cocoa. These analyses are intended to support the respective countries and supply chain actors in developing strategies for reducing the vulnerability of the cocoa sector to climate change. Based on the current distribution of cocoa growing areas and climate change predictions from 19 Global Circulation Models, we predict changes in relative climatic suitability for cocoa for 2050 using an adapted MAXENT model. According to the model, some current cocoa producing areas will become unsuitable (Lagunes and Sud-Comoe in Côte d’Ivoire) requiring crop change, while other areas will require adaptations in agronomic management, and in yet others the climatic suitability for growing cocoa will increase (Kwahu Plateu in Ghana and southwestern Côte d’Ivoire). We recommend the development of site-specific strategies to reduce the vulnerability of cocoa farmers and the sector to future climate change.
Article
The effects of temperature and light integral on fruit growth and development of five cacao genotypes (Amelonado, AMAZ 15/15, SCA 6, SPEC 54/1 and UF 676) were studied in semi-controlled environment glasshouses in which the thermal regimes of cacao-growing regions of Brazil, Ghana and Malaysia were simulated. Fruit losses because of physiological wilt (cherelle wilt) were greater at higher temperatures and also differed significantly between genotypes, reflecting genetic differences in competition for assimilates between vegetative and reproductive components. Short-term measurements of fruit growth indicated faster growth rates at higher temperatures. In addition, a significant negative linear relationship between temperature and development time was observed. There was an effect of genotype on this relationship, such that time to fruit maturation at a given temperature was greatest for the clone UF 676 and least for AMAZ 15/15. Analysis of base temperatures, derived from these relationships indicated genetic variability in sensitivity of cacao fruit growth to temperature (base temperatures ranged from 7.5°C for Amelonado and AMAZ 15/15 to 12.9 for SPEC 54/1). Final fruit size was a positive function of bean number for all genotypes and a positive function of light integral for Amelonado in the Malaysia simulated environment (where the temperature was almost constant). In simulated environments where temperature was the main variable (Brazil and Ghana) increases in temperature resulted in a significant decrease in final pod size for one genotype (Amelonado) in Brazil and for two genotypes (SPEC 54/1 and UF 676) in Ghana. It was hypothesised that pod growth duration (mediated by temperature), assimilation and bean number are all determinants of final pod size but that under specific conditions one of these factors may override the others. There was variability between genotypes in the response of bean size and bean lipid content to temperature. Negative relationships between temperature and bean size were found for Amelonado and UF 676. Lipid concentration was a curvilinear function of temperature for Amelonado and UF 676, with optimal temperatures of 23°C and 24°C, respectively. The variability observed here of different cacao genotypes to temperature highlights the need and opportunities for appropriate matching of planting material with local environments.
Chapter
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has lately emerged as a comprehensive tool for environmental management, and is also becoming increasingly important in the development of cleaner production schemes. Conducting an LCA involves collecting data on raw material and energy consumption and on waste emissions to air, water and land. Data is collected for every stage of the life cycle of the product, from mining or cultivation of the raw materials through to processing, transporting, consumption and disposal. Based on a relevant functional unit for the system under study, the collected data is aggregated and modeled into a life cycle inventory, which in turn is classified and characterized to determine the environmental impacts of the entire system. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has standardized the process for conducting LCA in their ISO 14040 series. Many companies have turned to a life-cycle approach in an attempt to properly assess the full environmental impact of their products. This paper presents an environmental life cycle analysis of chocolate produced in Ghana. The study was conducted in accordance with the international ISO procedural framework for performing and presenting LCA results. The product’s life cycle stages, involving the cocoa supply chain, i.e. cocoa beans production, beans transportation and storage and the industrial processing of beans and chocolate manufacturing stages, were studied. The total environmental impacts associated with chocolate production and the relative contribution of each life cycle stage to the impacts are presented and discussed. The functional unit on which the analysis was based is the production of 1 kg chocolate.
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