Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Open Access
The development of Nyonya cuisine in the
Malay Archipelago: Penang and Malacca
Nyonya cuisine
Youri Oh
1,2*
, Nurul Fatin Afiqah Hj Abdul Razak
3
, Donovan Hee Tat Wee
4
, Eric Lu Ching
5
and Zubaidah Rahman
6
Abstract
Nyonya cuisine is widely spread in the Malay Archipelago which is known as fusion of Chinese immigrant
and local Malay cuisine. The cuisine has been established and developed with globalisation and movement
of people in the region. Furthermore, it is identified as cultural product or image of the society which
represents the identity of the people in the society. This study is to understand the establishment and
development of Nyonya cuisine in line with the migration of the Peranakans in the Malay Archipelago via
the exiting literatures. Data collected are from secondary sources, derived from relevant literatures, media
and academic articles and authorised websites relevant to Nyonya cuisine and the Peranakans in the Malay
Archipelago. The authors’observation is also used to grasp the distinction in Nyonya cuisine. As results,
Nyonya cuisine is a representative result of cultural hybridisation by migration of the Peranakans into the
Malay Archipelago, geographical proximity and political factors. Nyonya cuisine today is further developing
along with the influx of global culture into the region which fosters rejuvenation and exchange of cuisine.
Keywords: Nyonya cuisine, Peranakans, Food culture, Malay Archipelago
Introduction
By the spread of globalisation, the world becomes
more integrated and movement of people across the
borders seems more frequent than ever. Not only
people but also their culture and ideas across the
borders have led to a spread of immigrants’culture
into the destination society [1]. Cuisine has become
a definite subject that should not be ignored in this
global movement as it has spread worldwide by the
flow of immigrants. Food for humans was only to
provide nutrients to survive in the beginning of
human beings’history. Obtaining food and cooking
wereachoreoracorelivingprocess,suchas
breathing. Over the course of history, food has
evolved into a sort of ‘cultural image’that represents
the people and regional identity as ‘eating is a daily
reaffirmation of cultural identity [2]’. Preparing and
presenting ‘culture image’created such table man-
ners, recipe and art form that give further distinctive
features of the cuisine. This contributes to a popular
saying ‘you are what you eat’meaning the food that
you eat represents and defines you [3]. Thus, food
culture explains and reinforces society or people’s
identity [4]. The cuisine is a cultural product estab-
lished and further developed by cultural process [5].
In regional context, the Malay Archipelago has been
perceived as ‘melting pot’of the region because of a
huge number of immigrants from different cultural
backgrounds [6], and became a cosmopolitan me-
tropolis today with its multicultural population of
© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
* Correspondence: youri_oh@hotmail.com
1
Faculty of Arts and Social Science, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, Australia
2
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
J
ournal of Ethnic Food
s
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17
https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0010-x
thesociety.Nyonyacuisineisdescribedasthecuis-
ine which blends Chinese cooking ingredients and
recipes with Indo-Malay flavours, herbs and spices
[7]. In other words, Nyonya cuisine is a product of
cultural process evoked by globalisation and global
migration movement and has widely spread in the
Malay Archipelago that became a fusion of local
cuisine and migrants’cuisine.
Methodology
This article endeavours to explore the development
1
and
spread of Nyonya cuisine in a link with migration of the
Peranakans, who are Chinese immigrants to Southeast
Asia region, particularly to the Malay Archipelago, based
on data collected from secondary sources, mainly de-
rived from relevant literatures, academic articles and
authorised websites with regard to Nyonya cuisine and
the Peranakans in the Malay Archipelago. The authors’
past experience and observation were also used to grasp
the distinction in Nyonya cuisine in this article. The
objectives of this article are (1) to explore the history of
the Peranakans and Nyonya cuisine, (2) to investigate
distinctive features of Nyonya cuisine in brief and (3) to
find out the current status of Nyonya cuisine in the
region and the regional differences, particularly focuses
on Malacca and Penang.
History of the Peranakans and Nyonya cuisine
Origin of the Peranakans
Along with the migration movement, a mixture of immi-
grants’and host country’s culture sometimes will give
birth to a modified or new culture along with new prac-
tices, beliefs and food. The relationship between the
Peranakans and Nyonya cuisine is an example of the cre-
ation and hybridisation of a new vibrant culture [8].
‘Peranakan’refers to ‘descendant’in Bahasa Melayu, and
it particularly identifies Chinese immigrants and their
descendants from mainland China to Malay Peninsula,
including the Malacca Sultanate, during the fifteenth to
seventeenth century [5,9,10]. The term is best described
as ‘Chinese with Southeast Asian influences, particularly in
regard to their language variety, Baba Malay’[15]. Male
Peranakans are known as Baba, while female Peranakans
are known as Nyonya. Some Peranakans from Malacca
started to migrate and form new Peranakan enclaves in
Singapore and Penang during the British colonisation
in the mid-eighteenth to nineteenth century [16]. The
Peranakans were educated in English-speaking coun-
tries during the nineteenth to early-twentieth century
and thus were fluent in speaking two or more lan-
guages such as English, Bahasa Melayu and Chinese of
which many were engaged as leader of communities
[17,18] and were allowed to have considerable wealth
and high status during the colonial times.
Despite their inter-racial marriages with the strait
Malays, most Peranakans are not Muslim which enables
them to retain their ancestry and religion as there were
no laws requiring them to convert, and after a few gen-
erations, many Peranakans desire endogamous marriages
which means they prefer to marry other Peranakans
[19]. Due to the retainment of their ancestral identities,
they celebrate major Chinese celebrations such as Lunar
New Year and the Lantern Festival [20]. There are traces
of Dutch, Portuguese and British influences found in
Peranakans [21]. However, their ancestral identities and
Malay influences give the most remarkable influence on
Peranakan culture [22]. At present, the Peranakans are
identified via self-acknowledgement and their tangible
culture such as cuisines and clothing [19]. Malacca,
Penang and Singapore are the three main distinct loca-
tions where the Peranakan heritage is firmly established
today.
Nyonya cuisine
The Peranakans could not inherit their traditional dishes
after their settlement in destination due to unavailability
of certain ingredients; as a result, they had to improvise
with the local ingredients [23] that they have assimilated
into the local environment. In addition, the interracial
marriages between the immigrant Chinese and locals
(Malays) are bound to create some fusion dishes. Some
defines Nyonya cuisine as preparing dishes using Chinese
technique such as wok-frying and pork, with Malay and
Chinese spices and flavours [5,24]. Examples of ingredi-
ents derived from the Chinese culture are black mush-
rooms, fungus such as bok jee (wood ears), kim chiam (lily
buds), taukee (soybean sticks), fish maws, tanghoon (glass
noodles), beehoon (rice vermicelli) and different varieties
of seasonings such as tauchio/taucheo (salted soybean
paste) and tichio (sweet sauce) [5]. The most distinctive
spice in both Nyonya and Malay cuisines is chilli, which
can be used in both fresh and dried forms followed by
others such as serai (lemon grass) and flower buds such as
bunga kantan (torch ginger buds), as well as fruits, nuts
and seeds, specifically buah keras (candlenuts), buah
keluak (a large black nut), lime juice, asam Jawa (tamar-
ind), cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and ketumbar (coriander
seeds) [5,19].
1
Development, in general, is best understood as a process that has
established and evolved throughout history upon the aims for better
improvements. However, the term has been defined in many ways by
different perspectives. Among the different definition and elements
that have been discussed in order to define the term in the existing
literatures, this study uses the term of which covers history [11–13]
and modernization [14]. This study used the term ‘development’as a
concept to cover the establishment, history, modernisation and the
current trend of Nyonya cuisine based on the existing literatures, not
to provide a new perception of the cuisine by authors’perspectives.
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 2 of 10
In the past, Peranakans followed the strict traditions of
their Chinese ancestry where the womenfolk of a house-
hold were confined to their respective houses most of
the time [19]. Therefore, Peranakan women spent most
of their time mainly in the kitchen of the house since it
was said the kitchen was the heart of life and activity of
a house at that time. And their cooking ability was
judged and standardised the worth of women in the
community [5]. As mentioned earlier, most Peranakans
were relatively wealthy that many households were able
to employ several servants and maids. With a consider-
able amount of free time and helping hands, Peranakan
women had resources to experiment and refine their
way of cooking, which contributed to the development
of Nyonya cuisine. Few examples of famous Nyonya
cuisine are Ayam buah Keluak,Penang Asam Laksa,
Ayam Pongteh,Achar, fish head curry and prawn chilli
paste. These dishes were improvised using the spices
such as tamarind and keluak found in the Malay Archi-
pelago [23].
Recipes of Nyonya cuisine are handed down to the
next-generation that uphold and inherit traditional rec-
ipes from the previous generations. Women play a major
role in Nyonya cuisine as the role of Peranakan women-
folks was mostly confined to kitchen and house works.
The assimilation and hybridisation of Peranakans in the
Malay Archipelago created Nyonya cuisine by their
efforts to overcome and adapt local culture and environ-
ment. The similarities of ingredients, food preparation
and cooking of Nyonya cuisine to Chinese and Malay or
Indo cuisine are clear evidence that Nyonya cuisine is a
product of cultural process that assimilated and bor-
rowed local cuisine into Peranakan cuisine, and further
developed and established hybridised cuisine in the
Malay Archipelago.
Discussion
The Peranakans in Penang and Malacca and Nyonya
cuisine
Penang and Malacca were known as commercial areas in
Malaysia where the Peranakans are prominently popu-
lated. Chinese male immigrants’consistent movement to
Penang and Malacca and their intermarriage with local
women [15] led eminent number of the Peranakan
population in both areas. Penang is located near to the
border of Thailand, while Malacca is located further
south, near Indonesia (see Fig. 1). Such geographical
proximity has highly influenced the establishment of the
cuisine in Penang and Malacca. The Peranakans have
shared and practiced distinctive lifestyle which hybri-
dises local and Chinese culture. However, difference
between the Peranakan culture of Penang and Malacca
is notable in their food and language [16].
The proportion of Hokkien and Malay language usage
gives language distinction between the Malacca and Penang
Peranakans. The Malacca Peranakans speak Baba Malay,a
language that is a creolised Bahasa Melayu with borrowing
Hokkien and English words [24]. In addition, Malacca was
the centre of the Sultanate Melaka and its dominant
regional population has been Malay since their settlement
in the fifteenth century, while Penang was an environs of
another Malay population and was considered small [25],
which have added strong influence in the frequent usage of
Bahasa Melayu in Malacca. The Penang Peranakans speak
Baba Hokkien, which is based on Hokkien with slang of
Bahasa Melayu and expression [5,26].
Fig. 1 Location of Penang and Malacca. Penang and Malacca are located in the West Malaysia. Both states are located along the north-west
coast of the Malacca Strait. Penang and Malacca are called ‘melting pot’of culture and tradition because of the influx of immigrants particularly
Chinese, Malay, Indian and other remnants of English colonialism. Malacca is also well-known as a diverse cultural and traditional society and
often called as “Small Penang”because of the similarity of the city to Penang
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 3 of 10
Differences can be found in both regions’cuisines
although they are within the category of Nyonya cuis-
ine. It is considered that Nyonya cuisine is originated
from Malacca by the first settlement of Strait-Chinese
to Malay Peninsula that dispersed to Penang and
Singapore during the British colonisation in the mid-
eighteenth to nineteenth century [16]. Geographical
divergence and proximity can re-invent or blend the
cuisine in each region; Malacca Nyonya cuisine is
mostly influenced by the Portuguese and Indonesian,
whereas Penang is highly influenced by Thailand [27,31].
The distinction is clearly shown in each region’s dominant
ingredients, recipe and utensils [28]. Laksa, a renowned
dish of Nyonya cuisine, provide clear differences between
Penang and Malacca Nyonya cuisine. The ingredients of
Laksa in Penang and Malacca show differences as Penang
Laksa (see Figs. 2a, b and 3) mainly uses lime, chilli, herbs,
shrimp paste and tamarind which gives sour and tangy fla-
vour which is also known as ‘Assam Laksa’, while Malacca
(curry) Laksa (see Figs. 4and 5) uses Malaysian local herbs
such as cumin, belachan, chilli and coconut milk that has
sweeter flavour and illustrates more curry-like noodle
soup [29–33].
The cooking recipe also shows slight differences.
Otak-otak (see Figs. 6and 7) is a custard kind of snack
made of fish, egg, belachan, coconut milk, lime juice and
other ingredients wrapped by leaf. Malacca otak-otak is
narrowly wrapped with coconut or nipa leaves then
Fig. 2 a,bPenang Laksa (Assam Laksa). Penang Laksa is as known as ‘Assam Laksa’. The dish was born in Penang with fresh fish-based broth and
bunch of herbs and vegetables. The dish has a sour taste by the use of lime, chilli, galangal, tamarind and local herbs and also tangy by fish
(usually mackerel or sardine or ikan tonkol (skip jack tuna)) broth and shrimp paste. It is garnished by shallot and other sliced raw vegetables such
as cucumber, onion and chilli. The dish is served with heh ko (dark shrimp sauce)—dark sauce displayed on the right of the Assam Laksa in
the figure
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 4 of 10
grilled over charcoal fire to enclose smoky flavour and
smell [5,34]. Penang otak-otak is mixed with betel leaves
and wrapped with banana leaves in square-bowl shape
or pocket shape fastened on the upper side with a tooth-
pick. Penang otak-otak is steamed that gives softer tex-
ture, while Malacca’s have a strong smoky smell and
flavour [34] and firm texture after being grilled over
charcoal fire.
Besides, there are differences in significant Nyonya
dish in each region by adaptation of Nyonya cuisine.
Buah Keluak (Indonesian black nut dishes) is still a fam-
ous dish in Malacca, but in Penang, due to strenuous
preparation and particular taste, the dish has
disappeared in the region [35]. Belachan (shrimp paste)
in Malacca has more mashed texture and paler colour
while Penang belachan (also known as hae ko) is a dark
black sticky paste that is used for salad dressing [36,37].
The Penang Peranakans are more open and receptive to
new culture and environment [38]. As mentioned above,
geographical proximity of Penang to Thailand builds
more interaction between Penang and Thailand that
created remarkable dish in Penang Nyonya cuisine, such
as kerabu salad (spicy pineapple salad)—kerabu is origi-
nated from Thailand. Nyonya kuih (also called as Kuih
ko sui/swee) is also a famous Penang Nyonya cuisine
[22] that is steamed in Chinese teacups.
Fig. 3 Penang Laksa Paste at grocery store in Malaysia. Penang (Assam) Laksa paste can be easily found in grocery stores in Malaysia. There are
varieties of products manufactured and sold in Malaysia which ease the preparation of the dish. The ingredients of the paste products contain
fish (vary) broth, vegetable and herbs in general that consumers only need to add water to the paste, boil noodles and add garnishes and
vegetables upon the preference of consumers
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 5 of 10
Effects of globalisation—the downfall of Nyonya cuisine
and dilution of Nyonya identity
It is widely accepted that the downfall of the Peranakans
started in the early twentieth century due to political factor
such as the world wars. It depleted the Peranakans of their
massive wealth, further contributed by the decline in value
of rubber and tin. Some of the wealth was squandered away
by the younger generations who basically live off their de-
scendant’s savings. Some of the wealth was donated to help
rejuvenatethecrippledeconomyoftheMalayArchipelago
due to the world wars and to help their colonial British
bosses in some cases. The withdrawal of the colonial British
and independence of Malaysia and Singapore further weak-
ened the Peranakans, stripping them of their special social
statusandprivilegesaswellastheirsenseofidentity.Fur-
thermore, the decisions of the Malaysian and Singaporean
Government to classify people into strict rigid categories by
race—as Malay, Chinese, Indian and others—has further di-
luted the Peranakans’identity. With globalisation, people
tend to integrate their cultures with others more, modify or
outright replace old traditions and practices in favour of
making it easier or cheaper. This means that certain lavish
Peranakan practices such as the 12 days wedding rituals
were either reduced or abandoned in favour of simpler and
cheaper ceremonies. As education becomes more widely
available, the younger generations of Peranakan are tempted
to choose not to learn the old method as it is usually time
consuming and labour-intensive. Also, with a good
Fig. 4 a,bMalacca Laksa (curry Laksa). Malacca Laksa used coconut milk which provides thick texture in the soup base. It is relatively sweet,
spicy, and creamy and contains curry taste as the dish. The dish is known for the strong flavour by several ingredients used for the dish such as
chicken and/or prawn, curry powder, fish balls, fried tofu, chillies, shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, cumin and local ingredients. Often garnished by
bean sprout, shredded chicken and prawn and served with sambal that enhances the flavour of the dish
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 6 of 10
education, they have a wider range of jobs to choose from
instead of sticking to the old professions. As with any cul-
tures, Peranakan also practices taboos or ‘pantang larang’
but most of the modern generation no longer does this
mainly either it is too time consuming or it is not a big deal
for them. This also means traditional Nyonya cuisines that
are generally time consuming were practiced less and less
due to declining interests of the young generation. Finally,
the Peranakans have only few ways to express their heritage,
mainly through their clothing and food in modern times
[19]. The older generation of the Peranakans nowadays sees
their cultural identity as diminishing in that there is a degree
of ‘Peranakan-ness’within the society in terms of language
fluency by Peranakans in the late 1960s: ‘Idon’treally
think there is a Peranakan identity these days; it’s
more like an open culture for everyone’.—Mr.Tan,an
older generation of Peranakans [39].
The rejuvenation of Peranakan culture
In the 1980s, the Peranakan culture started to gain back
the public interests. In Singapore, films and drama
series such as Pileh Menantu’sChoosing a Daughter-in-
Law (1984), The Old Husband and The Young Wife
(1985) and The Little Nyonya (2008) contributed to
gain public attention on the Nyonya culture. Cook-
books illustrating Nyonya cuisine helped to resurrect
Fig. 5 Malacca Curry Laksa paste at grocery store in Malaysia. Malacca Curry Laksa paste is also easily found in grocery stores in Malaysia. The
paste blended the main ingredients of Malacca Curry Laksa, which contains curry powder, shrimp paste, herbs and vegetables that ease the
preparation of the dish. Such paste products only request consumers to add water to make easy broth of the dish, noodles, vegetables and
garnishes upon the preference of consumers
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 7 of 10
and keep the cuisine alive as well. One of the most
representative Nyonya cookbooks was Mrs. Lee Chin
Koon’s (mother of Lee Kuan Yew) Mrs. Lee Cookbook
(Vol.1 in 2003 and Vol.2 in 2004).
In Malaysia, several books on Peranakan community were
published. Yeap Joo Kim’sThe Patriarch (1975), Ruth Ho’s
Rainbow Round My Shoulder (1975) and Lee Su Kim’s
Malaysian Flavours (1996, 2004) are representative publica-
tion accounts of Peranakan culture [19]. The book Nyonya
kebaya (2004) and exhibition by Datin Seri Endon Mah-
mood, the previous First Lady of Malaysia, contributed to
have great attention of public in 2000s. Nyonya restaurants
continue to appear in Malaysia due to their unique flavours
[19] which sustain Nyonya cuisine in society.
Despite the rich heritage Nyonya cuisine carries, young
population in the region do not seem to be aware of the
cuisine. Young university students majoring culinary arts
are only aware of the culture of the cuisine, not the
uniqueness or details of the cuisine that the efforts made
by media and publications seem nominal unless the
young person does not have a strong Peranakan family
background [40].
There has been an increase of curiosity and contribu-
tion of Nyonya cuisine in regions’cookbooks, blogs,
Fig. 6 Penang otak-otak. Penang otak-otak is a soft-textured snack. It is made of fish, egg, coconut milk, lime or lemon juice, belachan, betal
leaves, herbs and other ingredients that are wrapped by banana leaf. The shape of bowl vary as it depends on personal preference; however, it is
often either squared-shape or pocket shape fastened on the upper side with a toothpick. The dish is ideally steamed for 10 to 20 min in high
heat and serves as a snack or side meal of the main dish
Fig. 7 Malacca otak-otak. Malacca otak-otak is custard-textured snack made of fish, egg, coconut milk, lime or lemon juice and other ingredients
wrapped by coconut or nipa leaves. Malacca-style otak-otak is grilled over charcoal fire in order to enclose smoky taste and smell. Although it is
soft after grilled over charcoal fire, Malacca’s tend to have more firm texture than Penang otak-otak
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 8 of 10
online websites and food product which sustains public
interest towards Nyonya cuisine [41]. The annual con-
vention of Baba Nyonya hosted by the State Chinese
Association (Peranakan communities) in Southeast Asia
rotates among Penang, Melacca, Phuket and Singapore
[42] and also contributes to promoting the cuisine and
Nyonya culture in the region. Nyonya food product (see
Fig. 8) manufactured by local companies such as instant
noodle and laksa paste are highly consumed and enjoyed
popularity among locals. Such contribution and support
by Peranakan communities and the public appear to be
the motive for the rejuvenation of Nyonya cuisine in the
present era.
Conclusion
The purpose of this article was to provide a good under-
standing of the Nyonya cuisine history throughout the
history of the Peranakans, to investigate the feature and
development of the Nyonya cuisine in the Malay Archi-
pelago and to understand the present status of Nyonya
cuisine in the region. Nyonya cuisine was born out as a
unique mixture of cultures along with the movement of
the Peranakans from China to the Malay Archipelago.
Chinese cuisine has evolved and adapted to local cuisine
with the transmission of its traditional ingredients which
has created new distinctive cuisine in the region. Migra-
tion gave significant impacts on the development of
regional culture and globalisation and, at the same time,
has both positive and negative impacts. It has diluted
Peranakan culture by influx of global culture into the
region that enables the exchange of culture, while it also
assists to rejuvenate the culture by spotlighting and
promoting of the culture worldwide. Besides, geograph-
ical proximity and political factors also influenced the
development of the cuisine in different region of the
Malay Archipelago as shown in Penang and Malacca
within the category of Nyonya cuisine. By acknowledging
the development of Nyonya cuisine since its emergence,
it is a distinguished example of cultural hybridisation
evoked by a consequence of migrations. The difference
between Penang and Malacca Nyonya cuisine shows how
geographical proximity, environment and politics influ-
enced the development of the cuisine as Nyonya cuisine
differentiated between Penang and Malacca. The tradition
of Nyonya culture has been diminished by the strong influ-
ence of globalisation into the society. However, the efforts
to rejuvenate Nyonya culture intrigued by the public and
Peranakan communities via publication, media, campaigns
and supports may bring further development of Nyonya
cuisine.
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate Universiti Brunei Darussalam which made this study
possible. And the authors acknowledge Dr. Siti Mazidah binti Haji
Mohammad, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam, for her
feedback and suggestion in the study.
Authors’contributions
All authors have contributed equally in developing the design, data
acquisition, analysis, drafting of the manuscript, discussion and conclusion of
this article. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Fig. 8 Nyonya food products at a grocery store in Malaysia. Nyonya food is a distinctive local cuisine in Malaysia, and there are many food
products manufactured and sold in local grocery stores. The significance of Nyonya food is then easily found in local community by various food
products in groceries and restaurants in Malaysia. Apart from Nyonya Laksa and otak-otak as introduced above, rendang, curry sauce, sambal and
many more food products are produced in Malaysia and beloved by locals
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 9 of 10
Availability of data and materials
All data and materials used in this article are correctly referenced following
the guideline of the Journal of Ethnic Foods and can be found in the
reference section.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1
Faculty of Arts and Social Science, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, Australia.
2
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam.
3
Faculty of
Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
4
KCA Deutag, Kuala
Belait, Brunei Darussalam.
5
LeVoeu Company, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Darussalam.
6
Kaleidoscope Studio, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam.
Received: 14 December 2018 Accepted: 4 September 2019
References
1. Cohen JH, Sirkeci I. Cultures of migration: the global nature of
contemporary mobility. Austin: University of Texas Press; 2011.
2. Kittler PG, Sucher KP, Nelms MN. Food and culture. 6th ed. Belmont:
Wadsworth; 2012.
3. Almerico GM. Food and identity: food studies, cultural, and personal
identity. J Int Bus Cult Stud. 2014;8:1–7.
4. Miller d. Consumption as the vanguard of history. In: Miller D, editor.
Acknowledging consumption. London: Routledge; 1995. p. 1-57.
5. Ng CY, Karim SA. Historical and contemporary perspectives of the Nyonya
food culture in Malaysia. J Ethnic Foods. 2016;3(2):93–106.
6. Dasgupta A, Singh NS. Building “nostalgia”communities: South Asian
migrant workers in Malaysia. Econ Polit Wkly. 2015;50(24). https://www.epw.
in/journal/2015/24/web-exclusives/building-nostalgia-communities.html.
Accessed 10 Nov 2018.
7. Hall H. A unique blend: how a surge in the Chinese population influenced
Singaporean-Malay cuisine. 2013. http://oivietnam.com/2013/10/a-unique-
blend. Accessed 20 Sept 2018.
8. Kong L. Food in Southeast Asia: heritage, hybridity and contestation.
ASEANFocus. 2019;2:16–7.
9. Tan CB. Chinese Peranakan heritage in Malaysia and Singapore. Kuala
Lumpur: Fajar Bakti; 1993.
10. West BA. Encyclopedia of the peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York:
Infobase Publishing; 2009.
11. Nisbet R. Social change and history: aspects of the Western theory of
development. New York: Oxford University Press; 1969.
12. Nisbet R. History of the idea of progress. New York: Basic Books; 1980.
13. Cullather N. Development? It’s history. Dipl Hist. 2000;24(4):641–53.
14. Jr JS, Quintella RH. Development: an analysis of concepts, measurement and
indicators. Braz Adm Rev. 2008;5(2):104–24.
15. Ansaldo U, Lim L, Mufwene SS. The sociolinguistic history of the
Peranakans: what it tells us about ‘creolization’.In:MatthewS,LimL,
Ansaldo U, edi tors. Deconstructing creole. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Pulishing Company; 2007. p. 203–26.
16. Ong JT. The pearl and the lion. The Peranakan, vol. 2; 2012. p. 9.
17. Khoo JE. The straits Chinese: a cultural history. Amsterdam: The
Pepin Press; 1996.
18. Koh J. Peranakan (Strait Chinese) community. 2013. http://eresources.nlb.gov.
sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_2013-08-30_181745.html.Accessed10Nov2018.
19. Lee SK. The Peranakan Baba Nyonya culture: resurgence or disappearance?
Sari. 2008;26:161–70.
20. Wan EL. Strait born Chinese: the Peranakan story. 2001. http://thingsasian.
com/story/straits-born-chinese-peranakan-story. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
21. Ooi KG. Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East
Timor. USA: ABC-CLIO Inc; 2004.
22. Kee MY. Chinese porcelain: vibrant festive ware of the straits Chinese.
Singapore: Tuttle Publishing; 2009.
23. Tan CB. Food and ethnicity with reference to the Chinese in Malaysia. In:
David Y, Wu H, Tan CB, editors. Changing Chinese foodways in Asia. Hong
Kong: Chinese University Press; 2001. p. 125–35.
24. Tan CB. Intermarriage and the Chinese Peranakan in Southeast Asia. In:
Suryadinata L, editor. Peranakan Chinese in a globalizing Southeast Asia.
Singapore: Chinese Heritage Centre; 2010.
25. Hussin N. Trade and society in the Straits of Melaka: Dutch Melaka and
English Penang. Singapore: NUS Press; 2007. p. 1780–830.
26. Lim BS. Distinctly Peranakan Hokkien. Peranakan. 2009;1:14.
27. Yoshino K. Malaysian cuisine: a case of neglected culinary globalisation. In: Farrer
J, editor. Globalization, food and social identities in the Asia Pacific region. Tokyo:
Sophia University Institute of Comparative Culture; 2010. p. 1–15.
28. Hoo R. Chronicling Nyonya cuisine. 2017. https://penangmonthly.com/
article.aspx?pageid=114&name=chronicling_nyonya_cuisine. Accessed
10 Nov 2018.
29. Ong H. Visit Penang. 2010. http://www.visitpenang.gov.my/portal3.
Accessed 21 Nov 2018.
30. Peranakan Life. Nyonya cuisine. n.d. http://www.peranakanlife.com/baba-
nyonya-culture/peranakan-food/nyonya-cuisine. Accessed 22 Nov 2018.
31. Tan CB. The Baba of Melaka. Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications; 1988.
32. Tan CB. Nyonya cuisine: Chinese, non-Chinese and the making of a famous
cuisine in Southeast Asia. In: Cheung SCH, Tan CB, editors. Food and
foodways in Asia: resource, tradition and cooking. Oxon: Routledge; 2007.
33. Sidek N. Pembudayaan makanan Malaysia. Sambutan hari makanan sedunia
kali ke-25, Kementerian Pertanian dan Industri Asas Tani Malaysi. Kuala
Lumpur: Agriculture Bank of Malaysia; 2005.
34. Karim S, Halim N. The structure of Penang street food culture in Malaysia. In:
CDCV C, Companion M, Marras SR, editors. Street food: culture, economy,
health and governance. New York: Routledge; 2014.
35. Wong J. Singapore baba vs Penang nonya. 2015. http://www.star2.
com/food/food-news/2015/08/27/singapore-baba-vs-penang-nonya.
Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
36. Eckhardt R. Food & drinks. In: Bindloss J, Brash C, editors. Kuala Lumpur. 1st
ed. Kuala Lumpur: Lonely planet; 2008. p. 42–53.
37. Poh LY. Melaka. 2010. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/pohskitchen/stories/s29363
07.htm. Accessed 22 Nov 2018.
38. Khor N, Khoo SN, Loh WL, Yeoh SG. Penang and its region: the story of an
Asian Entrepôt. Singapore: NUS Press; 2009.
39. Shushan L. Has the ‘soul’gone out of modern Peranakans?. 2017. http://
www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/has-the-soul-gone-out-of-
modern-peranakans/3493862.html. Accessed 26 Sept 2018.
40. Albattat AR, Asmara L, Bakri N, Norzaman N. The awareness of Baba Nyonya
food amongst culinary arts students in Management and Science University.
Almatourism –J Tour Cult Territorial Dev. 2017;8:117–35. https://doi.org/10.
6092/issn.2036-5195/6784.
41. Ooi KG. Eclectic sociocultural traditions of the Baba Nyonya of George
Town, Penang, Malaysia. Suvannabhumi. 2017;9(2):51–89.
42. Lim C, and Sekaran R. Baba Nyonya convention aims to uphold precious
heritage. 2017. https://www.thestar.com.my/metro/metro-news/2017/11/29/
telling-the-peranakan-story-baba-nyonya-convention-aims-to-uphold-
precious-heritage. Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Publisher’sNote
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Oh et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:17 Page 10 of 10
