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ROCZNIKI HUMANISTYCZNE
Tom LXVII, zeszyt 11 – 2019
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.18290/rh.2019.67.11-5
ADAM WARCHOŁ *
EDUCATION: ITS ETHICAL DIMENSION
AND METAPHORICAL VISUALISATION
IN JOHN HENRY NEWMAN’S
THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSITY (1852)
A b s t r a c t. Almost two centuries ago, in his book The Idea of a University, Cardinal John
Henry Newman (1801–1890) formulated his vision of university education, given in the light of
faith and catholic ethics. This paper attempts to frame Newman’s view of a university using the
theory of conceptual metaphor as initially proposed by Lakoff and Johnson in their book Meta-
phors We Live By (cf. also Lakoff & Johnson 1999; Lakoff 1987, 1993; and Kövecses 2015;
among others). In particular, the paper seeks to establish the main networks of implicational
metaphors which, we believe, structure Newman’s idea of a university. Principally, there are
three main networks of conceptual metaphors underlying our understanding of Newman’s vision
of a university: LIFE IS A BUILDING; LIFE IS A LIVING ORGANISM; and LIFE IS A JOURNEY. The paper
deals only with the first network in greater detail. In the main metaphor LIFE IS A BUILDING, other
metaphors referring to university are evoked, for example UNIVERSITY IS A PLACE, FIELD, SHELTER,
AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM, A NATION AND A COMBINATION OF COLOURS; KNOWLEDGE IS A PLANT,
A REWARD, GOOD, FREEDOM, POWER, TREASURE, ART AND BEAUTY.
Key words: John Henry Newman; university education; ethics; the theory of conceptual meta-
phor; networks of implicational metaphors.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Anna Sfard’s view, the field of education is still “in a state of pertur-
bation, with prospects of a new equilibrium not yet in sight” (4). It seems
that in order to reach this new stability it is indispensable to create “a stimu-
lating, challenging and rewarding university experience in a world-class
learning community, through sharing a unique fusion of education, research
ADAM WARCHOŁ, MA — PhD student at the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Fa-
culty of Humanities; address for correspondence — E-mail: warcholadam82@gmail.com
ADAM WARCHOŁ
62
and professional practice that inspires students and staff to enrich the world”
(Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Seen in this light, it is instructive to
search in the past for finding out how educators pursuit to achieve the “equi-
librium” and what visions of education they had in mind. What is more,
some previous methods may serve as a solution to the issue of social and
ethnic diversity, and ethical dilemmas that modern educational institutes,
particularly the public ones, need to address (cf. IICE).
This paper presents, hence, Cardinal John Henry Newman’s (1801–1890)
vision of university education, which he formulated, almost two centuries ago,
in his book The Idea of a University. As a well-recognised English writer,
a prominent philosopher, the leader of the Oxford Movement, a theologian,
a preacher, and a convert from the Anglican Church to the Roman Catholic
Church, Newman was appointed a rector of the Catholic University of Ireland
in 1851, known today as University College in Dublin. The Idea of a Univer-
sity is a series of lectures concerning the role and nature of education, which
he was delivering as the rector between 1852 and 1852. Having retired in 1852
from the rectorship, he was nominated a cardinal in the Catholic Church in
1879 (Catholic Encyclopedia online, “John Henry Newman”).
In his idea of education, Newman represents the group of educators who
argue for the need of restructuring a concept of pedagogical effectiveness in
such a way to make the ethical component its essential and indispensable
element (cf. Bárcena et al.). This article attempts to frame Newman’s view
of a university. The theory of conceptual metaphor, as initially proposed by
Lakoff and Johnson in their book Metaphors We Live By (1980/2003), is
used as the theoretical framework for the purpose of the analysis here.
According to Lakoff and Johnson, we do not have direct access to reality; in-
deed, concepts that “govern our everyday functioning, down to the most mun-
dane details” (4; and see also Kövecses 1986, 2015) cannot be grasped by our
intellect. Our conceptual system, Lakoff and Johnson insist, “in terms of
which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (4).
2. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
OF THE CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR THEORY
One of the basic claims advanced by cognitive linguistics is that our
understanding of the world is shaped by the so-called conceptual metaphors
(cf. Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 2003; Lakoff 1987, 1993; Ungerer and Schmid).
EDUCATION: ITS ETHICAL DIMENSION AND METAPHORICAL VISUALISATION 63
As defined by Lakoff and Johnson in 2003, conceptual metaphors involve
“understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another,” and
they involve “unidirectionality,” from a source domain to a target domain,
but not vice versa (5). What is more, as viewed by Kövecses in 2002, some
domains are said to be “abstract, diffuse and lack clear delineation” (20),
they need to be metaphorically conceptualized. Thus, the notion of life may
be conceptualised in terms of journey, but it does not imply conceiving
journey in terms of life (cf. Lakoff and Turner). Of particular interest to us is
Kövecses’s (2015) analysis in which he applies a metaphor-based account to
religious texts. In contrast to earlier metaphor-based accounts developed by
Lakoff and Johnson, Kövecses stresses the importance of cultural context
which determines the use of metaphors. Kövecses divides metaphors into
two classes: embodied (also called universal) metaphors and culture-related
metaphors. Thus, for the concept of love, which is usually conceptualized in
many cultures by means of journey, unity or hunting, the universal metaphor
which is generated sounds LOVE IS A JOURNEY, UNITY or HUNTING. Instead,
the culture-related metaphors account for the variation in conceptualisations
across languages, for instance, in some Chinese dialects love is metaph-
orized in a different way,. “love is flying a kite” (Yang qtd. in Kövecses 3).
Conceptual metaphors not only evoke individual and primary mappings,
but they may also carry entailments or rich inferences, give rise to relatively
complex metaphorical mappings, complex event structure and compound
metaphors, and thus bring a more detailed knowledge about the reality (cf.
Lakoff and Johnson 2003; Lakoff 1993; Murphy 1996; Grady 1997; Lang-
acker 1990).
According to Kövecses (2015), a concept is expected to be represented in
the human mind by “a number of other concepts that form a coherent whole,
a functional domain, that is, a mental frame (…) forming a (…) network of
ideas” (60). While Lakoff and Johnson (2003) add that “the connections may
be strong or weak, and the network of connections has an overall structure”
(98). These connections may constitute a more or less complex network of
entities and relations between them. To be precise, the competition frame,
for instance, comprises participants, place, prize, rank, score, venue, and
some relations, e.g. win, lose, play, score, defeat, come in, and tie (cf. Kö-
vecses 36).
Finally, it should be stressed that in Lakoff and Johnson’s (2003) view,
a metaphor is seen as a kind of “a sense, like seeing or touching or hearing,
(…) [provides] the only ways to perceive and experience much of the world.
ADAM WARCHOŁ
64
Metaphor is as much a part of our functioning as our sense of touch, and as
precious” (237). That is why the conceptualization of the world via the
means of metaphors does contribute significantly to the broader linguistic
view of the world.1
3. CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS
IN HENRY NEWMAN’S THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSITY:
LIFE IS A BUILDING AND UNIVERSITY PROVIDING EDUCATION
FORMS THE CONSTRUCTION OF A LIFE BUILDING
In order to understand the idea of university as delineated in The Idea of a
University, we have to unravel the networks of metaphors which, we believe,
underlie Newman’s vision of this site of learning. Principally, there are three
main networks of conceptual metaphors structuring our understanding of
Newman’s vision of a university: LIFE IS A BUILDING; LIFE IS A LIVING
ORGANISM; and LIFE IS A JOURNEY. However, due to the space limit, only
one network, i.e. LIFE IS A BUILDING, is to be elaborated in detail in this
section of the paper. Undoubtedly, the other two networks of conceptual
metaphors derived from Newman’s work deserve some proper attention in
a future study.
Newman’s lectures entitled The Idea of a University (1852) comprise ten
chapters broken into two parts each, “University Teaching” and “University
Subjects.” He accounts for a number of stimulating statements. To start with,
Newman’s assertion is that a university should be “a place of teaching
universal knowledge” (ix), which forms a structure for the overall network
given in Figure 1. This set starts with the most general conventional meta-
phor LIFE IS A BUILDING. The metaphor itself may be realized by numerous
linguistic expressions, e.g. to build one’s new life, my life is ruined, my life
collapsed like a house of sticks, among many others. The LIFE IS A BUILDING
metaphor entails the UNIVERSITY IS A CONSTRUCTION metaphor, which, in
turn, can be structured metaphorically in two ways: UNIVERSITY IS A PLACE
and UNIVERSITY IS AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM, as seen in Figure 1 below.
1 For discussion of the so-called linguistic world view, an interested reader is
referred to Bartmiński (2009).
EDUCATION: ITS ETHICAL DIMENSION AND METAPHORICAL VISUALISATION 65
Figure 1: The network of conceptual metaphors deriving from the metaphor LIFE IS A BUILDING,
as seen in Newman’s The Idea of a University (own source).
ADAM WARCHOŁ
66
As already stated, for Newman, university is destined to be a place of
universal knowledge. Indeed, in the Preface to The Idea of a University,
Newman outlines briefly the main role of a university where its universal
role is diffused:
The view taken of a University in these Discourses is the following: That it is
a place of teaching universal knowledge. This implies that its object is, on the
one hand, intellectual, not moral; and, on the other, that it is the diffusion and
extension of knowledge rather than the advancement. (Newman ix)
University, Newman notes, is:
a place of instruction, where universal knowledge is professed (…). (Newman 21)
The UNIVERSITY IS A PLACE metaphor is subdivided into two other meta-
phors: UNIVERSITY IS A FIELD, and UNIVERSITY IS A SHELTER. both of these
conceptual metaphors become the source and target of important metonymic
parts in the whole network. Accordingly, since university is a field, the field
must be cultivated. The process of cultivation takes place in students’ minds,
and it is performed by educators and teachers. This activity requires skill,
exertion, precision, persistence, but the work is worth its price, as
exemplified in the texts below:
But education is a higher word; it implies an action upon our mental nature,
(…) since cultivation of mind is surely worth seeking for its own sake. (New-
man 114)
Since mind is metaphorized as a field to be cultivated, some work of
“weeding” the vice and error is also required (Newman 473).
there must be great care taken to avoid scandal, or shocking the popular mind,
or unsettling the weak; the association between truth and error being so strong
in particular minds that it is impossible to weed them of the error without root-
ing up the wheat with it. (Newman 473)
For Newman, UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE IS A PLANT is an object of this
cultivation process, and A REWARD after hard work:
Liberal Education, viewed in itself, is simply the cultivation of the intellect, as
such, and its object is nothing more or less than intellectual excellence (…)
EDUCATION: ITS ETHICAL DIMENSION AND METAPHORICAL VISUALISATION 67
Why do you take such pains with your garden or your park? You see to your
walks and turf and shrubberies; to your trees and drives; not as if you meant to
make an orchard of the one, or corn or pasture land of the other, but because
there is a special beauty in all that is goodly in wood, water, plain, and slope,
brought all together by art into one shape, and grouped into one whole (…).
(Newman 179)
Furthermore, according to Newman, UNIVERSITY IS A FIELD OF BATTLE,
and educators become marksmen and warriors, while KNOWLEDGE IS THEIR
FINAL TARGET AND REWARD. Actually, it is a preacher who is compared
with a marksman, expected to be concentrated on a definite point of his duty,
have a clear objective and master-like precision. Cardinal Newman wants
any lecturer or educator to desire “the spiritual good of his hearers” (New-
man 406) like preachers do. Besides, UNIVERSITY structured as a place IS
also A SHELTER. Newman names a university as a shelter against evil and
depraving influences. However, one’s individual effort to grow up and
become more virtuous is expected to be made, as well. In this vein, for the
19th century writer, virtues, values and all the knowledge obtained at the
university are designed to protect and strengthen the souls; thus, KNOW-
LEDGE IS seen as GOOD (Newman 91).
Notice now that “the right branch” of the UNIVERSITY AS A CONSTRUC-
TION metaphor in Figure 1 entails the metaphor of a university as an integ-
rated system. The metaphor of A UNIVERSITY AS ONE WHOLE SYSTEM refers
to the next two metaphors used in Newman’s The Idea of a University, na-
mely, UNIVERSITY IS A NATION, and UNIVERSITY IS A COMBINATION. Truly,
John Newman sets a goal for a university to form a nation of its citizens,
providing them “privileges within its legitimate range of action,” and
“imperial power” (Newman 458). Besides, the metaphor of A UNIVERSITY AS
AN EMPIRE is evoked, which strengthens the powerful position of a univer-
sity when it comes to the field of philosophy and research.
What an empire is in political history, such is a University in the sphere of philo-
sophy and research (…) it maps out the territory of the intellect, and sees that the
boundaries of each province are religiously respected, and that there is neither
encroachment nor surrender on any side. (Newman 459)
Therefore, according to Newman, the kind of KNOWLEDGE one is likely to
obtain at a university IS POWER, which means a scientifically and philo-
sophically formed-mind, an ability to make clear judgements, while its re-
sults are external to themselves (Newman 111–112).
ADAM WARCHOŁ
68
What is more, even though universities usually adjust curriculum to
reproduce the changing world, a university in Newman’s opinion should
provide a territory for all subjects separately and equally, since all the
subjects and knowledge form one whole (Newman 50–51). Indeed, only
when treated as a whole, with all the subjects connected together, may
knowledge receive its proper value, regain its powerful educational effect on
its learners, and be claimed a “sovereign position.”
This, however, is not the reason why I claim for it so sovereign a position. (…)
a University professes to assign to each study, which it receives, its own proper
place and its just boundaries; to define the rights, to establish the mutual rela-
tions. (Newman 457–458)
UNIVERSITY seen as a nation PROVIDES WEALTH for its inhabitants. How-
ever, for Newman, education obtained at a university is much dearer than
gold, health or even “wealth.” It stems from the fact that a well-educated
graduate is expected by Newman to become a gentleman with all the
possible skills, with mental, human and spiritual values, and with all the
features of character which make him a perfect human being, a hard-working
employee, an eager worshiper, and a devoted citizen. Therefore, such a per-
son feels fulfilled, pleased and respected.
It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opi-
nions and judgments, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing
them, and a force in urging them. (…) He has a gift which serves him in public,
and supports him in retirement, without which good fortune is but vulgar, and
with which failure and disappointment have a charm. The art which tends to
make a man all this, is in the object which it pursues as useful as the art of
wealth or the art of health, though it is less susceptible of method, and less
tangible, less certain, less complete in its result. (Newman 178)
Besides, KNOWLEDGE IS compared by Newman to a TREASURE. The
rewarding result of education means forming a real virtuous gentleman with
good habits.
There is a Knowledge, which is desirable, though nothing come of it, as being of
itself a treasure, and a sufficient remuneration of years of labour. (Newman 114)
Furthermore, each nation and empire maintains its territory, trying to gain
new lands at the same time. Hence, knowledge, in Newman’s vision of a uni-
versity, is said to be a necessary condition to grow up, develop one’s
EDUCATION: ITS ETHICAL DIMENSION AND METAPHORICAL VISUALISATION 69
intellectual perspectives; thus, to provide an expansion or enlargement of
mind (Newman 129–130). The metaphor which is evoked is sounds KNOW-
LEDGE IS TERRITORY EXPANSION.
In addition, Newman attributes a great deal of importance to knowledge,
which, if universal and philosophically-oriented, enlarges the intellectual
horizons, releases the heart, like “a prisoner” set free from captivity, over-
comes chain-like limits, wings but does not overwhelm (Newman 131–132).
Thus, for Newman, KNOWLEDGE IS FREEDOM.
A UNIVERSITY in Newman’s opinion should PROVIDE A TERRITORY FOR ALL
SUBJECTS separately and equally. Hence, UNIVERSITY PROVIDES EQUALITY:
It is the very profession of a University to teach all sciences, on this account it
cannot exclude Theology without being untrue to its profession. (…) all sciences
being connected together, and having bearings one on another, it is impossible
to teach them all thoroughly, unless they all are taken into account, and Theo-
logy among them. (Newman 97)
Additionally, the branch of knowledge is conceptualized by means of
a palette of different colours, which are selected and mixed together. The
degree of this combination of particular subjects or research areas i.e. “co-
lours,” depends on one’s intellectual possibilities. Consequently, UNIVER-
SITY IS THE COMBINATION OF COLOURS, and it must form an artistic work-
shop. The works of art are likely to be beautiful; thus, KNOWLEDGE obtained
in such a workshop, must be ART AND BEAUTY (Newman 100).
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In our attempt to capture the essence of Henry Newman’s idea of a uni-
versity we have formulated a number of conceptual metaphors, set in three
main networks. The sets in these networks derive from three basic meta-
phors, of which the LIFE IS A BUILDING metaphor has been discussed in
detail in this paper.
To conclude, Newman’s metaphors of UNIVERSITY AS A PLACE OF UNI-
VERSAL KNOWLEDGE constitutes the ground for the overall network, pre-
sented in Figure 1, in which UNIVERSITY is recognised both as A PLACE,
FIELD, or SHELTER, and as AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM, such as A NATION or
A COMBINATION OF COLOURS. The description of Newman’s metaphors pre-
sented so far may help us understand his very reasoning and vision referring
ADAM WARCHOŁ
70
to a university. University education is supposed to be as broad and liberal
as possible, covering all branches of knowledge, including science and
religion (Discourse II); while students’ knowledge, if limited or narrowed,
leads to biased and obstinate judgments (Discourse IV) (cf. Hiner). That is
why Newman expects knowledge to be universal. Besides, he maintains that
the goal of education needs to be perceived more broadly than student
evaluation and specialization within a given discipline. This view contradicts
the utilitarianism of Locke (1700) and Mill (1859), who claim that a primary
objective of educational institutions is the development of marketable skills in
service of broader economic purposes. It can be assumed that Newman is not
against training for a vocational career since he reveals a wish to have diffe-
rent “branches of knowledge;” nonetheless, he desires even more that the uni-
versity curriculum would encourage study in multiple fields in order to help
students and scholars identify connections and engage most challenging philo-
sophical questions, social issues, and scientific problems. Truly yet, Newman
may have been disappointed to see the contemporary university, with its dis-
crete colleges of business, education, engineering, fine arts, and law, with lack
of communication between each of them (cf. Lanford).
Moreover, in his vision of a university, as seen in the metaphors he uses,
Newman holds an inclusive and holistic view of knowledge, stating in
Discourse Two of the first book that “the very name of University is
inconsistent with restrictions of any kind” (22). He notes that “if certain
branches of knowledge were excluded, those students of course would be
excluded also, who desired to pursue them” (23). Newman’s understanding
of this kind of knowledge may have been influenced by England’s historical
exclusion of Catholic students, and the fact that he addresses his lectures to
a most probably skeptical Dublin Irish Catholic audience that, nevertheless,
had been historically excluded from education.
Additionally, Newman considers the role of religious belief in higher
education at substantial length. Whereas many might deliberate the com-
bination of science and religion to create the conditions for epistemological
incoherence, Newman believes that the two, by necessity, should be ex-
plored and extended collectively for human progress. Newman finds doctri-
naire thought that unquestioningly passes knowledge down from generation
to generation disagreeable with the pursuit of “Truth” and hopes that univer-
sities would instead encourage logical debate. This belief in Truth as an
attainable and aspirational goal for university faculty and students marks
Newman as something of an early positivist.
EDUCATION: ITS ETHICAL DIMENSION AND METAPHORICAL VISUALISATION 71
Furthermore, it is interesting to note that, as the metaphors described in
section 3 appear to indicate, most of the concepts used by Newman are gene-
rally considered values, understood as “something intrinsically valuable or
desirable such as a principle or quality” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictio-
nary, “Values”) in all domains of human life. This is consonant with Bart-
miński’s (2003, 2016) observation that values are a privileged subject in the
linguistic picture of the world, and with Krzeszowski’s claim that values in
culture can hardly be overestimated, since they constitute an influential
aspect of language, its obligatory parameter. Newman’s all the spheres of
human life are involved into the university education, which is responsible
for “supplying true principles,” as he described it in the following words:2
a University training is the great ordinary means to a great but ordinary end; it
aims (…) at supplying true principles. (Newman 177–178)
In this vein, the virtues, values, and all the universal knowledge obtained
at the university are designed to provide ethical principles, and to protect,
strengthen and “shelter the soul from the temptations of vice” (Newman 91);
thus, KNOWLEDGE IS seen as GOOD. Nonetheless, the ability of discerning
between what is good and bad is required, and it “comes from God,” as
underlined by Newman3:
All that is good, all that is true, all that is beautiful, all that is beneficent, be it
great or small, be it perfect or fragmentary, natural as well as supernatural, mo-
ral as well as material, comes from Him. (Newman 66)
A final remark: the list of unethical issues in our contemporary education
is said to be endless, which acts as stumbling blocks to effective learning
(IICE). However, using the achievements of the past and the visions of
university education that devoted educators and authorities, such as Cardinal
John Henry Newman, used to create, may be a good step forward for making
a positive change. Hence, the ethical component is more than desired to
constitute an intrinsic element of higher education. It may be especially
helpful for Polish universities, at dawn of the new educational reform, con-
tributing to pedagogical effectiveness.
2 The issue of values in Newman’s teaching seems to deserve a more thorough discussion, but
due to the space limit it is only mentioned here.
3 Newman’s idea of truth is closely associated with other values, namely goodness and
beauty, which makes him refer to Plato’s ideas of transcendentals (cf. Aertsen).
ADAM WARCHOŁ
72
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EDUKACJA: JEJ WYMIAR ETYCZNY I METAFORYCZNA WIZUALIZACJA
NA PODSTAWIE KSIĄŻKI JOHNA HENRY’EGO NEWMANA
THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSITY (1852
Streszczenie
Niemal dwa wieki temu w swojej książce The Idea of University Kardynał John Henry
Newman (1801–1890) wykreował wizję edukacji uniwersyteckiej, którą ujął w świetle wiary
i etyki katolickiej. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest zaprezentowanie poglądów Newmana na temat
uniwersytetu za pomocą teorii metafory pojęciowej, zaproponowanej początkowo przez Lakoffa
i Johnsona w książce Metaphors We Live By (1980 [2003], por. także Lakoff i Johnson 1999;
Lakoff 1987, 1993; Kövecses 2015, m. in.). Artykuł stara się wyłonić główne sieci (ang. net-
works) metafor implikacyjnych, które — jak wierzymy — obrazują ideę uniwersytetu według
Newmana. W artykule skonstruowano trzy główne sieci metafor pojęciowych, które leżą u pod-
staw zrozumienia wizji uniwersytetu według Newmana: ŻYCIE JEST BUDOWLĄ; ŻYCIE JEST ŻYWYM
ORGANIZMEM; ŻYCIE JEST PODRÓŻĄ. Artykuł skupia się na analizie tylko pierwszej sieci (network).
W omawianej metaforze ŻYCIE JEST BUDOWLĄ, UNIWERSYTET jest postrzegany przez Newmana
jako MIEJSCE, POLE, SCHRONISKO lub jako SYSTEM ZINTEGROWANY, np. NARÓD lub KOMBINACJA
KOLORÓW. WIEDZA jest zobrazowana językiem Newmana jako m.in. ROŚLINA, NAGRODA, DOBRO,
WOLNOŚĆ, MOC, SKARB, SZTUKA I PIĘKNO.
Słowa kluczowe: John Henry Newman; edukacja uniwersytecka; etyka; teoria metafory pojęcio-
wej; sieci metafor implikacyjnych.
