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ENGLISH AS AN EARLY FOREIGN LANGUAGE - Student and Teacher Perspectives on the Transition Between Elementary and Secondary School

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In this paper, we discuss the problem of articulation between levels in the educational system, as the transition from a rather more communicative, contentbased and holistic approach to English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching at primary level to more formal and explicit ways of foreign language (FL) teaching at secondary is often experienced as problematic by students and teachers alike (see, e.g., Muñoz, Tragant, & Camuñas, 2015). The results of a mixed methods analysis are presented, in which we analyzed, through a questionnaire and language experience essays, perceived continuity between input received in primary school and secondary school, as well as learners’ beliefs, attitudes and self-efficacy before and after they transitioned to secondary school. Twelve primary schools and six secondary schools in Switzerland participated in the study, with a total of 280 early learners of EFL (biological age 12-13 years, age of onset 8 years). We will argue that one of the main reasons why early FL instruction seems not to bear fruit later in secondary school is that, on the one hand, coherence in curriculum design and practice vary in a few-but crucial-aspects within and between primary schools. On the other hand, the fact that secondary education becomes a meeting point for mixed ability classes also seems to mitigate the potential advantages of an earlier start.
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The current longitudinal study examines the similarities and differences between primary and secondary foreign language curricula and pedagogy along with the development of motivation for language learning and second language proficiency. Data from 26 English learners of French (aged 10–11) were collected across three times points over a 12-month period. The study employed the use of lesson observations, along with questionnaires and focus group interviews to examine the development of attitudes and motivation. To measure linguistic progression an oral role play task, an oral photo description task, and a free writing task were administered at each time point. The results show that an abrupt shift in pedagogy may negatively influence learner attitudes and motivation in early secondary and, while early language learning does appear to generate positive attitudes to language learning, questions remain as to its effectiveness over the longer term when learners encounter language teaching that appears incongruous with their aims. Learners did make significant linguistic progress across the transition phase as measured by objective and fine-grained measures, which raises the question as to whether it may in fact be assessment practices that account for the reported ‘hiatus’ in progression across transition rather than lack of actual progress.
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The paper analyzes research published over the last five years. The first part looks into policy documents, types of programs, and surveys to identify (a) reasons why an early start to learning languages is seen as beneficial and under what conditions; (b) possible threats; and (c) the aims and expected outcomes that are predicted by various models. The second part discusses studies on learners, including what they do in classrooms, how they perform on tasks, how their languages interact, and how they develop in different skills. A separate section reviews individual differences in the affective, cognitive, and strategic domains, as well as the role of learners’ socioeconomic status and their learning difficulties. In the third part, we draw on classroom observation and interview studies to discuss teachers’ roles, proficiency and uses of languages, and beliefs and practices. In the fourth part, we focus on the assessment of young learners; more specifically, we review what the construct of assessment is, what various assessment frameworks include, what international and national examinations exist, and what assessment for learning involves. Finally, in the last section we review implications for further research.
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This study examined whether a younger starting age is advanta-geous in a situation of minimal exposure to an instructed foreign language (4 hours classroom contact per week). Previous theor-etical and empirical studies indicated there should be no advantage for an earlier start. Japanese college students who started studying English between ages three and twelve (n 61) were examined on a phonemic discrimination (ɹ/l/w) and grammaticality judgement task (GJT). After controlling for language aptitude and amount of input, statistical correlations were found between starting age and scores on the GJT (r – .38) but not the phonemic task (r .03). These earlier starters were also compared to peers who began study in junior high at age twelve or thirteen (n 139) on the same meas-ures. The earlier starters were found to score statistically higher on the phonemic but not morphosyntactic measure, and this remained true in an ANCOVA analysis where total amount of hours of study input were controlled for. A robust ANCOVA testing for differences at different levels of input found interesting interactions between group affiliation and amount of input. Language attitudes were also tested. The evidence shows there can be perceivable age effects for linguistic measures even in a situation of minimal exposure to a for-eign language, but these may not emerge until a substantial amount of input has been gained.
Article
Foreign language education has now been implemented at the elementary school level across Europe, and early foreign language education has gained traction following language policies set by the European Commission. The long-term effects of an early start, however, have not received ample scientific scrutiny. The present study assessed early receptive skills of two cohorts of English language learners in Year 5 (beginning of secondary education in Germany) and two years later in Year 7. The factors distinguishing between these two cohorts were onset of foreign language education and the amount of language exposure. The effects of the earlier start were found in the results for Year 5, when the early cohort outperformed peers with less and later exposure to English. However, in Year 7, the late starters surpassed their early starting peers.
Chapter
This chapter examines the role of an early start in second/foreign language (L2) learning. It will first discuss the so-called 'Critical Period Hypothesis' (CPH) for L2 learning, because this hypothesis appears to have been one of the reasons why early foreign language programs were met with rather high expectations when they were first introduced in primary schools in countries such as Germany from the early 2000s onwards. Next the results of selected studies will be presented that may help to explain why the high expectations regarding the outcomes of early foreign language programs many people appear to have had in the beginning have not always been met. In this context, different conditions will be discussed that have repeatedly been found to contribute to greater success in L2 learning both inside and outside of the foreign language classroom. Finally, the chapter will call for an adequately differentiated discussion of simple statements about early L2 learning and teaching such as 'The earlier, the better' in teacher training courses.
Article
The transition from primary to secondary school is an area of concern across a range of curriculum subjects and this is no less so for foreign language learning. Indeed problems with transition have been identified in England as an important barrier to the introduction of language learning to the primary school curriculum, with implications for learners’ longer-term motivation for the subject. This longitudinal study investigated, through a questionnaire, the development of 233 learners’ motivation for learning French in England, during the transition from primary to secondary schooling. It also explored whether levels and patterns of motivation differed according to the type of language teaching experienced, comparing a largely oracy-focused approach with one with greater emphasis on literacy activities. Learners showed high and increasing levels of motivation across transition, placing particular value on learning French for travel. Being taught through an oracy or a literacy-focused approach had less impact on learners’ motivation than broader classroom experiences, with the development of a sense of progress and feeling that instruction met their learning needs being especially important. A growing disjuncture emerged between valuing the learning of French for travel/communication and learners’ low levels of self-efficacy for communication with native speakers, together with a desire for more communication-based activities. By the end of the first year of secondary school less positive attitudes towards learning French and less optimism about the possibility of future progress were beginning to emerge. The paper concludes by outlining the implications of the study for classroom practice in language learning.
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The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 established foreign languages as a core curricular content area; however, instructional emphasis continues to be placed on curricular areas that factor into state educational accountability programs. The present study explored whether foreign language study of first-year Grade 3 foreign language students who continued their foreign language study through Grade 5 in Louisiana public schools contributed to their academic achievement in curricular areas tested on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) and the Louisiana Educational Assessment Program for the 21st Century (LEAP 21) test. Notable findings emerged. First, foreign language (FL) students significantly outperformed their non-FL peers on every test (English language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies) of the Grade 4 LEAP 21. Second, the present research suggested that regardless of the test, whether the Grade 4 criterion-referenced LEAP 21 or the Grade 5 norm-referenced ITBS, at each grade level FL students significantly outperformed their non-FL counterparts on language achievement tests.
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