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SDG 15 Life on Land: A Review of Sustainable Fashion Design Processes: Upcycling Waste Organic Yarns

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Abstract

The fashion industry has had a significant impact on the environment and overall global sustainability. Evidence shows it is the most polluting industry and the largest consumer of water, accounting for 20% of global water wastage detrimentally affecting both life on land and underwater. As such a few key stakeholders in the fashion industry have begun undertaking key preventative measures. These include but are not limited to the use of organic cotton crops, reduction of water use throughout the production chain, the implementation of a zero-waste patternmaking technique, second-hand shops, recycling of production materials, recycling discarded fishing nets into nylon fibre and increasing the use of biodegradable fibres, crop’s waste fibres, bio-based fibres and bio-textile processes and renewable sources like bamboo and hemp. The review presented in this chapter examines the fashion production cycle, the use of alternative organic materials and recycling processes for the sustainable production of yarns whilst exploring the connections between the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 15 Life on Land and 14 Life below Water.
247© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
I. B. Franco et al. (eds.), Actioning the Global Goals for Local Impact, Science
for Sustainable Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9927-6_16
Chapter 16
SDG 15 Life onLand
A Review of Sustainable Fashion Design
Processes: Upcycling Waste Organic Yarns
ClaudiaArana, IsabelB.Franco, AnuskaJoshi, andJyotiSedhai
Abstract The fashion industry has had a signicant impact on the environment and
overall global sustainability. Evidence shows it is the most polluting industry and
the largest consumer of water, accounting for 20% of global water wastage detri-
mentally affecting both life on land and underwater. As such a few key stakeholders
in the fashion industry have begun undertaking key preventative measures. These
include but are not limited to the use of organic cotton crops, reduction of water use
throughout the production chain, the implementation of a zero-waste patternmaking
technique, second-hand shops, recycling of production materials, recycling dis-
carded shing nets into nylon bre and increasing the use of biodegradable bres,
crop’s waste bres, bio-based bres and bio-textile processes and renewable sources
like bamboo and hemp. The review presented in this chapter examines the fashion
production cycle, the use of alternative organic materials and recycling processes
for the sustainable production of yarns whilst exploring the connections between
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 15 Life on Land and 14 Life below
Water.
Keywords Sustainable fashion · Waste · Organic yarns · SDG 15 Life on Land ·
SDG 14 Life below Water · Sustainability
C. Arana (*)
Bunka Gakuen University, Fashion Global Concentration, Shibuya, Japan
e-mail: arana@bunka.ac.jp
I. B. Franco
Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, United Nations University Shibuya-ku,
Tokyo, Japan
Australian Institute for Business and Economics, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia
e-mail: connect@drisabelfranco.com
A. Joshi · J. Sedhai
United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: a.joshi@student.unu.edu
248
16.1 Introduction
From sourcing to post-consumption disposal and waste management, the fashion
industry compromises several forms of life on land and therefore compromises the
achievement of the Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15) and SDG 14 Life
below Water (FAO, ITPS 2015). Major issues confronting the industry range from
use of raw materials, waste generation and pollution of land and water. Such issues
have profound impacts on life and are often difcult to estimate due to their com-
plexity and global reach (Šajn 2019). Introducing more efcient production pro-
cesses in the fashion industry would contribute to reducing waste and production of
greenhouse emissions and promote sustainable resource management. Whilst pro-
ducing more environmentally friendly apparel can contribute to the achievement of
SDG 15, the industry should commit to closing the whole cycle production in a
sustainable and responsible manner. This requires the participation of key stake-
holders in the industry, namely, designers, factory workers, material suppliers and
consumers, contributing in the development of new practices, behaviours, technolo-
gies and processes for recovering and reusing waste.
In this context, this chapter presents a review of fashion design processes for
upcycling organic yarn through exploring its connection to the promotion of SDGs
14 and 15. The fashion industry has grown rapidly since garments and textiles rst
began mass production in the nineteenth century. It has also become the second
largest industrial consumer of water (UNECE 2019). Additionally, evidence shows
it is responsible for the production of more than 1.2 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas
emissions (UNFCCC 2018), causing severe environmental damage (Masson-
Delmotte etal. 2018). In response, stakeholders in the fashion industry have come
up with sustainability-driven innovations to address such industrial issues. Some of
these actions include but are not limited to textile production from recycled materi-
als, the use of innovative technologies in clothing production and the use of zero-
waste pattern techniques, among others. Although these practices have gained
popularity among consumers, the fashion industry as a whole is far from becoming
sustainable. This chapter presents a review of material sourcing and waste manage-
ment processes throughout the design process. The review will cover four main
stages of the fashion cycle as well as case studies examining sustainable fashion
practices and techniques. This will hopefully increase our understanding of the
development of impact sustainability solutions towards the promotion of SDG 15
and SDG 14in the fashion industry. Thus, this review is useful for educators and
researchers working to promote sustainable fashion innovations. The chapter begins
presenting connections between the sustainability of the fashion industry, SDG 15
and SDG 14. It then provides a review of material sourcing, which consists of the
separation of materials into two groups: agriculture-sourced or natural bre-sourced
and synthetic bre-sourced. This is followed by a review of the production stage,
which transforms raw materials into bres, yarns, fabrics, etc. This section also
highlights case studies exemplifying global sustainable practices, specically
reviewing waste management practices, and nishes with a few recommendations
C. Arana et al.
249
for impact sustainability research to further promote sustainable innovation within
the fashion industry.
16.2 Towards Sustainable Fashion: ALiterature
andPractice Review
16.2.1 Introduction
The fashion industry has a clearly negative implication on land and water ecosys-
tems, through the release of both microbres and pollutants. The International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated that 34.8% of micro-
plastics released into the oceans are due to the laundry of synthetic textiles (Boucher
and Friot 2017). Evidence also shows that for each item of clothing washed, the
amount of microbres released into the water stream is as high as 700,000; these
microplastics then make their way through the food chain (Napper and Thompson
2016). Fashion is also the second highest industrial polluter– after the oil industry.
The pollutants released from the industry are often released in the afuent which
can consist of toxic chemicals like lead, arsenic and mercury, as well as the release
of chemical fertilizers used in the production of bres to supply the industry. Some
other factors compromising the overall sustainability of the fashion industry will be
explored in detail in the following sections.
16.2.2 The Fashion Industry andSustainability: Making
theLinks
This review presents the links between the fashion industry and both SDG 14 Life
below Water and SDG 15 Life on Land. The Sustainable Development Goal report
2018 has shown that SDGs 14 and 15 are in a dire state due to increases in the
exploitation of nature, levels of pollution and the acidity of water sources (UN
2019). Marine acidity has increased by about 26% since the industrial revolution
and now faces conditions that are entirely unprecedented. Also, with the increased
rise of pollution, it has been estimated that coastal eutrophication will rise by 20%
by 2050 (UN 2019). Additionally, the increase of pollutant and microbre levels in
the ocean has a detrimental impact on the aquatic life, including a signicant impact
on relevant bioaccumulation processes. Most of these pollutants are non-
biodegradable and highly bioaccumulative (the concentration of these toxics
increases as it passes through the food chain). The fashion industry has also been
shown to emit high amounts of toxic bioaccumulators such as mercury.
Consumers’ awareness has recently increased (Kim and Damhorst 1998; Gam
2011), as consumers look to engage in sustainable lifestyles and opt for green
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
250
products (Diamantopoulos etal. 2003; Zimmer etal. 1994). The fashion industry is
mostly inuenced by seasonal trends linked to eco-friendly purchasing behaviour
(Kunz 2005: 4). Therefore, companies are introducing sustainability as part of their
business strategy, making green products increasingly available in the marketplace
(Fraj and Martinez, 2006; Gam 2011). However, this business strategy in isolation
is not sufcient. Scholars have documented some other setbacks facing the industry
in its journey towards sustainability. Findings show that the main issues preventing
the complete integration of sustainable principles into the fashion industry include
the lack of education regarding sustainable or “green” fashion, the perception that
green fashion lacks glamour and style, the prevalence of unsustainable production
practices across the supply chain, the short life cycle of products and the limited
corporate disclosure in the fashion industry. Notable exceptions include Bono’s
Eden, the British Stella McCartney or Stewart -Brown which are perceived as sus-
tainable fashion brands (Cervellon and Wenerfelt 2012).
16.2.3 The Fashion Industry: Production Cycle
The fashion industries’ main contribution to the deterioration of both aquatic life
and life on land is in the form of water consumption and waste generation, with
huge amounts of pollutants released in the form of factory efuents. The completion
of a clothing item has a complex life cycle consisting of different phases including
resource production, bre manufacturing, apparel assembly, transportation, con-
sumer use and nally recycling or ultimate disposal. Each of these processes can
cause environmental impacts such as resource depletion, fossil fuel emission, water
wastage and solid waste, seriously compromising the sustainability of the fashion
industry in the long term. Thus, this section presents a review of the sourcing of
materials, the production cycle and several case studies showcasing sustainability
practices in the industry.
16.2.3.1 Sourcing Materials intheFashion Industry: AReview ofFibres
Textile production in the fashion industry also involves sewing, cutting and assem-
bling, which require a large workforce (UNECE 2019). One of the major concerns
of the fashion industry is waste production throughout the supply chain from crop
yields, yarns and textiles to pattern cutting, and the post-production stages, “about
15 percent of fabric intended for clothing ends up on the cutting room oor”
(Rosenbloom 2010). Findings also show that discarded clothes more often than not
end up as landll. Most of the clothing that ends in landlls creates polluting gas
and heavy metal releases as well as additive discharges into soil and groundwater
causing soil degradation (Choudhury 2017).
Statistics show that 70% of the apparel bres production is synthetic and non-
biodegradable and the other 30% of natural bres are often mixed with synthetics in
C. Arana et al.
251
the textile production phase. Blended bres are challenging to recycle. To date,
there is no specic analytical technique to identify the type of bre in the garment,
and chemical separation is often difcult as different types of bre require their own
specications (Peters etal. 2014). Likewise, current recycling methods lack ef-
ciency. For example, only 20% of the bres in a pair of jeans can be recycled and
polyester fabrics, also difcult to recycle. Moreover, recycling requires the separa-
tion of garments into different colours which is often a very labour-intensive pro-
cess (Walker 2017).
Fibres can be natural or synthetic. Textile production is possible due to the manu-
facturing of bres, which can be turned into yarn for knitting or weaving. Natural
bres are either sourced from agriculture or the production of synthetic (non-
cellulosic) bres from petroleum through chemical synthesis. However, the produc-
tion of natural bres through agriculture consumes a signicant amount of total
freshwater available for human consumption (Radhakrishnan 2017). Despite the
obvious benets of biodegradable bres, those demand fertilizers and pesticides,
which reduce soil fertility and consequently result in the biodiversity loss (ITPS
2015: 127). Data shows that cotton itself represents 82.7% of the total natural bre
production for the apparel sector whilst other bres, which are more benecial for
the environment, represent a minority. For instance, wool represents 5.3%, ax
2.5% and cellulosic bres 9.9% (FAO-ICAC 2013). Among all the natural bres,
cotton has the most adverse environmental impacts, followed by polyester, acrylic,
elastane and nylon (Karthik and Rathinamoorthy 2017). In 2010, cotton represented
32.9% of the total world apparel bre consumption (FAO-ICAC 2013). Evidence
also shows that 350 million people are engaged in cotton farming, and it is manu-
factured in 100 countries (Radhakrishnan 2017). According to UNECE (2019),
2700 litres of water are needed to produce an average cotton shirt. Additionally,
cotton farming is responsible for 24 percent of insecticides and 11 percent of pesti-
cides despite using only 3 percent of the world’s productive land (UNFCCC 2018).
As for natural bres like cotton, the recycling process consists of cutting clothes or
textile waste and making them small enough, through stripping machines to pull
them apart into bres and nally spin into yarns. These shorter bres then need to
be blended with virgin cotton. Although natural bres seem more benecial to the
environment, they can create negative environmental impacts due to unsustainable
production practices and poor natural resource management.
On the other hand, synthetic bres depend on the extraction of raw materials,
such as petroleum, coal and limestone, adversely impacting soil and water supplies.
Since Nylon became popular in the 1930s, its demand kept on increasing as it
became a substitute for silk due to the scarcity of the latter in World War II.Nylon
was mainly used for the production of military products like parachutes. However,
it also opened the door for other synthesized polymers derived from petroleum. By
2010 synthetic (non-cellulosic) bres represented 70% of the world’s apparel bre
consumption (FAO-ICAC 2013). This is a major sustainability issue, as most poly-
mers are non-biodegradable, and their manufacturing produces many harmful
chemicals and emits greenhouse gases, fostering global warming.
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
252
Both natural and synthetic processes for the conversion of bres into textiles use
natural resources in the wet-treatment phases, including bleach, dye, print and nal
nishing to name a few. The mix of water and chemicals resulting from these pro-
cesses contains large amounts of dyes, diluents, bleaches, detergents, optical bright-
eners and heavy metals among others. Evidence shows that these chemicals pollute
the environment due to their high levels of acidity or alkalinity (pH)
(Choudhury 2017).
16.2.3.1.1 Natural Fibres
Cotton
Cotton represents almost 80% of natural bres for apparel, yet it is an excessively
water-consuming crop, representing a problem for waste management. It also
involves many issues regarding pesticide control; as with the higher use of pesti-
cides, the insects’ resistance to pesticides increases, demanding more aggressive
doses resulting in a greater threat to surrounding biodiversity and human health
(Choudhury 2017). The environmental pressure of cotton industry is huge, and as
pointed out by WWF, even bringing cotton production to an acceptable environmen-
tal standard is a very challenging task (WWF 2019). Monsanto, the company that
dominates the market of genetically modied (GM) seed, embarked into the reduc-
tion of the use of pesticides. Yet, the Pesticide Action Network (PAN) states that
GM is not the appropriate solution as Bt cotton contains the toxin from the bacte-
rium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which kills some natural pests, such as the cotton
bollworm (Black 2012) (not sure if this is correct).
However, cotton production cannot solely rely on this practice as there are other
processes affecting yields, including rain distribution, soil conditions and farming
practices. Moreover, whilst some pests are controlled by Bt cotton, others will
replace them resulting in the so-called pesticide treadmill (Black 2012). Long-term
solutions lie in the use of organic fertilization, avoiding synthetic chemicals, crop
rotation and farming practices that are aligned with sustainable parameters for both
nature and human wellbeing. Farmers and supply chain members have the support
from organizations such as Better Cotton Initiative BCI, a not-for-prot organiza-
tion which offers information and training programmes on this subject.
Hemp
In 2009, at the International Year of Natural Fibres symposium, the use of hemp was
acknowledged as a natural bre which should be used widely. Hemp’s ecological
footprint is less harmful. It grows quickly and densely and requires low-level water
consumption. It is resistant to ultraviolet radiation, is naturally anti-bacterial and
dyes well (FAO 2009). To balance the production of natural bres, sources such as
hemp should be considered more seriously by the textile industry. In Japan, for
example, hemp has been used since the Jōmon Period for weaving clothing and
baskets (Clark and Merlin 2013). Hemp thrives with average rainfall, and its natu-
rally long bres allow efcient spinning, using less energy during production,
C. Arana et al.
253
reducing carbon emissions (Choudhury 2017). Unfortunately, hemp’s links with
marijuana makes its commercialization difcult. Despite this, it is by far the most
environmentally friendly bre, and its popularity is growing. China, for example,
has become the leading producer and exporter of hemp bres (FAO 2009).
Producers more often engage in the production of softer textured textiles through
mixing hemp bres with cotton. CRAiLAR (2018), for example, uses an enzyme-
based process to transform blast bres such as Hemp into softer bres. This process
can give hemp bres a similar feeling and appearance to cotton-based bres.
Although there is not an exclusive process for blast bres, these bres including
hemp, ax, jute and kenaf are suitable for cold weather and do not require irrigation.
Blast bres are competitive in the market, and there is no need to blend them with
others. Furthermore, this process could be mono-material or multi-material; blast
bres used in this enzyme process are all biodegradable, becoming biological nutri-
ents during decomposition.
Mulberry
Another bre experiencing rapid growth with high adaptability to poor soil and
climate change is mulberry. Mulberry pulp has been used to make paper in Asia,
particularly in Korea, Japan, China, Thailand and the Philippines (Muthu and
Gardetti 2016). Mulberry yarns were rst used in the late twenty-rst century in
Korea where manufactures and research institutions developed yarns as a ply-
twisted or lament yarn. These can be used for weaving and knitting textiles and in
the production of cooling clothing (Muthu and Gardetti 2016). Mulberry is made
using a rotary slitter and twisted. Water is added during the twisting process, so the
yarn is softer and has a high tensile strength (Park and Lee 2014). North Face Korea
and Youngone Outdoor– both multinational outdoor companies– have already used
mulberry in their products. However, Mulberry yarns, much the same as hemp, are
stiff and rough, making the textile process difcult.
These case studies clearly show there are many sustainable materials available to
the fashion industry. These in conjunction with sustainable processes could contrib-
ute towards a more sustainable fashion industry. Such practices include disuse of
synthetic chemicals that may contaminate water supplies and promotion of low-
energy textile manufacturing. Tencel bres, known as Lyocell, are bres produced
by the international group Lenzing, which produces wood-based viscose bres,
modal bres, lyocell bres and lament yarn. Lyocell bres are produced through
regenerating cellulose in an organic solvent, N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide hydrate.
This procedure makes textiles softer, with greater absorption than cotton (TENCEL
2018). These bres are also “derived from sustainable wood sources– natural for-
ests and sustainably managed plantations. Wood and pulp used by the Lenzing
Group are harvested from certied and controlled sources” in Austria and neigh-
bouring countries (TENCEL 2018). Lenzing bres are manufactured in a closed-
loop, as cellulosic bres are fully compostable. “Cellulose disintegrates into its
native substances and prepares the ground for new plants to grow” (Lenzing 2018).
These textiles are created through the use of nanotechnology in an award-winning
solvent-spinning process which recycles water and reuses the solvent at a recovery
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
254
rate of “more than 99%” (TENCEL 2018). Lenzing products including lyocell and
modal bres are the closest example of harvesting, producing and recovering mate-
rials with less than 0.1% of negative impact in their full-life cycle. Lenzing exempli-
es sustainable practice in the fashion industry and should thus be replicated by
other corporations.
Another case in point is soybean bres produced by spinning the protein distilled
from the soybean. Like hemp, this bre was used to replace cotton in the World War
II, but due to technical difculties, its popularity quickly diminished (Fletcher
2014). In recent years, this bre has gained strength in the textile market in China.
However, there are major concerns regarding the soybean crops intensive tilling that
require consideration.
The use of natural bres in the fashion industry is not holistically sustainable,
and therefore complementary bres are needed throughout the production process,
such as synthetic bres. Below is a review of cases using synthetic materials and
how those could be integrated into the fashion industry in a more sustainable manner.
16.2.3.1.2 Synthetic Fibres
The main issue regarding the production of synthetic bres is energy consumption.
Synthetics are made of petroleum feedstock containing chemicals harmful to the
environment. They are also the major contributors of pollutants, resulting in clear-
ing of forests for resources as well as emitting huge amount of GHGs (Superego
2018). Thus, synthetic bres are not sustainable.
The use of antimony, for example, in the production of polyester turns into
wastewater, releasing high amounts of greenhouse gases and volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs). “Over 70 billion barrels of oil per year are used to make polyester”
(Karthik and Rathinamoorthy 2017). Synthetic bres, if recycled, are downcycling,
a process in which the value of a material decreases during recycling or the material
ends up in landlls. Despite being unsustainable, synthetics are essential for some
technological developments such as the design of space suits. Polyester is also used
in bres, bottles, containers and photographic lms to name a few (Karthik and
Rathinamoorthy 2017). Although polyester waste management often results in envi-
ronmental problems, if “design begins at the molecular level, synthetic products can
be conceived as technical nutrients, which are materials specically designed to
feed or be returned to, industrial systems without any harmful effects” (McDonough
and Braungart 2002). In 2001, Victor Textiles introduced Eco-Intelligent™
Polyester. The company afrms to be the rst dyed polyester bre made of environ-
mentally safe ingredients, such as dyestuff, auxiliary chemicals and titanium- and
silica-based catalysts that replace the metalloid antimony (McDonough and
Braungart 2002). Eco-Intelligent™ Polyester is designed to have a high perfor-
mance and durability, with no limitations on colour choices, and can be woven in
any jacquard pattern. Additionally, it is a bre-to-bre product, safely recycled to
produce the same high-quality bre as the original (Victor 2018). This system in
partnership with recycling technology from Uni, a yarn manufacturer, and
C. Arana et al.
255
Designtex, a company specializing in the design and manufacturing of electronics,
offers a solution for the environmental problems derived from the use of polyester-
related textile products.
Biopolymers and Mixed Polymers
Biopolymers do not have the same biodegradability issues as petrochemical-based
polymers. Produced from biological renewable sources including lignocellulosic
biomass, fatty acids and organic waste, these polymers are biodegradable bres
derived from living organisms. The rst biopolymers came from carbohydrate
sources including corn, potatoes and other agricultural feedstock. These are synthe-
sized as cellulose, starch, polylactide, chitin and collagen formed in the natural
environment during the growth cycles of organisms. They can be produced through
bacterial fermentation processes by synthesizing the relevant building blocks from
these sources (Karthik and Rathinamoorthy 2017). Poly- (lactic acid) or polylactide
(PLA) bres are made of corn starch and sugar cane and can be used for textiles in
the fashion industry. Ingeo™ bres are produced by NatureWorks, a bioplastic-
polymer manufacturing company. The company afrms that their textile products
can be used for clothing as well as household products. They can also be knitted or
weaved and resist steaming in temperatures of 80°C for approximately 20min.
Products can also be blended with wool (NatureWorks 2018). The company also
uses an Eco-Prole, a tool which analyses input and output data from the manufac-
turing process, such as “water to grow feedstocks, CO2 sequestered by plants,
energy to produce fertilizers, and greenhouse gases” (NatureWorks 2018). This data
is then used to measure environmental impacts including greenhouse gas emissions
and use of non-renewable energy.
Another case in point is Yulex Pure™, which is a company that produces a 100%
plant-based rubber. This bre replaces Neoprene or polychloroprene, which is a
petrochemical substance made by chlorinating and polymerizing butadiene. The
company afrms that 99.9% of the harmful impurities (including proteins) are
removed from hevea becoming free from toxic chemicals. This has resulted in a
biodegradable, non-sensitizing natural elastomer that is suitable for over 40,000
product applications in the fashion industry (Yulex 2018).
Since the early 1900s, DuPont has developed polymers for the fashion industry.
One of such products is Sorona®, a bre made of TPA (terephthalic acid) and PDO
(1,3-Propanediol). Bio-PDO is created through the fermentation of the crops glu-
cose and chemical synthesis. Evidence shows that 37% of the polymer is made
using plant-based ingredients. DuPont states that compared to nylon 6, Sorona®
uses 30% less energy and releases 63% fewer greenhouse gas emissions (DuPont
2018). However, this bre is neither biodegradable nor compostable because
although Sorona® is 37% plant-based, the other 63% is petroleum-based. However,
it can be considered as an option for increasing the use of renewable sources and
energy saving in the fashion industry.
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
256
16.2.3.2 Production Process intheFashion Industry
16.2.3.2.1 Wet-Treatment
Chemical use and water consumption in the production process are two of the most
harmful environmental impacts of the fashion industry. Evidence shows that for
approximately every tonne of textile produced, 200 tonnes of water are needed for
dyeing, washing, printing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing and the fabric
nishing processes. All these processes comprise the wet-treatment phase
(Choudhury 2017). For example, the production of a t-shirt requires approximately
2650litres of water. Nearly 20% of this water is used for dyeing process (Lakshmanan
and Raghavendran 2017). In order to reduce the water footprint of textile products,
the industry has engaged in various technologies throughout the wet- treatment pro-
cess, such as the use of plasma, ultrasonic-assisted dyeing and the use of supercriti-
cal carbon dioxide. These innovations reduce water use signicantly and save
energy in the wet-treatment process.
Plasma technology, for example, works at a low temperature and reduces the use
of chemicals. After going through plasma polymerization, the chemicals lay on the
textile surface. This process allows the fabric’s internal structure to remain unaf-
fected (Lakshmanan and Raghavendran 2017). Dyeing and nishing processes can
be done by plasma gas particles, facilitating the modication of the fabric and
improving textile characteristics and functionality. Plasma technology and
ultrasonic- assisted dyeing technology can be applied to wool, cotton and polyester
fabrics during the dry stage. These methods signicantly diminish the use of huge
quantities of sodium chloride, decreasing the discharges of dyestuff and other
chemicals into wastewater (Lakshmanan and Raghavendran 2017).
The supercritical carbon dioxide method for dyeing synthetic bres also reduces
consumption of both water and energy. Through increasing temperature and pres-
sure, it generates a liquid-gaseous state that produces supercritical uids. Fabric or
bres are put inside an autoclave with dye powder, then purged with carbon dioxide
(CO2) and nally preheated. Carbon dioxide is non-toxic and non-ammable and
can be recycled in a closed system (Lakshmanan and Raghavendran 2017). A case
in point is the DyeCoo textile, the “world’s rst water-free and chemical-free dyeing
solution”. The CO2 is reclaimed and has a recycling efciency of 95%
(DyeCoo 2018).
16.2.3.2.2 Green Chemistry
The discharge of harmful substances during the wet-treatment process is another
major problem confronting the fashion industry. Some corporations have engaged
in solutions to tackle this issue, including Adidas, Gap, H&M, Nike, Puma,
Taiwanese dyestuffs makers and Everlight Chemical, which committed to Zero
Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals by 2020 (ZDHC) (Choudhury 2017). Two pro-
cesses can reduce the discharge of chemicals into water streams: recycling and use
C. Arana et al.
257
of enzymes. Enzymes can be used as substitutes for chemicals in the fashion indus-
try. They can be obtained from three primary sources: animal tissue, plants and
microbes. Enzymes are safely dischargeable after use, are biodegradable, consume
low energy and produce lower greenhouse gas emissions. A case in point is lotus
effect, a nishing treatment that alters the surface of the textile by biometric tech-
nology making the textile stain and soil-resistant (Kapsali 2012).
16.2.3.3 Product Production: Manufacturing Process
16.2.3.3.1 Design andPatternmaking Techniques
The design process also requires signicant sustainability consciousness: “When
talking about sustainability-oriented design, it is quite consolidated the fact that
designers can play an important role especially in the early stages of design ... where
80% of impacts have been determined” (Marseglia 2017: 4). Design practices, such
as zero-waste patternmaking, digital printing, recycling and upcycling, have proven
to be of great value to create garments and fashion goods.
A case in point is the zero-waste design. It is a technique in which garments are
designed and produced without creating textile waste by tting all the parts of the
pattern in one piece of the fabric. Instead of “forcing” patterns to t together, zero-
waste design requires new approaches to patternmaking. Some designers are apply-
ing traditional pattern techniques, using the whole piece of cloth, whereas others
consider ways in which clothes should “wrap” the body rather than t it. The zero-
waste movement has been embraced internationally and includes designers such as
Mark Liu, Julian Roberts, Holly McQuillan, Yeohlee Teng and Timo Rissanen.
16.2.3.3.2 Sewing Construction Garments
In her book Sustainable Fashion & Textiles, Kate Fletcher (2014) states that the
most common approach to tackle waste arising from the textile life cycle is to imple-
ment waste management strategies (widely known as the 3Rs: reduce, reuse, recy-
cle) (Fletcher 2014). In other words, “everything is a source for something else”
(McDonough and Braungart 2002).
There are two types of recycling: downcycling, a process in which the recovered
materials are processed into lower value products, and upcycling, in which the
recovered materials are transformed into better quality products. Some companies
have started using waste for product manufacturing. A case in point is Patagonia, a
company committed to reduce its environmental impact by producing the most eco-
sound way they can afford to. This philosophy of environmental conservation has
been used not only for manufacturing but also for branding purposes. Patagonia
uses 100% hemp textiles or hemp blended with recycled bre textiles for manufac-
turing. The company also uses organic certied cotton, recycled wool and nylon,
among others. Patagonia has also used polyester fabrics recycled from PET soda
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
258
bottles since 1993, being the rst outdoor company to transform this material into
eece (Patagonia 2018). The company also makes use of recycled blended fabrics
such as Rebra™ Lyocell made of 80% wood and 20% recycled cotton. Their prod-
ucts are fair trade-certied by bluesign®, a Swiss-based company that certies tex-
tile manufacturing by measuring energy consumption and CO2 emissions (Power
2012). Patagonia also works with bluesign® technologies since 2000 to approve
chemicals, processes, materials and products that are safe for the environment,
throughout each step in the textile supply chain (Patagonia 2018).
Another case in point is the German company Vaude. In 2018, it received the
GreenTec Award for its sustainable Green Shape Core Collection made with bio-
based textiles, recycled or natural materials (Vaude 2018). Some of the bio-based
textiles include Tencel, PrimaLoft® and Silver Insulation Natural Blend, made of
30% kapok tree and 70% bres. Two-thirds of recycled materials used come from
post-consumer recycled PET bottles. The company also uses the recycled material
Econyl®, a yarn made of shing nets collected from the ocean. Vaude (2018) also
uses organic certied cotton and certied Terracare® leather which is also sustain-
ably tanned.
16.2.3.3.3 Seamless Garments, Shima Seiki Wholegarment
In clothing production, machinery has evolved considerably over the years. Hand
knitting has been industrialized by machinery capable of high speed and precise
techniques that enable mass production. Every day the evolution of more automatic,
faster, cleaner and advanced software has expanded its use in the fashion world.
Nowadays, knitting has proven to be capable of manufacturing almost any product
on the fashion market, which nobody would have otherwise thought to be possible.
For example, running shoes brands like Nike and Adidas are now using knitting in
mass production processes.
Knitting technology has reduced the processes in the production chain of cloth-
ing, avoiding, for example, weaving, cutting and, in some cases, sewing (Power
2012), especially with full garment or seamless garments machinery known as
Wholegarment technology. This technology produces complete pieces ready to
wear without requiring processes such as assembly, which results in the reduction
of post-production labour as well as cutting down production time. Power (2012)
explains that enhancements in knitting production due to technological develop-
ments demonstrate improvements in the product’s quality, raising productivity and
reducing cost “providing opportunities for new and modied products and tech-
niques through innovation; and nally, reducing environmental impact of industrial-
ized production” (Power 2012: 3).
Shima Seiki, a Japanese company, was the rst to develop a fully automated
glove-knitting machine, and since then, Shima Seiki and the German company Stoll
have developed the most advanced technology on computerized machines for knit-
ting. Shima Seiki was the rst to introduce whole garment machines that work with
CAD software, SDS-ONE APEX 3. This software provides a 3D simulation with
C. Arana et al.
259
nal product images and material textures. Among other advantages of this technol-
ogy, seamless production only requires the minimum amount of yarn needed, mean-
ing no material loss is generated. “The knitting industry can make a signicant
contribution globally to savings in terms of energy consumption and waste through
a number of avenues including tightening internal efciency (reducing downtime),
using indirect technology (needles and oils), implementing innovative technologies
to change the manufacturing process (less waste, reduced post knitting operations)
and reduced transport costs (complete garment for warp knitting, at-bed knitting
and circular weft knitting)” (Power 2012: 7).
The German company Groz-Beckert, manufacturer of the circular knitting
machine needles, created litespeed® to promote environmental protection by chang-
ing the needle weight and size. This procedure reduces friction during the knitting
process, resulting in energy consumption reduction of up to 20% whilst reducing
CO2 emissions (Power 2012). However, the complexities of the knitted garment
construction and the difculty of visualizing all the variables of the design process
have overwhelmed knitting designers as well as technicians. In knitting design, the
pattern shape and size are directly related to the material. The pattern is made by the
software, and variables such as the roller tension, loop size, stitch type, quantity of
threads by carrier, etc. need to be tested and modied for each type of yarn accord-
ing to its thickness and other characteristics. This design process is far more com-
plex than sewing and cutting which may inuence the number of knitted products in
fashion collections.
16.2.3.4 Waste andDisposal
Textiles can end up in landlls and can leak chemicals thereby poisoning groundwa-
ter, streams and rivers. Urgent actions on waste management are therefore necessary
to reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Recycling is a sustainable
practice adopted by various companies, yet the major problem confronting the fash-
ion industry is related to post-consumer goods ending up at the landll site.
16.2.3.4.1 Polyester Recycling
There are two methods of recycling in the fashion industry, namely, the mechanical
and chemical methods. In the former method only single material clothes can be
recycled. The process involves cutting them to small pieces, then ripping, spinning
and blending them with virgin bre. After the process is completed, these products
are unlikely to be recycled for a second time. Chemical methods are often used for
recycling synthetic materials such as polyethylene terephthalate PET, but post-
consumed PET bres are usually not recycled a second time due to various technical
difculties. Methods of recycling PET are often carried out through solvolysis or
pyrolysis which can provide environmental solutions. The rst is the degradation of
waste material by solvents including water. In the second, the degradation process
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
260
uses heat in vacuum. The challenge lies in recycling polyester bre-to-bre in a
process that maintains the material quality. During this process, it is important to
ensure that the chemical substances utilized in this process and released to the envi-
ronment can biodegrade safely, thus, reducing energy consumption in the recycling
processes of PET bottles (Al-Sabagh etal. 2015).
The Teijin ECOCIRCLE® system “turns polyester products into raw materials,
and raw materials into products, in a never-ending ring of recycling resources. It is
used in Fibres, PET bottles and other products. This system consumes 84% less
energy and emits 77% less CO2 than the production of polyester bres from petro-
leum” (Teijin 2006). Recycling polyester is fundamental to reducing the waste gen-
erated by petrochemical feedstock as it lacks biodegradability and also has
high-energy consumption rates. The difculty of recycling polyester textile is that
these textiles are usually blended with different materials. One of the most common
blends is with cotton, which makes the process of recycling difcult. In order to
facilitate this process, the garment should be made entirely of polyester, buttons,
zippers, labels, etc. This is the idea of DuPont, Apexa® bre, made of a biodegrad-
able polymer that can be spun with natural bres such as cotton, wool, hemp and
silk. Labels, zips, tape, etc. can also be made of this polymer (Kapsali 2012).
16.2.3.4.2 Cotton Recycling
RebraTM is a technology for upcycling cotton scraps from garment production. The
cotton is blended with wood pulp and spun to produce new virgin Tencel Lyocell
bres to make fabrics and garments in a closed-loop production (Tencel Rebra
2018). “The leftovers from 16 virgin cotton shirts can be turned into one reclaimed
cotton shirt” (Patagonia 2018). The mechanical method used for recycling cotton
faces problems in material separation and produces lower-quality bres during the
recycling process. The mechanical method involves carding machines that tear the
fabric apart. In this process, the bres are shortened and blended with virgin material
(Fletcher 2014). On the other hand, the chemical method dissolves the cotton into
glucose synthetic bre. The Hong Kong Research Institute of Textiles and Apparel
(HKRITA 2018) developed a bioprocess that by enzymatic hydrolysis natural bres
such as cotton are degraded into glucose. This process offers a solution to the natural
base materials (e.g. cotton) by increasing the efciency on the recycling process as
well as improving the bre-to-bre life cycle. This could also be a solution for blended
textiles, which is one of the major difculties in post-consumer waste recycling.
16.2.3.4.3 Blended Textiles Recycling
According to HKRITA (2018), their textile waste recycling process uses a biological
pretreatment method and textile separation by hydrothermal treatment, offering a
solution for recycling cotton-polyester blended fabrics. The pretreatment method
modies the structure of the textile waste with reusable chemicals to make them
C. Arana et al.
261
more susceptible to the subsequent hydrolysis. Enzymes, which are required for
hydrolysis, are produced through fungal cultivation; these fungi grow in the surface
of the fabric in 28°C for 7days. Aspergillus niger CKB is then recovered from the
hydrolysis, in which the enzyme solution is blended with the pretreatment textile
waste undergoing hydrolysis in a bioreactor. “This process hydrolyses the cotton into
soluble glucose, while the non-biodegradable material (e.g. polyester) remains intact
and is separated as a solid form by ltration” (HKRITA 2018). The polyester is then
re-spun into yarn, whilst the glucose can be converted into bio-based products. This
process provides a successful bre-to-bre method and is commercially viable. As
such, used textiles discarded in landlls can be converted into new high- quality prod-
ucts, reducing the production of raw material whilst saving energy and resources.
Fabrics such as Climatex Lifecycle are biodegradable bres (wool and ramie
blend), coloured with nonharmful chemicals and manufactured without releasing
carcinogens, persistent toxic chemicals, heavy metals or other toxic substances
(Fletcher 2014). For example, “Worn Again”, a project that by 2021 expects to
launch an industrial plant which aims to separate, “decontaminate and extract poly-
ester polymers, and cellulose from cotton, from non-reusable textiles and PET bot-
tles... turning them back into new textile raw materials as part of a continual cycle…
this is the rst chemical recycling technology to be Cradle to Cradle (C2C) certi-
ed” (Worn Again 2018).
A review of recycling processes in the fashion industry suggests that clothing
must be well designed to ensure that products can turn into either biological nutri-
ents or technical nutrients. When biodegradation is not possible and products need
to be reutilized or recycled for the production of new products, they are called tech-
nical nutrients. Furthermore, the aim must be to limit downcycling where possible,
as downcycled products cannot be recycled the second time the cycle is interrupted,
creating waste. The major challenge to turn textiles into biological nutrients is that
many natural bres are blended with synthetic bres, which cannot return safely to
the soil. In order to address this issue, the industry should align with sustainability
standards which ensure the completion of a full cycle.
Fashion textiles often have a mix of different fabrics, making them difcult to
recycle and as such contributing to its dumping as a waste material after use. As
Tierra points out, a t-shirt composed by 99% cotton and 1% of spandex could not be
recycled today and therefore would end up in a landll or burnt in thermal power
station (Tierra 2017). Mono-materials or fabrics made only from one material could
solve the problem of recycling blended textiles. However, evidence shows that natu-
ral bres (biodegradable) are blended with synthetics to improve quality, create
textures, colour effects, etc. (Fletcher 2014). Mixed materials are also essential in
labels, fasteners and elastic bands, etc. Production of yarn and synthetic manufac-
turing are also the most energy-consuming processes in the industry (Karthik and
Rathinamoorthy 2017). In addition, the dyeing process is a major water pollutant,
with 40% of globally used colourants containing carcinogens, making textile efu-
ent one of the most signicant causes of environmental degradation (Kant 2012).
Therefore, there is a need to reduce waste and convert it into a completely reus-
able system.
16 SDG 15 Life onLand
262
16.3 Impact Sustainability: Final Remarks
There are strong connections between research and innovation in the fashion indus-
try and SDG 15 Life on Land and SDG 14 Life below Water. This review clearly
showed that major issues confronting the industry pertain to water consumption,
impact on ecosystem services, water pollution and the industries’ clear contribution
to global warming, deforestation and environmental degradation (UN 2019).
The production of raw materials, crop management and production of bres
from petrochemicals feedstock drain natural resources in an unsustainable manner.
The fashion industry demands great amounts of water and energy whilst contami-
nating inland water sources and oceans. Moreover, clothing production increased by
“fast fashion” trends heightens soil degradation due to the use of chemically hazard-
ous components. Therefore, the fashion industry needs to embrace solutions which
promote the achievement of the SDG 15 and SDG 14 and commit to various socially
responsible practices linked to production, gender, labour, poverty issues (UNECE
2019) as well as promoting the use of alternative materials such as blast bres like
hemp, Lyocell bres Tencel and Yulexis. Sustainable resource management tech-
niques such as reducing the use of pesticides and fertilizers are also essential for
biodiversity conservation and consequently soil improvement– thereby preventing
soil degradation.
Additionally, the use of technologies for animal and biodiversity protection
through the use of alternative animal-like materials such as ZoaTM (bioleather) is
necessary to achieve SDG target 15.6: “promoting fair and equitable sharing of the
benets arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate
access to such resources, as internationally agreed”. Likewise, the use of eco-
friendly techniques such as nishing plasma, ultrasonic-assisted dyeing and super-
critical carbon dioxide methods, whilst promoting effective bre-to-bre recycle
techniques, such as HKRITA’s technologies, can contribute to achieve SDG target
15.3, “restore degraded land and soil”. Promoting deployment of these technologies
and encouraging the sustainable use of natural resources– from design to consump-
tion– the fashion industry could lessen the impact on the life of land and below
water, achieving overall sustainability.
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... The wood pulp used to make Tencel originates from forests that are responsibly managed. It is made utilising a sustainable closed-loop manufacturing process that recycles solvents and water, reducing waste and pollution (Arana et al., 2020). ...
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An overview of ethical manufacturing techniques for clothing and textiles is given in this chapter. The fashion business is renowned for its fast response to shifting consumer demands and fashion trends, but it has also come under fire for its negative effects on the environment and society. By using environmentally friendly materials, production techniques, and supply chain management, sustainable manufacturing methods in the textile and apparel industries seek to reduce the industry’s detrimental effects on the environment and society. Sustainable materials, production techniques, supply chain management, product design and development, and case studies of top fashion firms are all covered in this chapter. With an emphasis on the advantages for the environment, society, and business, it is stressed how crucial sustainable production techniques are in the textile and apparel industries. Concerns about environmental degradation, resource scarcity, and climate change are among the top challenges.
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Development has always been an essential agenda globally. However, is development enough? Adding sustainability to the idea of development connects the present with the future, aiming at being responsible today for a better tomorrow. The United Nations Brundtland Commission (1987) defined sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Quality education is the fourth and fundamental goal out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals given by the United Nations, which mark inclusivity, equity, and quality education to all by 2030. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen rightly says “If we continue to leave vast sections of the people of the world outside the orbit of education, we make not only the world less just but also less secure.” Education is the foundation stone for accomplishing almost every goal in the sustainable development list. The idea is to provide effective primary education and increase skills both technical and vocational for better employment as well as entrepreneurial opportunities for men as well as women. Gender disparity is an avid concept, especially in developing countries, leading to unequal access to quality education. Eliminating this flaw would garner equal opportunities for both men and women. Quality education is not just about literacy and numeracy but also about inculcating sustainable practices in the lifestyle itself, building awareness about diverse cultures, and promoting peace, nonviolence, and equality. Moreover, it shifts the focus to global citizenship to a better and bigger learning environment with an increase in the number of scholarships to developing and least developed nations. On the supply side of the education industry, it highlights the need for well-qualified teachers to join hands and ensure quality education for all. Considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, progress in education has slowed down. The first wave led to the complete lockdown in India, and schools and colleges had to shift to the online mode of learning. This sudden transition insisted on the need to develop infrastructure and training methods for online learning modules. There is the need for better infrastructure, such as laptops, Internet facilities, quality study material, and access to online libraries, especially in developing and least developed nations, to drive past the impact caused by this pandemic. The goal of this chapter is to get the reader acquainted with the importance of SDG 4, i.e., quality education as the basis for achieving the remaining 16 SDGs.
... Concerning CSR practices related to life on land (SDG 15), we suggest that firms and the Bolivian government work together on policies and regulations that contribute to the correct treatment of soils and industrial waste disposal (Dernbach et al. 2021) and by setting targets to reduce the impact of supply chains on ecosystems. Regarding achieving the life on land development goals (SDG 15) through CSR practices, we suggest that Bolivian firms start implementing periodic evaluation policies on the impacts their industrial activity generates on the area's biodiversity (Arana et al. 2020). Moreover, they should extend the analysis to Boris Christian Herbas-Torrico, Carlos Alejandro Arandia-Tavera, and Pedro Alejandro Leoni-Peinado -9781803927367 Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ ...
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The current environmental crisis the planet is facing is mainly due to high consumption and waste production. The fashion industry is one of the main waste generators and consumers of natural resources. Consequently, many companies in the industry are now focusing on sustainable solutions. But sustainable fashion has a long way to go in comparison to other sectors, such as food. There are issues that create ambivalence in the decision-making process for customers, retailers, and producers. Sustainable products cost more for various reasons, so ultimately the price is higher. Retailers often ask themselves questions about investing extra money in this competitive market. If they are not sure about the return, they most likely do not invest eliminating potential initiatives toward a sustainable fashion industry. However, customer preferences are changing toward more environmentally friendly products. Such behavior will eventually influence producers, but at which level and intensity is still unclear. In this paper, we proposed an agent-based model tool based on important criteria to understand how the decision-making process will be influenced by the bottom-up emergent behaviors of environmentally friendly customers. It also might help them to find out the optimum level of selling price required to avoid any monetary loss and, additionally, help retailer invest in promotional activities that are needed to influence the customer for sustainable apparel. Thus, the decision-making process will be more informed, and retailers will feel more confident to go forward to invest in and implement sustainable manufacturing solutions. The preliminary result shows that introducing recycled items reduces the environmental impact and may increase the revenue, and customer influence can play a vital role here.
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The significance of the SDGs lies in their holistic, global and interdisciplinary nature. But this nature at the same time poses significant challenges, as it is difficult to bridge the breadth of different aspects included in the SDGs, such as the environmental and the socio-economic, both in theory, practical application and policymaking. SDG14 on “life below water” is quite a holistic concept as it refers to a natural/environmental system (seas), supporting several marine economic activities and ecosystem values, and associated with strong social and cultural characteristics of the local populations, affecting the ways they manage marine areas. The main challenges for the achievement of a sustainable life below water are analyzed, and ways forward are discussed. Holistic and well-coordinated approaches considering the complex nature of SDG14 are necessary. Moreover, we argue on the role of economic instruments that can bridge environmental and socio-economic aspects, towards more sustainable life below water. In particular, the potential of environmental valuation as a means to better inform SDG policies, is discussed, using the example of SDG14. The currently established frameworks for Country’s Sustainability Reporting, lack metrics focusing on the economic impact of the environment and the ecosystem services’ degradation or restoration rates, including ocean and marine ecosystems. Acknowledging and quantifying the costs and benefits of ocean and marine ecosystems can lead to more effective interventions (such as ocean pollution prevention, climate change mitigation, fishing exploitation, biodiversity and coral reef preservation) and a better understanding of human-environmental dynamics. This, in turn, strengthens coordinated management and cooperation.
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This study evaluates the attainment of sustainable development goals (SDGs) using energy-environmental efficiency as a principal driver. Hicks-Moorsteen Index, based on optimal targets, is utilized to estimate the performance of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) countries towards SDGs. Performance is decomposed into catch-up efficiency and technological progress. Results show that, compared to 2012, only 15% of the countries evaluated exhibit improved catch-up efficiency in 2020, while 74% of the countries evaluated showed technological progress in 2020 compared to 2012. Improvement in SDGs attainment in LAC results from technological advancement and not catch-up efficiency. Gross catch-up inefficiency appears to obstruct SDGs attainment. The regression elaborates the indirect extrinsic socioeconomic dimension of the SDGs accomplishment. Specifically, the results of the fully modified ordinary least squares and generalized method of moments for the examined years support the desired prospects for green productivity among the cross-section of LAC. Moreover, in each of the upper years, the result suggests that environmental performance and renewable energy-induced economic progress are vital for the examined countries' sustainable green productivity. Notably, the result predicts a slow but progressive path toward achieving the SDGs, suggesting more intentional and inclusive effort by the respective economies.
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The use of remote sensing to determine land-use and land-cover (LULC) dynamics is often applied to assess the levels of natural forest conservation and monitor deforestation worldwide. This study examines the loss of native vegetation in the Campo Maior Complex (CMC), in the Brazilian Caatinga dry tropical forest, from 2016 to 2020, considering the temporal distribution of rainfall and discussing the trends and impacts of forest-degradation vectors. The Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform is used to obtain the rainfall data from the CHIRPS collection and to create the LULC maps. The random forest classifier is used and applied to the Landsat 8 collection. The QGIS open software and its SPC plugin are used to visualize the LULC dynamics. The results show that the months from June to October have the lowest average rainfall, and that 2019 is the year with the highest number of consecutive rainy days below 5 mm. The LULC maps show that deforestation was higher in 2018, representing 20.19%. In 2020, the proportion of deforestation was the lowest (11.95%), while regeneration was the highest (20.33%). Thus, the characterization of the rainfall regime is essential for more accurate results in LULC maps across the seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTF).
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Apstrakt: Društveno odgovorni privredni subjekti (CSR) su preorijentisali svoje CSR inicijative ka ekološkom i društvenom upravljanju. Ciljevi održivog razvoja (SDG) su noviji strateški alati koji fokus pružaju na rešavanje pitanja održivosti koja proizlaze iz poveć ane proizvodnje, potrošnje i odlaganja. Održivost će biti najvažnija di-rektiva u bliskoj buduć nosti, stoga, ovaj rad ima za cilj da ispita kohezivnost između trenutnih inicijativa za CSR u modnom i tekstilnom sektoru i propisanih SDG. U radu se dalje ističe studija slučaja dobre prakse fabrike konfekcije u Republici Srbiji, koja inkorporira CSR i SDG iznad propisanih regulativa. Zaključci u ovom radu sugerišu nekoliko buduć ih istraživačkih pravaca.
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Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany is a comprehensive, interdisciplinary exploration of the natural origins and early evolution of this famous plant, highlighting its historic role in the development of human societies. Cannabis has long been prized for the strong and durable fiber in its stalks, its edible and oil-rich seeds, and the psychoactive and medicinal compounds produced by its female flowers. The culturally valuable and often irreplaceable goods derived from cannabis deeply influenced the commercial, medical, ritual, and religious practices of cultures throughout the ages, and human desire for these commodities directed the evolution of the plant toward its contemporary varieties. As interest in cannabis grows and public debate over its many uses rises, this book will help us understand why humanity continues to rely on this plant and adapts it to suit our needs.
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Sustainability is an objective that refers to the environment and economic and social issues of any culture. Cotton farming systems are diverse and the issues associated with cotton cultivation vary owing to environmental, agro-ecological, climatic, socioeconomic and political situations. The role of biotechnology in cotton farming is important in producing durable hybrids and reducing the amount of insecticides and fertilizers. Global standards have been instituted to cultivate organic crops and voluntary sustainability initiatives assess many sustainability issues in cotton production. The cotton industry reaches out to all involved, from small poverty-stricken farmers to chic fashion stores in different parts of the globe. There is a call for a mass-market transformation in which sustainable cotton is the norm and for a change in global perspectives and the emergence of sustainable strategies to improve the livelihood of 250 million families involved in producing this valuable crop.
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Color is the main attraction of any fabric. No mat-ter how excellent its constitution, if unsuitably colored it is bound to be a failure as a commercial fabric. Manufacture and use of synthetic dyes for fabric dyeing has therefore become a massive industry today. In fact the art of applying color to fabric has been known to mankind since 3500 BC. WH Perkins in 1856 discovered the use of syn-thetic dyes. Synthetic dyes have provided a wide range of colorfast, bright hues. However their toxic nature has become a cause of grave con-cern to environmentalists. Use of synthetic dyes has an adverse effect on all forms of life. Pres-ence of sulphur, naphthol, vat dyes, nitrates, ac-etic acid, soaps, enzymes chromium compounds and heavy metals like copper, arsenic, lead, cad-mium, mercury, nickel, and cobalt and certain auxiliary chemicals all collectively make the te-xtile effluent highly toxic. Other harmful chem-icals present in the water may be formaldehyde based dye fixing agents, chlorinated stain remo-vers, hydro carbon based softeners, non bio deg-radable dyeing chemicals. These organic mate-rials react with many disinfectants especially chl-orine and form by products (DBP'S) that are often carcinogenic and therefore undesirable. Many of these show allergic reactions. The colloidal mat-ter present along with colors and oily scum in-creases the turbidity, gives the water a bad ap-pearance and foul smell and prevents the pene-tration of sunlight necessary for the process of photosynthesis. This in turn interferes with the Oxygen transfer mechanism at air water interface which in turn interferes with marine life and self purification process of water. This effluent if al-lowed to flow in the fields' clogs the pores of the soil resulting in loss of soil productivity. If allowed to flow in drains and rivers it effects the quality of drinking water in hand pumps making it unfit for human consumption. It is important to remove these pollutants from the waste waters before their final disposal.
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Conventional textile production is one of the most polluting industries on earth. The textile industries are responsible for as much as 20% of pollution of our rivers and lands. The use of toxic chemicals in production and packaging, the generation of a considerable amount of waste, the use and pollution of a huge quantity of water, the high consumption of energy in production and transport with the consequent release of greenhouse gases are responsible for the nonsustainability of the textile industry. Improvement in the sustainability of textile production is important for all of us. The chapter discusses greener textile materials including organic fibres, the use of eco-friendly dyes and chemicals, and enzymatic and other eco-friendly processing. Adaptation of improved processes with strict process controls and waterless dyeing are some ways in which sustainability can be improved.
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Consumers are becoming increasingly conscious of the environment and aware that the planet and people cannot be exploited if we wish to continue to prosper. Even the highly changing field of fashion has an environmental conscience. Man-made fibres dominate the textile market. Hence, the environmental impact of these synthetic fibres has become highly significant. The conventional method of producing synthetic fibres is far from green because they are derived from petrochemicals, which are not renewable; they are energy intensive, do not biodegrade and are not easy to recycle. This chapter outlines the environmental impact of important synthetic fibres such as polyester, nylon and carbon and the possibilities and future of biopolymer methods of production on sustainability. Bio-based monomers and the methods used to produce sustainable synthetic fibres are elaborated upon in this chapter. Potential applications of enzymes producing sustainable synthetic fibres are also discussed.
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The textile industry is the backbone of many developing economies and it leaves one of the largest water footprints on the planet. The industry is heavily reliant on water. Water is becoming a scarce resource in relation to demand, and water supply and effluent disposal costs have risen and will continue to rise in coming years. Therefore, moving towards more sustainable water use is becoming a priority for organizations across all sectors of life. The textile industry is one of the largest users of water for its production system and uses vast amounts of water throughout all processing operations. Because the global demand for water is increasing every day, it is necessary to look into the sustainable aspects of textile chemical processing. The industry's challenge is to adopt more water-friendly technologies for pretreatments, dyeing, printing and finishing operations. New production methods that use no water or a lesser quantity of water such as plasma processing, supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing and ultrasound dyeing have been much research; these technologies show positive signs for the environmentally friendly processing of textiles. In this chapter, we look into some of these promising low water-consuming technologies for textile processing as well as general technical measures to reduce water consumption in processing industries.
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Washing clothes made from synthetic materials has been identified as a potentially important source of microscopic fibres to the environment. This study examined the release of fibres from polyester, polyester-cotton blend and acrylic fabrics. These fabrics were laundered under various conditions of temperature, detergent and conditioner. Fibres from waste effluent were examined and the mass, abundance and fibre size compared between treatments. Average fibre size ranged between 11.9 and 17.7 μm in diameter, and 5.0 and 7.8 mm in length. Polyester-cotton fabric consistently shed significantly fewer fibres than either polyester or acrylic. However, fibre release varied according to wash treatment with various complex interactions. We estimate over 700,000 fibres could be released from an average 6 kg wash load of acrylic fabric. As fibres have been reported in effluent from sewage treatment plants, our data indicates fibres released by washing of clothing could be an important source of microplastics to aquatic habitats.