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Anthropodermic Bibliopegy: an Extensive Survey and Re-appraisal of the Phenomenon

November 2019

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Université Paris Nanterre

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the practice of binding books with human skin widespreaded. Although anthropodermic bibliopegy has often been mentioned, no comprehensive overview has previously been undertaken. This study provides the most extensive survey of books bound in human skin conducted to date. Curation and study of human remains is a major concern for museums. In the search of the most appropriate physicochemical identification method to carry for the authentification of the leather, I discusse the advantages and disadvantages of each archaeometric test. Protein signature, immunochemistry and DNA tests were assessed. In order to highlight the importance of a reflexion around the exhibition of these artefacts, sociological processes involved in their making and selling were discussed. Human bindings were associated with the judiciary system in Great Britain, France and U.S.A. as material witnesses to justice in action and part of post-mortem rites performed around criminal bodies. The skin were often retrieved from the bodies of the poor. This fact has not been without consequences for the study and exhibition of these remains. Finally, ethical considerations will be considered in order to advance towards a better preservation and presentation of these objects to the public.

'De integritatis & Corruptionis virginum notis' by S. Pineau (Photo by Wellcome Library, London)

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Anthropodermic Bibliopegy: an Extensive Survey and

Re-appraisal of the Phenomenon

Jennifer Kerner

To cite this version:

Jennifer Kerner. Anthropodermic Bibliopegy: an Extensive Survey and Re-appraisal of the Phe-

nomenon. [Research Report] Université Paris-Nanterre. 2019. �halshs-02321007�

Anthropodermic Bibliopegy: an Extensive Survey and Re-

appraisal of the Phenomenon

Jennifer Kerner

Paris-Nanterre University, Department of Anthropology, UMR 7055.

kerner.jennifer@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the practice of binding books with human

skin widespreaded. Although anthropodermic bibliopegy has often been mentioned,

no comprehensive overview has previously been undertaken. This study provides the

most extensive survey of books bound in human skin conducted to date.

Curation and study of human remains is a major concern for museums. In the

search of the most appropriate physicochemical identification method to carry for the

authentification of the leather, I discusse the advantages and disadvantages of each

archaeometric test. Protein signature, immunochemistry and DNA tests were assessed.

In order to highlight the importance of a reflexion around the exhibition of these

artefacts, sociological processes involved in their making and selling were discussed.

Human bindings were associated with the judiciary system in Great Britain, France

and U.S.A. as material witnesses to justice in action and part of post-mortem rites

performed around criminal bodies. The skin were often retrieved from the bodies of

the poor. This fact has not been without consequences for the study and exhibition of

these remains. Finally, ethical considerations will be considered in order to advance

towards a better preservation and presentation of these objects to the public.

KEYWORDS : bibliopegy, human leather, physicochemical analysis, curation

Books have long been objects of knowledge and pleasure, but they have also

at times become ostentatious luxury items, allowing their possessors to express both

their status and personality. This latter function became common in the late 19th and

early 20th centuries when bibliomania became widespread among the bourgeois and

aristocratic social strata of Western Europe (Silverman 2008). It was in this setting

that the use of eccentric binding materials blossomed as a practice. In the hopes of

attracting an eclectic array of zealous book collectors, an extensive selection of

materials, already known previously, were used, including precious silks from Japan,

China and Persia, ivory, and cork, as well as exotic animal skins (such as ostrich,

shark, python, seal, walrus, kangoroo, crocodile, and java lizard) (Blumenthal [1955]

(1969)).

There seemed to be no limit for these collectors in their quest for novelty,

afflicted as they were by what has been termed: 'bibliopegic dandyism' (Jackson

1950). It is therefore perhaps no surprise that human skin, already known to have been

used in the creation of a variety of other objects1, was subsequently included in the

long list of materials constituting bookbindings.

The academic world has, from time to time, cast a curious eye upon this

phenomenon. However, although anthropodermic bibliopegy has often been

mentioned, no comprehensive overview has ever been undertaken. Recent

publications focusing on this phenomenon have consisted of specific case studies

(Harrisson 2017) or have referenced information previously provided in earlier and

dated (though abundant) sources (Blumenthal [1955] (1969); Thompson 1946, 1969).

This relative timidity of researchers faced with these materials as their subject matter

may be driven by the sensitive and ethically charged nature of these objects.

I have undertaken the creation of a thorough catalog (Kerner 2017), detailing

all of the books which have been purported to be bound in human skin, and based

upon a review of the existing literature and the consultation of archival sources from

the major French, British and American auction houses (Table 1). Once the

compilation of the data into the extensive catalog was complete, I then verified the

existence of each book with the institution responsible for its conservation, and

gathered unpublished data relative to the artifacts in question, conducting inquiry with

the help of the curators and booksellers among archives and shelvings of the libraries.

Presented here is a survey of this catalog which constitutes the very first analytic

inventory dealing with the phenomenon of anthropodermic bibliopegy. Then, the

analysis of the corpus will lead us to reflections on the social functions that these

singular books may have performed.

Methodological obstacles including a lack of protocols for distinguishing

human skin from other leathers have resulted these objects being under-studied. I

personaly didn't conducted any analysis on the book I saw2, arguing that the question

of testing these peculiar objects is too complex to be conducted before a serious

methodological and ethic reflection. Curation and study of transformed human

remains is a major concern for museums (Jenkins 2011), moreover when not so old

societal issues come into play. Thus, in this article, I evaluate several methods for the

identification of these materials and recommend a suggested protocol. I will also

raised some ethical considerations hoping that this reflection will allow to begin a

study of these books in the better conditions.

I - Inventory

I was able to identify 136 volumes (existing, allegedly existing or ordered by

collectors without us being able to verify whether or not the order was fulfilled). The

datation of the bindings spread from the XIIIth to the XXth century. In the corpus, I

was able to find the current location of 70 volumes (Table 1). These works are mostly

of literary or scientific nature, typically preserved in university libraries. A few books

made with the skins of criminals (4, 7, 12, 19, 29, 30, 34, 46, 50, 71, 76, 88, 90, 109,

111) also survived and are exhibited in local museums. On the contrary, subversive

and profane works (including erotica, as well as common literature) were not able to

be localized, as they were housed and preserved by private collectors. While the

descendants of the original owners may very well have kept them, no trace of their

continued existence was found today despite our research.

I (1) - A variety of technical procedures

The methods used in the preparation of human skins for book binding vary

according to the origin of the skin. The skins of consenting donors (8, 11, 19, 58, 90),

those of hospital patients (2, 6, 21, 25, 36, 42, 60, 68, 85) or executed criminals (see

list above) (which make up 80 per cent of the cases included in our corpus) were

prepared intensively according to traditional tanning practices. These processes were

often very similar to the one used in the creation of leather from animal hides. Most

often, the preparation of these skins included stages of tanning, dyeing, gilding and

varnishing3. This rigorous preparation ensured a perfect preservation.

Skins taken from tattooed persons who lived on the fringe of society were

also applied to book bindings (70, 79, 84, 92, 105, 106, 20 per cent of cases in our

corpus). Their preparation was not afforded the same attention. These were prepared

differently than non-tattooed skins, and were merely rinsed or macerated in ether and

then dried on frames4. They were rarely actually tanned, and were usually undyed and

unvarnished (Sue 1765).

The preparation of skins was sometimes achieved in an artisanal manner and

was carried out by the doctors responsible for the removal of the fragment of skin.

The medical doctors Dr. J. Stockton Hough (1845-1906) and Dr. L. Bouland (1839-

1932) (Rogers & Horrocks 1989), were both personally responsible for the

preparation of hides as the handwritten notes found on their books prove it. However,

in these cases, the practice of binding was nonetheless, most often subsequently

performed by a professional. Fragments of human leather were sometimes worked by

master binders such as René Kieffer, and thus attained the status of objects of art (De

Crauzat 1926).

I (2) - Varying and not always identifiable providers

Human skin providers are typically involuntary suppliers, most often retrieved

from the bodies of the poor whose remains were not claimed after a death in hospital

as most of handwritten notes found on the books mentions it (15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

21, 24, 25, 27, 34, 36, 37, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 68, 76, 80, 85, 90, 91,

94, 95, 97, ). They remain anonymous and are designated only by their sex (2, 6, 17,

21, 23, 25, 27, 36, 37, 42, 43, 60, 67, 68, 85, 91), and possibly by their cause (7, 21,

25, 36, 42, 60, 91) and place of death (2, 6, 21, 25, 36, 42, 85, 91)5.

Of the 136 volumes in our catalog, the names of only 28 of the people whose

skins were used are known by name (7, 12, 19, 20, 21, 25, 27, 29, 30, 34, 36, 46, 48,

49, 50, 58, 71, 76, 88, 90, 109). Of these people, 17 of them were criminal (4, 7, 12,

19, 29, 30, 34, 46, 48, 49, 50, 71, 76, 88, 90, 109, 111). All of the others were

celebrities in the world of folk art (Perky the giant, 27, the 'negro' Bamboula, 87) or

intellectuals (Jacques Delille, 108). Only one indigent woman, Maria Lynch, figures

among the named (21, 25, 36) (Kerner 2017).

Statistically, consenting donors are rare. However, I have identified at least

eight cases of voluntary donors (8, 11, 13, 19, 44, 58, 63, 90). Members of the

intellectual elite dominate this group. I count two poets (8, 63) who wished to bind

their own works with their own skin, as well as three bibliophiles (11, 13, 58) who

wished to become the binding for a work of their favorite author (Thompson 1968).

It's interesting to highlight that these persons were always men and that the way their

whim has been seen by their contemporaries differs radically depending on their

reputation. Their gesture could have been seen as sublime – in the case of lovers and

distinguished professors – or ridicule – in the case of a failure of an artist and self-

published author as E. Kaffmann – (Cim 1909). Finally, two criminals (19, 90) are

also counted among these seven, though their full consent must remain cast in the

shadow of doubt (Kerner 2018).

I (3) - Thematic works

A review of the data reveals that the thematic content of books bound in

human skin is varied in nature.

Of the 136 volumes in our inventory, the thematic content of 127 volumes is

known (Figure 1). Another 46 are works of common literature (22, 24, 32, 35, 37, 41,

43, 45, 66, 67, 69, 70, 74, 79, 82, 83, 84, 87, 92, 94, 99, 101, 102, 103, 108, etc), with

an over-representation of essays on death and melancholic poems (16, 47, 55, 56, 57,

60). There also exist at least two political texts (15, 104), nine works of erotica (6, 66,

67, 72, 73, 96, 97, 105, 106), and nine religious texts (six of Judeo-Christian tradition

5 39, 53, 54, 65, 91 and one of Muslim tradition, 89). A total of 40 volumes deal with

medical science (1, 2, 4, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, 36, 40, 42, 51, 62, 68, 81, 85, 86,

107). Finally, the subject of judicature occupies an interesting place since seven books

describe the life or the trial of condemned individuals sentenced to death (12, 19, 30,

34, 46, 50, 90), three books are texts of law (33, 48), and one is an almanac of

delinquents (10).

I (4) - A collection of comprehensive works

I (4, a) - Iconography and interrelated content

With the phenomenon of anthropodermic bibliopegy, I distinguish a desire to

create a global or all encompassing work. Thus, the bookbinding material often

echoes the subject of the book, proposing what Dr. Bouland referred to as 'binding

congruent to the subject' (Figure 2). It is probably not insignificant that the work

entitled 'Chair' ('flesh' in french) by Verlaine (104) was created using tanned human

flesh. This relatedness between the nature of the container and its contents has given

rise to many puns, in both French and English. For example, a press article describing

a volume of E. A. Poe’s work (86), bound in human skin, was titled 'Peau et Poe'

('Skin and Poe' in french) (Intermédiaire des chercheurs et curieux 1910: 602).

The identity of the skin provider may be chosen with care in order to further

the quest for humor. Thus, the Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary (70), more commonly

known as Johnson’s Dictionary, was bound in the skin of J. Johnson. This relationship

between provider and object is not exceptional: gynecology books and works of

erotica are often and specifically bound with the skin of women (20, 24, 34, 40, 84).

And it is common for the book bound in a criminal’s skin to carry within its pages the

story of his life (J. Allen, 19), his confessions (L.-M. Rambert, 89) or the summary of

his trial (W. Corder, 33) (Kerner 2018). Lastly, a book dealing with the pituitary

gland, often responsible for growth disorders, was bound with the skin of a giant

(26)6.

By observing these books, I realized that the imagery applied to the leather is

also carefully chosen, reflecting as much as possible the subject of the work within. A

gallows motif is thus cut out on the cover of J. Horwood’s book as a graphic reminder

of his death sentence (48). A red band recalls the scene of the crime on the cover of

W. Corder’s 'The Red Barn' (33). In the case of the book bound with the skin of L.-M.

Rambert (89), the fragment of epidermis retains the hair and nipple of the condemned

man, in an effort to preserve some part of the living and to provide the beholder with

the sensation of looking at a veritable portrait (Figure 4). As for tattoos incorporated

into bindings, they are also chosen according to the contents of the work (portraits of

women for books whose protagonists are female (70, 92), a flag for the cover of 'Le

Drapeau' ('The Flag' in french, 31) of J. Claretie, and so on).

The book is thereby a global work in which the content, selected iconography

and leather come together to form a coherent and comprehensive whole. The lengths

to which are gone in order to exhibit such works also speak to this desire to create an

all-encompassing experience.

I (4, b) - The exhibition of books

After an overview of the literature related to the topic (see references from the

census, Table 1) I realized that rare are the cases of books bound in human skin being

placed on the shelves of a library without first being showcased in an original manner.

A few have been displayed in bookstore fronts as elements of advertising in

Berlin and Milan (Thompson 1968). Others have been integrated as features of

provocative scenography alongside other objects of 'murderabilia' as a means to

inspire intense feelings within the onlooker. In line with this trend, the skeleton of J.

Horwood was thus exposed at the University of Bristol from 1821 to 2011, with a

rope around his neck, in proximity to the book bound in his skin (Fissell 1991: 168).

W. Corder’s death mask and scalp still rub shoulders with 'his' book at the Moyse’s

Hall Museum in Bury-St-Edmunds, despite countless ethical debates surrounding

their exposition.

II – Interpretation

These books functioned in a variety of ways: from the memento mori to the

mere object of curiosity, to the role of deterring agent utilized by the judiciary forces

that be. Whatever the case, a book bound in human skin has always been linked to a

strong social discourse.

In order to draw the most relevant anthropological conclusions, it is important

to take into account the chronological evolution of the connotations attached to these

books, as well as the context of the production and sale of such objects.

II (1) – Relationship to the realm of the judiciary

The first known cases of books bound with human skin are associated with the

judiciary system and were bound with the skin of convicts condemned to death. The

very first volume of this type was created in Great Britain in 1606 (46)7. There is then

a rupture in testimonies about this kind of production, followed by a significant wave

of manufacturing between 1800 and 1830. The trend was slightly later to catch on in

the USA, with a first occurrence dated to 1837 (19). Finally, France also produced

several volumes in the 1880s (14, 17, 29) (Figure 1).

These volumes played a complex role in the unfolding of 'post-execution rites'

(Hurren 2016), among other practices such as dissection (Richardson 1987),

experiments on the body (Flammarion 1894), exposure of the cadaver (Tarlow 2016 ;

Matteoni 2016 ; Penfold-Mounce 2010) or secondary use of bones in anatomical

collections (Geller 2015). This complex topic has been widely covered by many

researchers and I invite readers to consider the following paper, focused on the close

connection between abuse of the criminal body and manufacture of artefacts in the

stigmatization process of outlaws, for a synthesis (Kerner 2018).

III (1, a) Material witnesses to justice in action

The crimes committed by skin providers were always serious (homicides,

lèse-majesté crimes and treason) and the creation of this kind of book became an

exemplary sanction. It becomes apparent that this practice was one of humiliation

(Harrison 2017: 383; McGrowen 1987: 653), used as an educational tool – and a

persuasive one at that – with in mind the population that would be the spectator of this

treatment (Nystrom 2014). In transforming a number of death row inmates into

national anti-heroes, whose treatment became archetypal in its rigor, the British,

American and French Justice systems succeeded in creating strong symbols. The

bodily fragments of these individuals thus incarnated the image of the crime

mercilessly punished. Furthermore, they thereby served as visual support to

moralizing fables that were then easily disseminated among the most popular classes.

In this context, the authorities exhibited the books in public places.

However, these books were also relics that were exchanged in private settings.

In this case, the possession of such memorabilia became essential to proving one’s

presence at the execution or the 'spectacular post-mortem encore' that constituted the

public dissection (Hurren 2016: 276). These souvenirs could take the form of a

segment of the rope used for hanging, or a fragment of bone (Nunn 2005), or a piece

of tanned skin that might be used to cover various everyday objects.

These bound works were thus a materialization of different social frontiers:

those between the condemned and the justice department responsible for the

condemnation, followed by the possession of the criminal’s body, but also those limits

between the spectator of judicial ruling and the criminal who becomes a 'victim'.

II (1, b) Witnesses to individual suffering

Far from their role in provoking humiliation, these artifacts have seen their

function evolve and have become important elements in a positive re-appropriation by

the descendants of those condemned criminals whose skin they are bound in. They

became a medium for the perpetuation of the criminal’s legacy within a family

setting8.

We can also consider that the justice system was not merely a machine

designed for crushing the hopes of the most hardened criminals. By giving the

condemned criminal the opportunity to suffer and to leave behind symbolic proof of

their punishment, the justice system also offered them an opportunity to publicly seek

forgiveness through their suffering and humiliation. A paid debt as civil martyrs:

therein would be the ultimate freedom for the condemned, thus allowed a role in the

staging of their own demise.

II (2) - Anthropodermic Bibliopegy in the context of the search for curiosities and a

fascination for tattooed skins

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many tattooed human skins were

treated in order to better preserve them for conservation. This effort was made with

either preservation in a museum setting in mind, frequently related to ethnographic

research, or, as was more often the case, for medico-judiciary archival purposes

(Quétel 2013; Angel 2013; Locard 1932). A. Lacassagne proposed to decipher

criminal personalities via the joint observation of anthropometry and the psychology

of the subject. The presence of tattoos was considered one of the 'signs' of latent

criminality in patients (Putigny 2007). The study of bodily modifications would come

to be at the heart of his research.

Along with the circulation of the writings of A. Lacassagne, a trend was born

and the collection of tattooed fragments of skin transcended the framework of the

academic milieu and spread to the upper classes. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th

century, there existed an important market for tattooed human skin, existing outside of

the circuit of anthropodermic bibliopegy (Risser 1937). Secondary use as a binding

was only one aspect of the exploitation of these precious fragments, which could even

be reserved in vivo with the tattooed subject (Bazal 1934). The cost of such a purchase

was prohibitive for the middle classes and this phenomenon mainly concerned a

cultivated subset of the social elite.

The book made of the skin of L.-M. Rambert (90) thus presents itself as a

fascinating object at the crossroads of two phenomena. By binding a book filled with

the confessions of L.-M. Rambert with the skin of the criminal himself, I assume that

J. Lacassagne, son of A. Lacassagne, reclaimed the old tradition of binding with the

skin of the condemned, while all at once illustrating the preoccupation with tattooed

skins that was so in vogue for his time.

II (3) - The muse, the poetess, the martyr and the prostitute: the place of femininity

within the phenomenon of anthropodermic bibliopegy

II (3, a) Authors

Women occupy a special place within the phenomenon of anthropodermic

bibliopegy. It is interesting to note that only two female authors have received the

honor of having their works bound in human skin. The first is L. Bourgeois, a

renowned midwife, known to have stood up to Court surgeons and to have advocated

for the contributions of women to medicine thanks to her book 'Recueil des Secrets

auquel sont contenues ses plus rares experiences pour diverses maladies,

principalement des femmes, avec leurs embellissement' (25) (Vons 2008). The second

is P. Wheatley, author of the book 'Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral'

(110), a poetess with an extraordinary destiny since she was a slave before becoming

the first black American woman author of world renown. Both are women who were

out of step with their time and who managed to free themselves from the social

constraints imposed by their sex and ethnicity, in order to gain a reputation worthy of

their male counterparts. It is undoubtedly this peculiarity that earned them a special

place within a practice that normally considers women only as an object of desire and

fascination.

II (3, b) Female skin suppliers and eroticism

The sponsors of books bound in human skin have been exclusively men, and

except for the cases of Bourgeois and Wheatley, women are relegated to participation

in the creation of objects by bequeathing their skin. The providers are almost always

anonymous but their sex is carefully stipulated as a criterion of distinction (it is the

case for all the productions of Dr. John Stockton Hough cited in the census (2, 17, 21,

36, 42) as well as for most of the erotic novels counted (6, 73, 96, 97,)). These women

are thus reduced to their mere biological sex, and the manuscript annotations

obliterate all evidence of the social being that they were.

A notable exception is the Flammarion donor (44), provided with a charming

name though certainly not her own: the Countess of Saint-Angel. Her identity has

been the subject of much hypothesizing and tale telling. Indeed, she was made noble

by the writings of journalists (whereas her actual class was not known), in order to

further romanticize the story of her tragic destiny (Blumenthal [1955] (1969)). The

choice of the fragment of tanned skin, described as having come from 'delicate

shoulders', participates in the manufacturing of a distinguished, almost virginal image

and is in stark contrast with the typical zones of selection, which concentrate on areas

with high erotic potential.

Indeed, based on my census, the most frequently selected skin samples from

women providers come from the breasts (five volumes, 6, 22, 73, 96,), but also from

the thighs (four volumes, 21, 25, 36) and the waist (two volumes, 2, ). These selected

zones reflect an associated sensuality, and underscore that the use of female skin for

the purposes of anthropodermic bibliopegy is directly related to its being inherently

imbued with erotic symbolism. Furthermore, with the exception of Flammarion’s

'Terres du Ciel' which is a book dealing with astronomy (44), “Life of Jesus” (91),

“Les mystères de Paris” (103) and “Des destinées de l'âme dealing with life after

death (60) all of the works bound in women’s skin deal with sexuality (whether it be

from a poetic, erotic or medical point of view : 6, 11, 22, 25, 36, 37, 38, 42, 67, 73,

85, 96, 97, 101, 102, 106).

Doctors have a very intimate relationship with the skin fragment since they

sometimes are responsible for it in all stages of its manipulation, from its removal

from the corpse to its preparation and subsequent use in binding. Their relationship to

the object is not devoid of sensuality: indeed, the tone of Dr. Bouland’s note is, in this

respect, rather suggestive (Figure 2).

If in modern medicine hyper-sexualized and deviant behaviors seem to be

confined to the rite of passage of the physician in the making (Godeau 2007), the

professional standards for physicians in the 19th and early 20th centuries and their

ethical position in relation to the patient’s body were not as moderated as they are

today. Thus, eroticism and dark humor were still part of the daily life of practicing

physicians for this era (the human skin bound book 'A Book about Doctors' by J. C.

Jeaffreson (62) – to cite only one – delivers some revealing anecdotes in this domain).

In this context, books made with skin of women seem to have replaced the

Anatomical Venus (Ebenstein 2016) and formaldehyde treated entire women's bodies

(McDonald 2005) in offering the members of the medical community a taste of

voluptuousness.

The powerful erotic symbolism of the works bound in female skin has

prompted some researchers to correlate the use of these skins to sexual deviances

related to necrophilia (Aggrawal 2016). This is a psychoanalytic interpretation that is

likely a bit too advanced, and above all too generalized, specifically as pertains to

those instances in which we may perceive a variety of intentions related to these

works, depending oftentimes on the creator, manipulator or consumer. In our view,

the use of a woman’s skin is in most instances related to an effort toward public

provocation in the context of a trend that was already deemed 'decadent' in nature.

Mistreated and objectified or elevated to the rank of a delicate muse, the

woman providing her skin is a polymorphous persona. Whatever her status, the

female leather provider (unlike the anonymous and forgotten male provider),

participates in the creation of the book’s associated charm. In this sense, women -

most often in spite of themselves - contributed to the spread of this phenomenon.

II (4) – The medical realm

A vast majority of the works (24 volumes) bound with human skin, and dating

to the end of the 19th century, is of a medical persuasion (1, 2, 4, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25,

27, 28, 36, 40, 42, 51, 62, 68, 81, 85, 86, 107) (Figure 1). This practice embodies a

whole series of inter-personal and inter-class relationships: between the different

doctors among themselves, but also between different members of the medical

profession and those outside of it, as well as between men and women in general.

II (4, a) The initiated versus the layman

Works of human skin constitute a specialized production that presents a

marked boundary between the patient and the possessor of medical authority. It is thus

the concretization of the doctor’s ultimate seizure of power over the patient by the use

of his body for purely 'playful' purposes.

Indeed, this artifact is the only object produced with human material, by

doctors, whose creation is not justified by a need to deepen knowledge or for the

transfer of knowledge to students of the discipline (skeletons, various anatomic

collections, etc.). The objects produced remain linked to the medical practice

(consultation document holders, medical books, etc.), just as it is for the doctor to

prove, by the possession of such an object, his full integration into the medical

profession. It is a matter of exposing one’s socio-professional belonging by the

possession of a singular object, moreover considered repulsive by the majority of a

dilettante populace.

A hierarchy within the medical profession also seems to be underscored by the

possession of this type of item. If even the busboy has access to the raw material

needed for the production of a book bound in human skin, it is typically the

distinguished doctor who possesses sufficient income to transform the material into a

finished, luxury object.

II (4, b) An amoral production

Doctors have developed a particular state of mind by establishing a distance

between themselves and their subject matter, i.e., the suffering patient or the

deceased. The latter momentarily loses its status of person in order to assume that of

an object. This forced detachment from the patients and their bodies is a protective

mechanism against sentimentality, and it ensures the smooth advancement of

treatment and research. This is what W. Hunter described when he spoke of the

'necessary inhumanity' involved in the dissection of dead bodies (Hunter 1784). This

non-empathic behavior intended to be adopted only sparingly and during very precise

operations within the physician’s range of responsibilities, unfortunately sometimes

went beyond the scope of medical investigation. In this case, such behavior may have

led to superfluous post-mortem treatment on the part of physicians, resulting in, for

example, the creation of human skin bindings. Because such activity no longer has

anything to do with a search for new knowledge or a passing of a previously existing

empirical understanding, it becomes injurious to the patient and their descendants. It

is for this reason that the sampling of a corpse for the creation of an object whose

purpose is amusement appears immoral in the eyes of our contemporaries. And yet,

such a production was also considered an amoral act in the era of its manufacture.

In what was perhaps an effort to rehabilitate the opinions of their colleagues,

some authors attempted to liken this practice, exercised by certain doctors, to a

commemorative act (Guelle 2002: 89). This assertion is based on the fact that books

created and annotated by doctors such as J. Stockton-Hough (2, 17, 21, 36, 42), or J.

Leidy (68) helped to preserve the memory of some of their patients to this day. I dare

argue that this is an unintended side effect. The initial and primary intention of the

bookbinder should not be confused with the result obtained several decades later.

Indeed, concerning J. Stockton-Hough, a wish to pay tribute to the patients is

improbable, as his disrespect for them is palpable (inter alia, through the handwritten

note I found on the leaf of 'Speculations on the Mode and Appearances of

Impregnation in the Human Female' which mentions that the human skin has been

tanned in a 'pot de chambre' (chamber pot in french)). Concerning Leidy, he used the

skin of a soldier when he was working as a doctor in the Union Army’s Satterlee

Army General Hospital in order to bind the book he wrote 'Elementary Treatise on

Human Anatomy' (Marvin 1994). This move seem to fall under an egotic pulse from

the author more than an homage to the deceased. Although the context of the period

must be taken into account to avoid unjust condemnation of our predecessors, it is

clear that their aim was by no means a commemorative one. At most, it can be argued

that the intention was not deleterious, though it may resemble the aggressive

appropriation of one social category by another.

III - 'Proving' the human provenance of leather: methods and limitations

As with all original practices that include human body parts, anthropodermic

bibliopegy has aroused fantasies and tall-tale telling alike. These fictions have been

widely conveyed – be it, due to ignorance, or a taste for sensationalism – by

newspapers and bibliophile publications alike. A reasoned re-evaluation of actual

books bound of human skin requires an appraisal of the diagnostic methods used thus

far, as well as those that will have to be implemented in the future, in order to

determine the taxonomic affiliation of the skin provider.

III (1) - Identification by oral or written testimony

The vast majority of human skin texts have been identified by oral testimony

subsequently translated into writing. The sources are varied and include newspaper

articles (14), letters of correspondence (44), wills of consenting donors (11, 62, 63,

64, 90), as well as autographs (15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 34, 36, 42, 46, 48,

50, 60, 68, 76, 80, 85, 91, 94, 97) directly affixed to the cover or one of the pages of

the book in question for 32 cases. For example, 'Tabulae scelecti et muscularum

corporis humani' by B. S. Albinus contains the following autograph 'This book was

bound by me in human skin. Berlin. 1 June 1910. Paul Kersten'.

The use of these sources must be preceded by a critical investigation of the

provider of the information. As they provide a discourse that is inevitably shaped

according to the audience for which they were intended, it is necessary to confront the

incompleteness of some of these official sources, as well as, the wandering tendencies

of some journalistic texts.

Though these sources may be valuable, they cannot be considered to constitute

formal 'proof' of the existence or authenticity of the books in question.

III (2) - Identification by macroscopic and microscopic observation

Researchers using observation as means to identification may perform this

task at two levels of evaluation: macroscopic and microscopic.

On a macroscopic scale, leather has often been identified as human because of

the presence of nipples retained on the tanned skin fragment (6, 73, 90, 96). On a

microscopic scale, the arrangement of follicles on the surface of the skin is specific to

each species and can, therefore, theoretically allow for identification (4, 78).

Whatever the scale, identification by simple visual inspection poses obvious

problems because of the resemblance between human leather and porcine leather.

Indeed, the similarity between the skin of a human and that of a pig has been stressed

many times by doctors (Ranamukhaarachchi 2016). This is mainly expressed in the

morphology of the follicles, the cellular composition of the epidermis and upper

layers of the dermis but also in the skin immune system's functioning (Summerfield

2015). This similarity has led researchers to use pigskin for experimental purposes in

order to better understand the development of melanomas in dermatological cancer

(Herron 2009), as well as to improve care in the case of second degree burns (Davis et

al. 1990).

Further examination is therefore necessary in order to identify the skin

provider species.

III (3) - Physicochemical identification

The taxonomic determination of skin providers is positively feasible only

through physicochemical analyses such as protein analysis, radio-immunological

doses testing or genomic signature identification.

Several processes can be used on leather, with varying degrees of success. Our

research has led to the discovery of contradictory results provided by successive

analysis performed on a single object. This was the case, notably for example, in the

attribution of the species whose leather was used in the binding of 'Huguenot Idolatry'

(93) (Harrisson 2017) (Figure 3). Lowenstein concluded that the book has been

undoubtedly bound in human skin (Lowenstein 1985) whereas the analysis led by

Kirby yielded a negative result9. As both researchers used the same method (PMF

analysis), it sounds like this difference in the result is linked to divergent protocols of

sampling and/or decontamination procedures of the sample. However, because of the

sensitive nature of these objects, it is important to minimize loss or damage of the

book. Therefore, I argue that avoiding excessive numbers of sampling for

identification by a consensus building is an urgent matter.

In this perspective, following is a non-exhaustive overview and evaluation of

the various methods that can be used to distinguish different sources of leather.

III (3, a) - The identification of the protein signature (PMF; LC-MS / MS)

Among the mass spectrometry (MS) protein identification methods, differing

degrees of precision can be achieved. Peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) analyses

represent the simplest and most commonly used analysis of archaeological objects.

They consist of a simple measurement of the mass of tryptic peptides derived from a

protein (Thiede et al. 2005). The comparison of the trypsin peptides profiles within a

reference database then makes it possible to identify the protein. The disadvantage of

this process is that its successful completion can only be guaranteed by a relatively

pure preparation: in other words, the protein must be significantly isolated in order to

be recognized. This high sensitivity requires a very careful samples preparation and

can lead to biased results.

The efficiency of identification can be increased with LC-MS / MS and Nano

LC-MS / MS technology. These techniques use liquid chromatography (LC) coupled

with mass spectrometry (MS) in order to extract the 'signature' of the proteomes

analyzed, and propose identification, even when these are not isolated. The

nanometric version has an even greater sensitivity that allows for the identification of

peptides even once they have been modified (for example by an enzymatic digestion

process) or when they have been inserted into a complex protein mixture (Gaspari and

Cuda 2011). This means that leathers that have been highly modified by an extensive

tanning process still can be identified.

The identification of proteins by MS has been successfully used on a number

of medieval and modern documents made of skin (Fiddyment et al. 2015). A positive

aspect of the MS identification processes is that they are nearly non-visible on a

macroscopic scale and therefore compatible with a heritage preservation policy (Kirby

et al. 2013). Theoretically, a simple friction of the surface of the object to be analyzed

with a non-latex eraser is sufficient for a sample. The convenience of the sampling

procedures often motivates the choice of this method of analysis but, as we will see

later, this choice is not without consequences in term of contamination issues.

III (3, b) – Immunochemistry (pRIA)

On non-prepared skin, the provider species can be also determined by radio-

immunological doses testing (pRIA). This method consists of an exploration of the

cells and antibodies of a tissue in order to determine the specific immune mechanism

that the organism follows. Since each species own specificities in term of immunity,

the taxonomic affiliation of the individual can be determined according to the

composition of the sample. It has yielded convincing results in the analysis of

prehistoric residues (Lowenstein et al. 2006; Reuther et al. 2006). Unfortunately, it

has never been tested on prepared skin. One more time, theoretically, the small

fraction of material necessary for the analysis makes the process non-visible at a

macroscopic scale (Ferenčík 1993).

III (3, c) - Identification of a genomic signature (DNA)

The analysis of DNA fragments following their multiplication by PCR10 is

commonly used on bio-archaeological remains (Geigl 2015) and for identifying book

leathers (like it was the case for 'El Viaje Largo' by T. Medina, 72). Furthermore, it

may be advantageously used toward the differentiation between species supplying

skin (Hummel 2003). Because of the handling of books by human, it sounds obvious

to everyone that the identification of genomic signature on book is not possible by

making a sample upon surface: a sampling inside of the thickness is required, and, as

a result, triggers a destruction of a small part of the artefact. This constraint often

discourages the use of DNA analysis on books so-told bound in human skin.

III (3, d) - Pros and Cons of the Different Methods

COST

Protein identification methods are reasonably priced with an amount of 80 US$ for a

LC-MS / MS or Nano LC-MS / MS test, and about 60$ for a PMF test. DNA and

immunochemistry remains the most expensive methods, with widely varying prices

across laboratories. Most of the time, partnership with laboratories solves the problem

and allows researchers to choose their identification method following other

considerations.

EFFICIENCY FACE UP TO ALTERATIONS CAUSED BY TANNING

PROCESSES AND GENERAL STATE OF PRESERVATION

First of all, it is important to be aware that different methods of tanning exist:

with animal fats, with mineral like alun (Halasz-Csiba 2002) or plant-derived

materials. The way they variously affect the skin in terms of chemical testing remains

unknown for now.

Without taking account of the nature of the tanning process, the efficiency of

DNA analysis has been tested on books and manuscripts. It seems to be slightly more

effective in the identification of the raw material used in the production of

parchments, rather than those of tanned skins (Burger et al. 2001). However,

experiments on cowhide have highlighted the survival of elements allowing for

identification by DNA analysis (Vuissoz et al. 2007).

Contrariwise, to the best of our knowledge, there is no equivalent experiment

to verify the validity of PMF, LC-MS / MS or NanoLC-MS / MS analyses on residual

material on tanned skins. In the case of pRIA analyses, highly satisfactory results

obtained on burned archaeological bones (Potter et al. 2010: 916) lead us to be

optimistic for the results we can expect from analysis of tanned remains because even

alterated tissues remain traceable. No experimentation to date, however, can as of yet

support this sentiment.

My preference gravitates increasingly towards DNA analysis because of the

best known implications of its use on ancient leathers. Anyway, both methods can be

used and, as we will see below, the efficiency of physicochemical identification tests

is primarily down to the way they are conducted.

Ancient leathers are frequently exposed to issues of preservation (Mesquita et

al. 2009). As far as I know, no study has been led to measure precisely the impact of

rotting on the efficiency of the analysis listed above. Anyway, It has been proven by

experiments that fungi attack preferentially the outermost layers, whereas

actinomycetes (bacteria) alter significantly the leather fibres (Strzelczyk et al. 1987).

Depending on the nature of the agents of deterioration, analysis can therefore be

conducted despite of a visual appearance of deterioration but a diagnosis of the

different agents must be done upstream of testing.

CONTAMINATION AND SAMPLING PRECAUTIONS

Studies frequently point to problems with sample contamination during

protein (Bell et al. 2009) and genetic (Geigl 2015) analysis. Contamination may be

caused by various phenomena.

DNA contamination by anyone manipulating or who has manipulated the

object of analysis becomes especially problematic when potential human leathers that

have been manipulated by other people for decades are analyzed. Indeed, this 'human'

pollution, which is normally easily identifiable and taken into account in the majority

of leather or archaeological skin analysis, risks, in this case, to be fodder for

confusion. Protein signatures appear to be less prone to contamination as a result of

successive manipulations of objects by humans over long periods of time. Thus,

protein and immunochemical analyses have been assumed to be preferable for the

study of ancient bindings (Rosenbloom 2017). Anyway, none of these methods are

exempted from contaminations from treatment methods of the skin/leather used in the

past.

Tanning methods using animal fats can logically lead more easily to

misreading of the leather's provider species due to proteinic mixing. Fortunately, the

vegetable tanning methods were the most frequently used for binding (Viñas & Viñas

1992). Anyway, the use of animal fats was common to treat the leather after its

tanning before the 19th century (Quétel 2013), and animal residues can be found on

the surface of some ancient books. Moreover, the addition of dyes and varnishes of all

kinds may affect a sample when it has been withdrawn in surface of the binding.

III (3, e) – A Wise and Reproducible Sampling Process

Hence, samples taken from within the leather, and not from surface areas, are

much more reliable. This kind of sampling process should be used, disregarding the

chosen method of identification. However, the visible hole made by this type of

sampling discourages its usage and has made it an uncommon practice. Unfortunately,

the wish of using non-visible sampling methods is a counter-productive decision

which leads to unreliable and contradictory results. Long-term preservation of these

books could be ensured more surely through a reasonable slighty destructive sampling

than with myriad of supposedly 'non-destructive'11 but inefficient samplings.

In any cases and regardless of the method which is chosen, the book area

chosen for sampling is crucial to avoid issues caused by contamination. Hence, I

advise against any sample taken on the inside of the binding, especially on the edge of

the book and on the contact areas with the paper cover (Figure 5). These areas bear

adhesives, which in bookbinding, are often made using animal proteins. The presence

of these animal proteins may distort the identification of the species providing the

leather. Unfortunately, these areas are prefered by some researchers for sampling,

because they do not alters 'visible' zone of the binding (Kirby 2015).

III (4) - The benefits of a transparent protocol and cross over study

I cannot emphasize enough the importance of systematic verification of the

identification of the provenance of leather by physicochemical analyses whenever

there is suspicion of the use of human skin in the creation of a binding. This approach

has allowed for the debunking of an identification of human origin applied to certain

bookbindings, which had once been 'authenticated' by original autographs12.

In addition to the detection of fraudulous goods for sale, a cross over study

between physicochemical data and autographic testimonials allows for the

identification of 'historical lies'. These forgeries are unfortunately less frequently the

subject of commentary or analysis by institutions than are their real counterparts. And

yet historical counterfeits are just as important as genuine human skin bound artifacts,

as they allow us to gauge the infatuation that the public harbored for these books,

willing to go as far as the production of forgeries in order to satiate demand and turn a

profit.

III (5) – A cautious study for sensitive remains

It must be remembered that the conservation, display and studing of these

artifacts poses ethical problems for contemporary curators and researchers.

The showcasing of these works in private, as well as public settings, while part

of the cultural landscape at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, had already

shocked some. For example, a journalist from the Essex Standard reported that a

cleric donated £5 to the hospital, displaying W. Corder’s book and skeleton so that

their exhibition might cease (Essex Standard 1841). Setting aside the question of the

permanence of the historical testimony that these works represent, researchers

underscore the need to repair the post-mortem humiliation perpetrated against the skin

providers (Needham 2014), going so far as to propose the interment of human leather

bindings in decent burials (Samuelson 2014).

The argument I can make against these suggestions is that a burial would

amount to the destruction of these works. Furthermore we have a duty to preserve and

transmit to future generations the existence and importance of such vestiges, as they

are the testimony of an important sociological phenomenon that goes far beyond the

anecdotal.

On the other hand, and in the name of human dignity, it seems essential to

improve communication surrounding these works. It is crucial that sensationalist

communication surrounding them cease. It is also imperative that we provide a more

comprehensive study of the subject, as well as take further precautions when

exhibiting them within a museum framework. Thus it may be possible to reconcile the

preservation of these material witnesses with a renewed respect for the person who

supplied their skin for their creation. Explanatory supplements, as well as displays

designed to allow room for contemplation and recollection of the memory of the

person behind the object might soften the brutality of their exhibition, while all at

once ensuring the rational preservation of these peculiar artefacts and the transmission

of the historical knowledge that they carry. It is worth reminding that respect and

consideration of the hidden man or woman behind the artefact will have to be taken

into consideration during the study and sampling of each volume, depending on

various parameters (among others: the wishes of the descendants of the deceased, the

value of the artefact into its original context, etc).

Conclusion

This study highlighted how the phenomenon of anthropodermic bibliopegy

can be seen as a 'global art', seeking for a symbiosis between container and content.

The human skin books broad a complex social discourse that must be approached in

an historical perspective, in which geographical variations are discernible. These

peculiar artefacts, reflecting the moral values of their society and their original

owners, deserve a further study. Systematic identification of the human origin of the

skin will be a necessary step for a deeper comprehension of the phenomenon. This

paper provides an extensive review of the advantages and disadvantages of each

method of identification as well as a proposition of an adapted protocol of sampling. I

hope that this survey will allow the key players in this field of research to work all

together towards increased understanding of these fascinating artefacts.

Acknowledgements

I would like to sincerely thank all the people who have shared unpublished data and

photographs with me, thus helping to enrich the contents of this paper: A. Walker, E.

Brenner, P. N. Harrison (Baylor University), J. Gordon (Beeghly Library of Juniata

University), G. Baxter, L. Parker and A. McWhirter (St Edmundsbury Heritage

Service), D. Cronk and A. Scotia (National Library of Australia), M. Gibson

(Wilkinsons Auctioneers), F. Léger (Académie Nationale de Médecine) and M.

Vercambre (Musée Grévin).

My friendship and gratitude go to Marine Degli for our fruitful discussions about this

shared subject of interest.

Notes

1: G. Warden's skin shoes, W. Burke's skin snuff box, H. Pranzini's skin pocket-book

(Kerner 2018)

2: On some of the books I will mention, physicochemical analysis have been

conducted by the Anthropodermic Book Project, founded by Daniel Kirby,

Richard Hark, Anna Dhody and Megan Rosenbloom

(https://anthropodermicbooks.org/) in order to test a maximum of human skin

bound books in North America. Megan R. foresees to publish a popular science

book (Rosembloom 2017, elec. comm.) but highlighted in a recent conference that

a publication of a census of all the books they tested will be problematic because

of confidentiality issues (Rosenbloom 2016).

3: Some specific recipes have been reported by Graham (1965).

4: 'Le procédé de tannage était une simple mais prolongée macération dans l'éther,

puis grattage pour enlever l'épaisseur de la peau et ne laisser que l'épiderme'

(Mercure de France, volume and date unknown, cited by Dussert & Walbecq

2014)

5: As an example, this is the note that can be found in the book of C. Drelincourt 'De

conceptione adversaria. Disce, homo, de tenui constructus pulvere, quae te edidit

in luncem conditione Deus. Ed. altera.': 'Bound in Trenton N.J. March 1887, with

tattooed skin from around the wrist of a man who died in the Philada. Hospital

1869'.

6 : KUMC Libraries Catalog (online

voyagercatalog.kumc.edu/Record/175536/Description#tabnav)

7: This book, 'A True and Perfect Relation of The Whole Proceedings against the Late

most barbarous Traitors, Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederats' has been sold in

2007 by Wilkinsons Auctioneers (M. Gibson pers. comm.).

8: W. Roughead wrote that a piece of Burke's skin was kept by his grand-father in

order to tell the story of Burke to his descendants (Roughead 1921:66).

9: Ed. Frank, curator of the precious and rare books department at the University of

Memphis, pers. comm. to Harrisson (reported in Harrisson 2017).

10: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a method of amplification of the

residual DNA which allow to obtain, from a restricted sample, a greater amount of

DNA fragments. As we do so, the ancient and incomplete DNA may be more

easily recognized.

11: Whereas these methods of sampling are destructive but less visually altering.

12 : It's the case for the volume Practicarum quaestionum circa leges regias

Hispaniae by J. Gutiérrez (Harvard University Art Museums’ Straus Center).

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ID Title – Author

(and topic of

the book)

4 volumes

Publishin

Location

conservati

Evidenc

e of

anthropo

dermic

bibliopeg

Result

s of

physic

chimi

analys

References

1Traité

d'anatomie -

Anonymous

XVIIIth

century

Unknown T / Thompson 1946, p. 93 ; Cim 1905

2/ - Anonymous

(Medecine)

End of

the

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Thompson 1946, p. 97

3/ - Anonymous XIXth

century

Unknown

(Displayed

on the

Luigi

Arrigoni's

shop in

Brera on

1879)

T / Bogeng 1909, p. 90

4/ - Anonymous

(Medecine)

3 volumes

XIXth

century

Anatomica

l Museum

of the

College of

Surgeons

(Lincoln's

Inn Field,

UK)

MO (by

John

Quekett

on the

hair

follicles)

Positi

result

Thompson 1946, p. 98

5/ - Anonymous

(Prayer book)

XVIIth

century

Berkeley's

Bancroft

Library

(University

California,

USA)

(PMF (?)

-test

conducte

d in

2016)

Negati

result

* Personnal communication of David

Faulds (Curator of Rare Books and

Literary Manuscripts of The Bancroft

Library)

6/ - Anonymous

(Erotism)

XIXth

century

Unknown

(For sell in

a library of

the

Faubourg

Saint-

Germain

Paris in the

19th

century)

T / Goncourt 1898, p. 133

7/ - Anonymous

(Trial of Arthur

Thistlewood ?)

XIXth

century

Jesus

College of

Oxford (?)

T / Thompson 1968, p. 137

8/ - Anonymous

russian poet

(Poetry)

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Fitzgerald 1886, p. 123

9/ - Anonymous XIXth Unknown T / Blumenthal 1932, p. 119.

century ('an

obscure

antiquarian

shop near

Saint

Augustine'

s Church

in Paris' in

the 19th

century)

10 Almanach des

Prisons -

Anonymous

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Blumenthal 1969, p. 90

11 / - Anonymous

(Private

correspondance

)

1920 Unknown T / Hunter 1958, p. 41-42

12 / - Anonymous

(Charles

Smith's life and

trial)

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Blumenthal 1969, p. 82

13 Little Poems

for Little Folks

- Anonymous

1847 Unknown T / Thompson 1968, p. 148

14 / - Anonymous XIXth

century

Unknown

(Library of

M. L.

Veydt

according

to the

inventory

published

in 1879)

T / Thompson 1968, p. 150

15 Relation des

mouvemens de

la ville de

Messine

despuis l'année

M. DG. LXXI.

jusques à

présent -

Anonymous

XVIIth

century

Library of

the

University

California

(Los

Angeles)

HN / Thompson 1968, p. 135 ; Blumenthal

1969, p. 80

16 Molleri

manuale

praperationis

ad mortem -

Anonymous

XXth

century

The book

used to be

on the

Library of

the Syndic

Maastricht

at Bremen

(Germany)

at the

beginning

of the 20th

century

HN / Thompson 1968, p. 135

17 Catalogue des

Sciences

médicales –

Anonymous

2 volumes

1857-

1873

Previously

at the

Bibliothèq

Impériale,

Paris,

France and

at the

College of

Physicians

Library of

Philadelphi

a who sold

it in 1901 *

HN / * Guelle 2002, p. 87 ; Marvin 1994

18 Tabulae

scelecti et

muscularum

corporis

humani - B. S.

Albinus

XIXth

century

According

to Marvin,

the book

stands in

the

University

Standford,

USA *

Anyway,

according

to the head

of the

Departmen

t of Special

Collections

, Tim

Noakes,

the library

do not own

this

volume

***

/ * Marvin 1994 ; *** Personnal

communication to the author (April

14, 2017)

19 Narrative of

the life of

James Allen,

alias George

Walton, alias

Jonas Pierce,

alias James H.

York, alias

Burley Grove,

the

highwayman :

being his

death-bed

confession, to

the warden of

The

Massachusetts

State Prison

1837 Boston

Athenaeu

m, USA

HN / Boston Athenaeum Catalog

20 / - Anonymous XIXth

century

Wellcome

Collection,

HN / Wellcome collection ctalog

Londres

21 Les nouvelles

découvertes

sur toutes les

parties

principales de

l’homme, et de

la femme :

ensemble leur

composition,

connexion,

action, et

usages. Avec

des

dissertations

sur chacune en

particulier,

suivies des

remarques

curieuses, et

très utiles pour

la pratique des

médecins et

des chirurgiens

- L. Barles

2 volumes

Publishin

g in

1685-86,

binding

in the

XIXth

century

Philadelphi

a College

Physicians,

USA

HN / Thompson 1946, p. 97 ; Guelle 2002,

p. 86

22 Diaboliques -

J. Barbey

d'Aurevilly

XXth

century

Unknown T / Dupin 1932

23 Cutaneous

Diseases - Dr.

T. Bateman

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Thompson 1968, p. 148

24 Mademoiselle

Giraud, ma

femme - A.

Belot

XXth

century

John Hay

Library,

Université

de Brown,

USA

(PMF led

by D. P.

Kirby *)

Possib

positi

result

Blumenthal 1969, p. 77 * Catalogue

de la John Hay Library

(https://search.library.brown.edu/cata

log/b3339531)

25 Recueil des

Secrets auquel

sont contenues

ses plus rares

experiences

pour diverses

maladies,

principalement

des femmes,

avec leurs

embellissement

- L. Bourgeois

Publishin

g in

1601,

binding

in the

XIXth

century

Philadelphi

a College

Physicians,

USA

/ De Crauzat 1926 ; Marvin 1994 ;

Catalog of the Historical Medical

Library of the College of Physicians

of Philadelphia ; * Guelle 2002, p. 86

26 Les Opuscules

Philosophiques

- compiled by

S. J. Bourlet de

Vauxcelles and

J. B. A. Suard

(authors :

1796 Unknown T / Blumenthal 1969, p. 84

Diderot,

madame du

Chastelet,

Thomas, M.

Necker, l'abbé

Galliani, C.

Chesneau

Dumarsais)

27 Exercitatio

anatomica de

glandula

pituitaria - J.

C. von Brunner

and F. S.

Vorster

1688

XVIIth

century

Clendenin

g History

Medicine

Library

(Université

du Kansas,

USA)

T / KUMC Libraries Catalog (en ligne

voyagercatalog.kumc.edu/Record/17

5536/Description#tabnav)

28 La Princesse

de Lamballe

intime (d'après

les confidences

de son

médecin), Sa

liaison avec

Marie-

Antoinette. Son

rôle secret

pendant la

Révolution - A.

Cabanès

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Bouckaert 1929, p. 180

29 / - Anonymous

(William

Cadwallader's

trial ?)

XIXth

century

Unknown T / J. P. 1873, p. 292

30 / - Anonymous

(Michel

Campi's trial,

execution and

dissection)

XIXth

century

Unknown T / Goncourt 1898, p. 137 ; * « Campi et

sa peau », Le Figaro, numéro 329 (24

novembre 1884) ; ** Museum

Archives, personnal communication

by M. Vercambre

31 Lincoln the

Unknown - D.

Carnegie

XXth

century

Grand

Avenue

Library

(University

Southern

Carolina,

USA)

T / On-line library catalog, University of

Southern Carolina

32 Le Drapeau - J.

Claretie

XIXth

century

Unknown T / De Crauzat 1926

33 Constitution

Française de

1793

XVIII th

century

Musée

Carnavalet

T / Thompson 1946, p. 94 ; De Crauzat

1926

34 Trial of Corder

- /

XIXth

century

Moyse's

Hall

Museum,

Bury St

HN / Gatrell 1996, p. 258 ; Thompson

1968, p. 128 ; Blumenthal 1969, p. 83

; Egar 1873, p. 292

Edmunds

(Suffolk,

UK)

35 La vie de

Caserne -

Courteline

XIXth

century

Unknown T / De Crauzat 1926

36 Speculations

on the Mode

and

Appearances of

Impregnation

in the Human

Female - R.

Couper

XIXth

century

Philadelphi

a College

Physicians,

Mütter

Museum,

USA

HN / De Crauzat 1926 ; Marvin 1994 ;

Thompson 1968, p. 142-143 ; Guelle

2002, p. 86

37 Le bien que

l'on dit des

femmes - E.

Deschanel

XIXth

century

Unknown T / De Crauzat 1926

38 Poésies

d’Anacréon -

E. Deschanel

XIXth

century

Unknown T / De Crauzat 1926 ; Anonyme 1913

39 Les Décrétales XIIIth

century

BNF,

Paris,

France

T / De Crauzat 1926 ; Thompson 1968,

p. 122

40 Die knöcherne

Hand (and 11

other volumes

unnamed)

XXth

century

On display

on the

shop Reuss

& Pollack

in Berlin in

1913

T / Thompson 1968, p. 131

41 Le neveu de

Rameau - D.

Diderot

XIXth

century

Unknown T / De Crauzat 1926

42 De

conceptione

adversaria.

Disce, homo,

de tenui

constructus

pulvere, quae

te edidit in

luncem

conditione

Deus. Ed.

altera. - C.

Drelincourt

XIXth

century

Philadelphi

a College

Physicians,

USA

/ Thompson 1968, p. 142-143 ; Gordon

2016 ; * Guelle 2002, p. 87

43 Les trois

Mousquetaires

- A. Dumas

XXth

century

Unknown T / Dr. Legrain interview in Mercure de

France CXLI 1920, numéro 831

44 Terres du Ciel

- C.

Flammarion

XIXth

century

In 1924,

the book

used to be

at the

Bibliothèq

/ Thompson 1968, p. 144 ; Blumenthal

[1955] (1969), p. 122

ue De

Juvisy,

France

45 Sahara et

Sahel : Un été

dans le

Sahara, une

année dans le

Sahel - E.

Fromentin

XIXth

century

Unknown T / De Crauzat 1926

46 A True and

Perfect

Relation of The

Whole

Proceedings

against the

Late most

barbarous

Traitors,

Garnet a Jesuit

and his

Confederats -

Anonymous

XVIIth

century

Private

Collection

HN / Personnal communication of M.

Gibson (Wilkinsons Auctioneers) to

the author.

47 Comédie de la

Mort - T.

Gautier

XXth

century

Unknown T / Legrain 1920

48 Practicarum

quaestionum

circa leges

regias

Hispaniae - J.

Gutiérrez

XVIIth

century

Harvard

University

Art

Museums’

Straus

Center

(PMF led

by Dr.

Kirby)

Negati

result

Thompson 1946

49 / - Anonymous

2 volumes

XIXth

century

Marlborou

gh House

(Methley,

Yorkshire,

UK)

/ / Marvin 1994 ; Hurren 2013, p. 303

50 / - Anonymous XIXth

century

Bristol

Record

Office

Anthropodermic Bibliopegy: an Extensive Survey and Re-appraisal of the Phenomenon

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