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Individualized Training Based on Force–Velocity Profiling During Jumping in Ballet Dancers
Abstract
Purpose:
Ballet dancers are required to achieve performance feats such as exciting and dramatic elevations. Dancers with a greater jump height can perform a wider range of skills during their flight time and implement more specific technical skills related to the aesthetic components of a dance choreography. New findings suggest the relationship between force and velocity mechanical capabilities (F-V profile) as an important variable for jumping performance. A new field method based on several series of loaded vertical jumps provides information on the theoretical maximal force, theoretical maximal velocity, theoretical maximal power, and the imbalance between force and velocity (F-VIMB). The purpose of this study was to observe the effects of 9 wk of individualized F-V profile-based training during countermovement jumps (CMJs) in female ballet dancers.
Methods:
CMJ and mechanical outputs of 46 dancers (age = 18.9 [1.1] y, body mass = 54.8 [6.1] kg, height = 163.7 [8.4] cm) were estimated in a pre-post intervention. The control group (10 participants) continued with the standardized training regimen (no resistance training), whereas the experimental group (36 participants) performed 2 sessions over 9 wk of a training plan based on their F-V profile.
Results:
The experimental group presented significant differences with large effect sizes in CMJ height (29.3 [3.2] cm vs 33.5 [3.72] cm), theoretical maximal force (24.1 [2.2] N/kg vs 29.9 [2.8] N/kg), and theoretical maximal velocity (4 [0.6] m/s vs 3.2 [0.5] m/s). Significant differences with a very large effect size were found in F-VIMB (43.8% [15.3%] vs 24.9% [8.7%]).
Conclusion:
A training program addressing F-VIMB is an effective way to improve CMJ height in female ballet dancers.
... 11 The implementation of training principles (ie, periodization and progressive overload) would also benefit dancers' health and wellbeing. 11,12 Different methods of training, such as plyometrics (PT), 2 whole-body vibration, [13][14][15][16] traditional strength training, 2,13 and individualized training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping, 17 have reported a positive effect on jumping ability in elite ballet and modern dancers. 18,19 However, most of the studies have been conducted with female participants. ...
... Similar results can be seen in the dance science literature 13,14,16 and may be related to the insufficient number of supplementary training sessions provided for dancers, 2,6-9 especially female participants. 31 Similarly, an analysis of the force-velocity profile during jumping, conducted by Escobar et al, 17 found that female dancers have a force deficit. This analysis of the mechanical variables during jumping suggests that dance training develops an insufficient amount of force to reach the optimal performance in CMJ. 17 On the other hand, our results also support the findings reported by Brown et al, 2 reporting PT as an effective methodology to improve vertical jump height in female collegiate dancers. ...
... This analysis of the mechanical variables during jumping suggests that dance training develops an insufficient amount of force to reach the optimal performance in CMJ. 17 On the other hand, our results also support the findings reported by Brown et al, 2 reporting PT as an effective methodology to improve vertical jump height in female collegiate dancers. The involvement of the lower limbs in quick eccentric and concentric actions enhances the capacity to use the stored energy in the muscle tendons. ...
Dancers require many specific dance skills of a ballistic nature. The design of supplementary training to improve the strength of the lower limbs and jump height is a relevant area of research. The purpose of this study was (1) to compare the effect of plyometric training versus combined training on countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and sauté in first position (sauté) height and (2) to observe whether changes in CMJ and SJ were associated with changes in sauté in female and male dancers. Eighty-one classical professional ballet dancers (41 women and 40 men, age = 22.9 [3.7] y, body mass = 59.7 [8.6] kg, height = 167.4 [7.3] cm) were divided into a control group and 2 experimental groups: plyometric training and combined training. All groups followed their common routine of training regarding classes and rehearsal practice, whereas the experimental groups added 2 sessions (1 h per session) for 9 weeks of supplementary training. Significant increases (medium to large effect size) in CMJ, SJ, and sauté height were found in the pretest versus posttest comparisons for both experimental groups. Significant, very large correlations were found between the magnitude of improvement in sauté and the magnitude of improvement in CMJ and SJ. Plyometric and combined training programs are effective ways to improve jumping ability in professional dancers. The improvement in CMJ and SJ has a good transference on sauté`performance. These findings support the use of traditional training methods to improve jump height in specific and nonspecific ballet jumping ability.
... When the mean and standard deviation of the change of scores or correlation values were not presented in the studies, the change of scores of the conditioning and control groups were calculated by a formula used in Yagiz et al. (2022) and applied a conservative estimate of correlation value 0.7 to the formula. Effect sizes were considered as small (0.2), medium (0.5) or large (0.8) (Brydges, 2019), and were considered statistically significant at a p value of <0.05. A random effect model for continuous data, inverse variance, and a 95% CI were used in the meta-analysis. ...
... 411 participants (223 conditioning vs. 188 control, SupplementaryFigure S1) in lower body power(Angioi et al., 2012;Annino et al., 2007;Brown et al., 2007;Escobar Álvarez et al., 2020Escobar Álvarez et al., , 2022Grigoletto et al., 2020;Karim et al., 2019; Marshall & Wyon, 2012; Sanders et al., 2020; Stošić et al., 2019; Wyon et al., 2010), (2) 52 participants (28 conditioning vs. 24 control, Supplementary Figure S2) in upper body strength (Koutedakis et al., 1996; Sanders et al., 2020; Vetter & Dorgo, 2009), (3) 61 participants (31 conditioning vs. 30 control, Supplementary Figure S3) in lower body strength (Brown et al., 2007; Sanders et al., 2020; Vetter & Dorgo, 2009), and (4) 77 participants (42 conditioning vs. 35 control, Supplementary Figure S4) in flexibility ...
... . The main findings in this meta-analysis showed large effects on improving lower body power (g = 0.90), upper body strength (g = 0.98), lower body strength (g = 1.59), and flexibility (g = 0.86) when applying conditioning interventions to dance populations, suggesting SC provided beneficial effects toward the physical parameters assessed.Training modalities reported from these studies included resistance training(Brown et al., 2007;Escobar Álvarez et al., 2020;Grigoletto et al., 2020;Koutedakis et al., 1996;Sanders et al., 2020;Stalder et al., 1990;Stošić et al., 2019;Vetter & Dorgo, 2009), plyometric training (Brown et al., 2007Escobar-Álvarez et al., 2022;Skopal et al., 2020), whole body vibration(Annino et al., 2007;Karim et al., 2019;Marshall & Wyon, 2012;Wyon et al., 2010), and combined training(Angioi et al., 2012;Koutedakis et al., 2007). ...
To assess the evidence for the effect of strength and conditioning on physical qualities and aesthetic competence in dance populations, three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus) were searched (until September 2022) for studies that met the following criteria: (i) dancers aged >16 years; (ii) structured strength and conditioning intervention; and (iii) with physical qualities and aesthetic competence as outcome measures. Methodological quality and risk of bias of the included studies were assessed through the systematic review tool “QualSyst”. Meta‐analyses of effect sizes (Hedges' g) with forest plots explored the effects of the strength and conditioning interventions. Thirty‐six studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. Meta‐analysis indicated strength and conditioning significantly (p < 0.05) improved lower body power (g = 0.90, 95% CI: 0.53–1.27), upper body strength (g = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.39–1.57), lower body strength (g = 1.59, 95% CI: 0.97–2.22), and flexibility (g = 0.86, 95% CI: 0.05–1.66). Strength and conditioning interventions were found to be effective at improving physical qualities in dancers, recommending their participation in additional sessions to enhance overall fitness and ultimately dance performance. It is recommended that future strength and conditioning intervention research should include sample size calculations, with participants recruited from a specific dance genre and skill level in order to evaluate how strength and conditioning influences dance performance.
... For example, a lower limb resistance training program may be implemented to reduce the risk of injury in a dancer, 46 yet it may result in a dancer's vertical jump increasing which may expose them to greater landing forces more frequently. 159,160 It is important, therefore, that resistance training programs are implemented alongside appropriate technical training to ensure that physiological adaptations are integrated alongside desired landing biomechanics. In the absence of specialist equipment to directly measure neurological, hormonal, and morphological adaptations to resistance training, it is feasible to use maximum strength as a proxy for such adaptations. ...
... force (~22-24 N·kg -1 ) during a countermovement jump 160,241 and mean power during a Bosco repeated jump test (18 W·kg-1) 235 were reported in professional ballet dancers. Perry et al. 242 reported peak vertical ground reaction force (vGRF), mean rate of force development (RFD), peak ankle joint moment, and peak power during takeoff of a horizontal and vertical unilateral ballet-specific jump, demonstrating higher values during the horizontal take-off (Cohen's d >0.80). ...
... m·s -1 during CMJs in two articles. 160 ...
Jumping and landing activities are the most common mechanism of injury in professional ballet dancers. There is limited evidence, however, that has elucidated the moderators of load experienced when jumping and landing in ballet. This thesis aimed to describe injury epidemiology, establish reliable methods of assessing strength and jumping, and explore the factors that may influence lower extremity load during jump landings in professional ballet dancers.
A five-year injury epidemiology study revealed an incidence of medical attention and time-loss injuries of ~3–4 and ~1 per 1000 h of exposure, respectively. The mechanism of injury was jumping and landing activities in ~30–40% of time loss injuries. A systematic review found limited evidence that ballet dancers demonstrate externally rotated lower extremities, extended lower extremities prior to landing, and ankle-dominant jumping strategies.
Two methodological studies established the within- and between-session reliability of vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) across several maximal isometric force tests and three-dimensional ankle mechanics during landing in turnout and parallel foot positions. The reliability of vGRF during maximal isometric force tests across the squat, standing plantarflexion, and seated plantarflexion positions demonstrated excellent reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC): 0.92–1.00) and low variability (coefficient of variation (CV): 2.0–6.5%). Three-dimensional ankle mechanics demonstrated within- (ICC: 0.17–0.96; CV: 1.4¬–82.3%) and between-session (ICC: 0.02–0.98; CV:1.3–57.1%) reliability ranging from poor to excellent, with, ankle excursion, peak ankle angle, and jump height demonstrating the greatest ICC values (ICC: 0.65–0.96; CV: 1.4–57%).
The final two studies investigated jump landings in professional ballet dancers. A linear discriminate analysis revealed that three-dimensional ankle mechanics could discriminate different ballet foot positions, such that jump landings in fourth and fifth positions required a greater range of motion and ankle joint power when compared to other foot positions. Lastly, two linear mixed-effects models indicated that peak ankle joint moments and vGRFs have poor associations with strength, ankle dorsiflexion range of motion, and three-dimensional ankle excursions (R2: 0.01–0.02). Sex, foot position, and individual variation are more appropriate factors to consider when assessing the load experienced at a joint or system level.
This thesis provides a thorough insight into injury, strength, and jumping in professional ballet dancers. To that end, this thesis has identified burdensome injuries and their mechanisms in professional ballet dancers alongside practical and reliable strategies to measure the physical attributes that may moderate the load experienced by a dancer upon landing.
... Regarding the evaluation procedures, the Force-Velocity (F-V) profile, representing the optimal balance between force and velocity qualities [20,21], has been considered a relevant parameter for jumping skill assessment [7,22], as well as to maximize the individual ballistic performance. Due to its ballistic/mechanical characteristics, the CMJ is the exercise generally used to evaluate the power output of the lower limbs, as well as the F-V relationship, allowing to obtain the relationship between force, velocity and power. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, one study used MyJump2 app to measure the jumping performance and its variables in RG through the F-V profile [7], while no studies used this instrument in ACRO. The closest activity to gymnastics using MyJump2 app was ballet [22,26], indicating that this new field method based on several series of loaded vertical jumps provides information on the F-V profile mechanical variables [22], thus personalizing the results to the characteristics of individual athletes or dancers [26]. In RG, other instruments were also used: two studies used a force platform [18], while one also used the Chronojump system [15]. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, one study used MyJump2 app to measure the jumping performance and its variables in RG through the F-V profile [7], while no studies used this instrument in ACRO. The closest activity to gymnastics using MyJump2 app was ballet [22,26], indicating that this new field method based on several series of loaded vertical jumps provides information on the F-V profile mechanical variables [22], thus personalizing the results to the characteristics of individual athletes or dancers [26]. In RG, other instruments were also used: two studies used a force platform [18], while one also used the Chronojump system [15]. ...
An increased jumping performance is key for gymnastics competition routines. Rhythmic gymnasts (RGs) use the jump as one of the main body elements. In Acrobatic Gymnastics (ACRO), top gymnasts must coordinate their jumps with the impulse provided by base gymnast(s). It is expected that the gymnasts' discipline and role played impact their jumping skill. This work aims to investigate how the jumping performance differs between ACRO gymnasts and RGs, focusing on the Force-Velocity (F-V) profile mechanical variables. Gymnasts were divided in three groups: ACRO tops (n = 10, 13.89 (3.62) median (interquartile interval) years old), ACRO bases (n = 18, 18.24 (4.41) years old) and RGs (n = 15, 12.00 (3.00) years old). The F-V profile during countermove-ment jump and its mechanical variables were evaluated using MyJump2. A training background survey and anthropometric assessments were conducted. The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Group comparisons showed that ACRO bases jump higher than ACRO tops and RGs, present a higher maximal force than RGs and a more balanced F-V profile, while RGs present high force deficits. Coaches can use this data to develop interventions that optimize the training stimulus to different gymnastics disciplines considering the individual characteristics and adaptability of each gymnast.
... In practice, athletes with a "force-oriented profile" (i.e., velocity deficit) are commonly prescribed training with a focus on high-velocity exercises, whereas athletes with "velocity-oriented profiles" (i.e., force deficit) get prescribed high-force exercises. Athletes with a "well-balanced" profile, then get training prescriptions with a balanced combination of both high-force and highvelocity training [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] . When training according to the FV profiles, the subjects get "individualized" training based on a performance test. ...
... When training according to the FV profiles, the subjects get "individualized" training based on a performance test. The performance test that determines which form of training is "optimal" is a "black box" for the participants, which makes it a perfect setup to investigate the placebo effect (i.e., participants can easily be randomized and told they get optimal or control training without knowing which is actually "optimal") [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] . Therefore, in practice, two participants can be doing the exact same workouts, but it is "optimal" for one subject and "non-optimal" for another. ...
... Therefore, in practice, two participants can be doing the exact same workouts, but it is "optimal" for one subject and "non-optimal" for another. The concept is found to be highly effective in some studies, while other studies have yielded different findings [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] . ...
Little is known about the placebo effects when comparing training interventions. Consequently, we investigated whether subjects being told they are in the intervention group get better training results compared to subjects being told they are in a control group. Forty athletes (male: n = 31, female: n = 9) completed a 10-week training intervention (age: 22 ± 4 years, height: 183 ± 10 cm, and body mass: 84 ± 15 kg). After randomization, the participants were either told that the training program they got was individualized based on their force-velocity profile (Placebo), or that they were in the control group (Control). However, both groups were doing the same workouts. Measurements included countermovement jump (CMJ), 20-m sprint, one-repetition maximum (1RM) back-squat, a leg-press test, ultrasonography of muscle-thickness (m. rectus femoris), and a questionnaire (Stanford Expectations of Treatment Scale) (Younger et al. in Clin Trials 9(6):767-776, 2012). Placebo increased 1RM squat more than Control (5.7 ± 6.4% vs 0.9 ± 6.9%, [0.26 vs 0.02 Effect Size], Bayes Factor: 5.1 [BF 10 ], p = 0.025). Placebo had slightly higher adherence compared to control (82 ± 18% vs 72 ± 13%, BF 10 : 2.0, p = 0.08). Importantly, the difference in the 1RM squat was significant after controlling for adherence (p = 0.013). No significant differences were observed in the other measurements. The results suggest that the placebo effect may be meaningful in sports and exercise training interventions. It is possible that ineffective training interventions will go unquestioned in the absence of placebo-controlled trials.
... Such training processes can simultaneously amplify power capacities, but also increase the F-v profile imbalance (F-vIMB ), which all together may result in invariant or even decreased vertical jump perfor-mance (Jimenez-Reyes, Samozino, Brughelli, & Morin, 2017). In contrast, studies examining the impact of training programs targeting the development of deficient component of the mechanical F-v profile of the vertical jump performance show the constancy of positive effects (Escobar-Alvarez, Fuentes-Garcia, Da Conceicao, & Jimenez-Reyes, 2020;Jimenez-Reyes, et al., 2017Simpson, Waldron, Cushion, & Tallent, 2021). ...
... In the velocity group, trivial changes in the height of these types of jumps took place parallel with trivial changes in the ratio of current and optimal F-v profile. Such data are consistent with previous research and support the hypothesis of the effectiveness of training targeting the deficient component of the F-v profile (Escobar-Alvarez, et al., 2020;Jimenez-Reyes, et al., 2017Simpson, et al., 2021). ...
... is fully in line with the research conducted so far (Escobar-Alvarez, et al., 2020;Jimenez-Reyes, et al., 2017. It is extremely important to point out that in ours and the research by Jimenez-Reyes et al. (2017) all subjects of the group that participated in training intervention targeting force development had a beneficial effect on the change in SJ height. ...
A detailed review of literature revealed that there is no study of the influence of different types of loads on the performance of a bilateral vertical jump examined on subjects of the same type of F-v profile. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of two different load-types on the squat-jump performance in force-deficient subjects. During the seven-week training program, the 15 participants of force group performed a half back squat with a load of 80-85% 1RM, while the 15 participants of velocity group performed squat jumps with an unloading of 25% of body weight during the same period of time. The force group significantly improved height of the squat jump (+12.43 ± 6.98%; p <0.001), with a large effect (ES = 1.92 ± 0.72), while in the velocity group were recorded non-significant change (+2.02 ± 5.92%; p = 0.26), with a small effect (ES = 0.30 ± 0.60). These results in the force group were accompanied by a significant optimization of the F-v profile (+31.53 ± 34.91%; p = 0.003), with the attribute of large effect (ES = 1.10 ± 0.65), and the velocity group again recorded non-significant change (-2.20 ± 34.34%; p = 0.70), with a trivial effect (ES = -0.13 ± 0.60). The results of the force group support the hypothesis of the effectiveness of a training program aimed at developing a deficient component of the F-v profile.
... 11 The implementation of training principles (ie, periodization and progressive overload) would also benefit dancers' health and wellbeing. 11,12 Different methods of training, such as plyometrics (PT), 2 whole-body vibration, [13][14][15][16] traditional strength training, 2,13 and individualized training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping, 17 have reported a positive effect on jumping ability in elite ballet and modern dancers. 18,19 However, most of the studies have been conducted with female participants. ...
... Similar results can be seen in the dance science literature 13,14,16 and may be related to the insufficient number of supplementary training sessions provided for dancers, 2,6-9 especially female participants. 31 Similarly, an analysis of the force-velocity profile during jumping, conducted by Escobar et al, 17 found that female dancers have a force deficit. This analysis of the mechanical variables during jumping suggests that dance training develops an insufficient amount of force to reach the optimal performance in CMJ. 17 On the other hand, our results also support the findings reported by Brown et al, 2 reporting PT as an effective methodology to improve vertical jump height in female collegiate dancers. ...
... This analysis of the mechanical variables during jumping suggests that dance training develops an insufficient amount of force to reach the optimal performance in CMJ. 17 On the other hand, our results also support the findings reported by Brown et al, 2 reporting PT as an effective methodology to improve vertical jump height in female collegiate dancers. The involvement of the lower limbs in quick eccentric and concentric actions enhances the capacity to use the stored energy in the muscle tendons. ...
Dancers require many specific dance skills of a ballistic nature. The design of supplementary training to improve the strength of the lower limbs and jump height is a relevant area of research. The purpose of this study was (1) to compare the effect of plyometric training versus combined training on countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and sauté in first position (sauté) height and (2) to observe whether changes in CMJ and SJ were associated with changes in sauté in female and male dancers. Eighty-one classical professional ballet dancers (41 women and 40 men, age = 22.9 [3.7] y, body mass = 59.7 [8.6] kg, height = 167.4 [7.3] cm) were divided into a control group and 2 experimental groups: plyometric training and combined training. All groups followed their common routine of training regarding classes and rehearsal practice, whereas the experimental groups added 2 sessions (1 h per session) for 9 weeks of supplementary training. Significant increases (medium to large effect size) in CMJ, SJ, and sauté height were found in the pretest versus posttest comparisons for both experimental groups. Significant, very large correlations were found between the magnitude of improvement in sauté and the magnitude of improvement in CMJ and SJ. Plyometric and combined training programs are effective ways to improve jumping ability in professional dancers. The improvement in CMJ and SJ has a good transference on sauté `performance. These findings support the use of traditional training methods to improve jump height in specific and nonspecific ballet jumping ability.
... Some studies observed the effect of training programs to improve jumping performance, either in dancers or in rhythmic gymnastics, which is the gymnastics discipline more equivalent to dance (Wang et al., 2010;Piazza et al., 2014;Komeroski et al., 2016;Mlsnová and Luptáková, 2017;Tsanaka et al., 2017;Dobrijević et al., 2018;Skopal et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020). Focusing on dance, previous studies have applied for a specific strength training program, for 9 weeks, based on and adjusted according to the force-velocity profile of each dancer (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019); evaluated whether a 9week resistance training program could have a significant effect on the strength and power of the lower limbs in adolescent dancers (Dowse et al., 2020); applied, for 10 weeks, a modern and recreational dance exercise program and trunk and leg muscle strengthening exercises in university dance students (Stošić et al., 2020) and used their ballet classes, modified with a focus on lower-limb strength (reduction in bar duration (from 45 to 20 ) and the petit and grand allegro exercises at the beginning of center work, for 8 weeks, as an intervention to analyze jumping ability (Tsanaka et al., 2017). Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. ...
... Focusing on dance, previous studies have applied for a specific strength training program, for 9 weeks, based on and adjusted according to the force-velocity profile of each dancer (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019); evaluated whether a 9week resistance training program could have a significant effect on the strength and power of the lower limbs in adolescent dancers (Dowse et al., 2020); applied, for 10 weeks, a modern and recreational dance exercise program and trunk and leg muscle strengthening exercises in university dance students (Stošić et al., 2020) and used their ballet classes, modified with a focus on lower-limb strength (reduction in bar duration (from 45 to 20 ) and the petit and grand allegro exercises at the beginning of center work, for 8 weeks, as an intervention to analyze jumping ability (Tsanaka et al., 2017). Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. Concerning the instrument, two studies have used MyJump2 with ballet dancers, but only one conducted an intervention (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019;Alvarez et al., 2020). ...
... Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. Concerning the instrument, two studies have used MyJump2 with ballet dancers, but only one conducted an intervention (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019;Alvarez et al., 2020). These findings of the authors suggest that the experimental group presented significant differences with large effect sizes (ESs) in CMJ height and other jumping performance variables, namely, the theoretical maximal force (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019). ...
The incidence and recurrence of hamstrings injuries are very high in sports, posing
elevated performance and financial-related costs. Attempts to identify the risk factors
involved in predicting vulnerability to hamstrings injury is important for designing
exercise-based programs that aim to mitigate the rate and severity of hamstrings injuries
and improve rehabilitation strategies. However, research has shown that non-modifiable
risk factors may play a greater role than modifiable risk factors. Recognizing nonmodifiable risk factors and understanding their implications will afford the prescription
of better suited exercise programs, i.e., that are more respectful of the individual
characteristics. In a nutshell, non-modifiable risk factors can still be acted upon, even
if indirectly. In this context, an underexplored topic is how intra and inter- individual
anatomic and physiologic variations in hamstrings (e.g., muscle bellies, fiber types,
tendon length, aponeurosis width, attachment sites, sex- and age-related differences)
concur to alter hamstrings injuries risk. Some anatomic and physiologic variations
may be modifiable through exercise interventions (e.g., cross-sectional area), while
others may not (e.g., supernumerary muscle bellies). This apparent dichotomy may
hide a greater complexity, i.e., there may be risk factors that are partially modifiable.
Therefore, we explored the available information on the anatomic variations of the
hamstrings, providing a deeper insight into the individual risk factors for hamstrings
injuries and contributing with better knowledge and potential applications toward a more
individualized exercise prescription.
... Some studies observed the effect of training programs to improve jumping performance, either in dancers or in rhythmic gymnastics, which is the gymnastics discipline more equivalent to dance (Wang et al., 2010;Piazza et al., 2014;Komeroski et al., 2016;Mlsnová and Luptáková, 2017;Tsanaka et al., 2017;Dobrijević et al., 2018;Skopal et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020). Focusing on dance, previous studies have applied for a specific strength training program, for 9 weeks, based on and adjusted according to the force-velocity profile of each dancer (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019); evaluated whether a 9week resistance training program could have a significant effect on the strength and power of the lower limbs in adolescent dancers (Dowse et al., 2020); applied, for 10 weeks, a modern and recreational dance exercise program and trunk and leg muscle strengthening exercises in university dance students (Stošić et al., 2020) and used their ballet classes, modified with a focus on lower-limb strength (reduction in bar duration (from 45 to 20 ) and the petit and grand allegro exercises at the beginning of center work, for 8 weeks, as an intervention to analyze jumping ability (Tsanaka et al., 2017). Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. ...
... Focusing on dance, previous studies have applied for a specific strength training program, for 9 weeks, based on and adjusted according to the force-velocity profile of each dancer (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019); evaluated whether a 9week resistance training program could have a significant effect on the strength and power of the lower limbs in adolescent dancers (Dowse et al., 2020); applied, for 10 weeks, a modern and recreational dance exercise program and trunk and leg muscle strengthening exercises in university dance students (Stošić et al., 2020) and used their ballet classes, modified with a focus on lower-limb strength (reduction in bar duration (from 45 to 20 ) and the petit and grand allegro exercises at the beginning of center work, for 8 weeks, as an intervention to analyze jumping ability (Tsanaka et al., 2017). Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. Concerning the instrument, two studies have used MyJump2 with ballet dancers, but only one conducted an intervention (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019;Alvarez et al., 2020). ...
... Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. Concerning the instrument, two studies have used MyJump2 with ballet dancers, but only one conducted an intervention (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019;Alvarez et al., 2020). These findings of the authors suggest that the experimental group presented significant differences with large effect sizes (ESs) in CMJ height and other jumping performance variables, namely, the theoretical maximal force (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019). ...
Background: Post-exercise (i.e., cool-down) stretching is commonly prescribed for
improving recovery of strength and range of motion (ROM) and diminishing delayed
onset muscular soreness (DOMS) after physical exertion. However, the question remains
if post-exercise stretching is better for recovery than other post-exercise modalities.
Objective: To provide a systematic review and meta-analysis of supervised
randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) on the effects of post-exercise stretching on
short-term (≤1 h after exercise) and delayed (e.g., ≥24 h) recovery makers (i.e., DOMS,
strength, ROM) in comparison with passive recovery or alternative recovery methods
(e.g., low-intensity cycling).
Methods: This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO
CRD42020222091). RCTs published in any language or date were eligible, according
to P.I.C.O.S. criteria. Searches were performed in eight databases. Risk of bias
was assessed using Cochrane RoB 2. Meta-analyses used the inverse variance
random-effects model. GRADE was used to assess the methodological quality of
the studies.
Results: From 17,050 records retrieved, 11 RCTs were included for qualitative
analyses and 10 for meta-analysis (n = 229 participants; 17–38 years, mostly males).
The exercise protocols varied between studies (e.g., cycling, strength training).
Post-exercise stretching included static stretching, passive stretching, and
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. Passive recovery (i.e., rest) was used as
comparator in eight studies, with additional recovery protocols including low intensity
cycling or running, massage, and cold-water immersion. Risk of bias was high in
∼70% of the studies. Between-group comparisons showed no effect of post-exercise
stretching on strength recovery (ES = −0.08; 95% CI = −0.54–0.39; p = 0.750;
I2 = 0.0%; Egger’s test p = 0.531) when compared to passive recovery. In addition, no
effect of post-exercise stretching on 24, 48, or 72-h post-exercise DOMS was noted
when compared to passive recovery (ES = −0.09 to −0.24; 95% CI = −0.70–0.28;
p = 0.187–629; I2 = 0.0%; Egger’s test p = 0.165–0.880).
Conclusion: There wasn’t sufficient statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis
that stretching and passive recovery have equivalent influence on recovery. Data is
scarce, heterogeneous, and confidence in cumulative evidence is very low. Future
research should address the limitations highlighted in our review, to allow for more
informed recommendations. For now, evidence-based recommendations on whether
post-exercise stretching should be applied for the purposes of recovery should be
avoided, as the (insufficient) data that is available does not support related claims.
Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO, identifier: CRD42020222091.
... Players performed a standardized warm-up: 20min jogging, dynamic stretching, range of movement exercises and preparatory CMJs. The F-V profile variables were measured with a field test based on 3 maximal vertical CMJs (highest score was selected for the analysis), using an Olympic barbell with the loads corresponding to 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 70% of their own body mass (2 minutes' recovery between jumps, and 4 minutes between loads) (Escobar Álvarez et al., 2019;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019;Jiménez-Reyes, Samozino, Pareja-Blanco, et al., 2017;Samozino et al., 2014;Samozino, Morin, Hintzy, & Belli, 2008;Samozino et al., 2012). CMJ height and the mechanical variables for the F-V profile (F 0 , V 0 and P max) were measured using My Jump 2 on an iPhone device (iPhone 7; Apple, Cupertino, CA, USA) (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2015). ...
... Athletes with a wellbalanced profile are something really uncommon (Jiménez-Reyes, Samozino, Brughelli, et al., 2017;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019). According to our results, Netball players must develop F0 while reducing the F-VIMB to improve CMJ however, due to the differences on the magnitude of their F-V deficit different training plans must be designed for them (Escobar Álvarez et al., 2019;Jiménez-Reyes, Samozino, Brughelli, et al., 2017;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019). ...
... Therefore, we recommend specific and individualized training based on force-velocity profiling for the improvement of strength capabilities to enhance netball actions based on jumping and sprinting. Previous studies have designed training plans aimed to improve the F0 and reduce the F-VIMB in jumping (Escobar Álvarez et al., 2019;Jiménez-Reyes, Samozino, Brughelli, et al., 2017;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019) and also improve the application of F0 and Pmax using horizontal resisted training (Cross et al., 2018 To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation observing the relationship between CMJ and sprint performance (20m) in netball players, in addition to the mechanical outputs of the vertical and horizontal FVP profile. This study might be useful for strength and conditioning coaches and practitioners, due to the use of approachable and low-cost methods (My jump 2 and My Sprint) for monitoring and assessing athletes. ...
Netball is a collective sport characterized by intermittent high-intensity actions. Therefore, the players must develop high levels of relative bilateral and unilateral strength and power for both improve performance and also reduce injury risk. The purpose of this study was (i) to provide a reference about the mechanical outputs obtained in the vertical (jumping) and horizontal force-velocity-power (FVP) profile and (ii) observe their relationship, besides the performance in jumping and sprinting in amateur female netball players (age = 24.3 +/- 3.2 years, BM = 64.5 +/- 5 Kg, height = 172.5 +/- 6.2 cm). The variables for both FVP profiles (theoretical maximal force (F-0), theoretical maximal velocity (V-0) and theoretical maximal power output (P-max)) were measured with two scientifically validated apps for iOS (My Jump 2 and My Sprint). Our results in regards to the vertical FVP suggest that netball players have low force deficit (36.2 +/- 14.6%) and individualized training based on F-V profiling could be beneficial to address their deficit. The moderate correlations found for performance, V-0 and P-max suggest that the improvement in one of the skills (jumping or sprinting) may produce some positive adaptation to the other. However, no association was found in the force production (F-0) of the lower limbs for both FVP. Therefore, we recommend that netball players must train specifically ballistic actions in the vertical (jumping) and horizontal direction (sprinting) due to the specificity of both skills and the consequent impact of them on netball performance.
... Some studies observed the effect of training programs to improve jumping performance, either in dancers or in rhythmic gymnastics, which is the gymnastics discipline more equivalent to dance (Wang et al., 2010;Piazza et al., 2014;Komeroski et al., 2016;Mlsnová and Luptáková, 2017;Tsanaka et al., 2017;Dobrijević et al., 2018;Skopal et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020). Focusing on dance, previous studies have applied for a specific strength training program, for 9 weeks, based on and adjusted according to the force-velocity profile of each dancer (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019); evaluated whether a 9week resistance training program could have a significant effect on the strength and power of the lower limbs in adolescent dancers (Dowse et al., 2020); applied, for 10 weeks, a modern and recreational dance exercise program and trunk and leg muscle strengthening exercises in university dance students (Stošić et al., 2020) and used their ballet classes, modified with a focus on lower-limb strength (reduction in bar duration (from 45 to 20 ) and the petit and grand allegro exercises at the beginning of center work, for 8 weeks, as an intervention to analyze jumping ability (Tsanaka et al., 2017). Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. ...
... Focusing on dance, previous studies have applied for a specific strength training program, for 9 weeks, based on and adjusted according to the force-velocity profile of each dancer (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019); evaluated whether a 9week resistance training program could have a significant effect on the strength and power of the lower limbs in adolescent dancers (Dowse et al., 2020); applied, for 10 weeks, a modern and recreational dance exercise program and trunk and leg muscle strengthening exercises in university dance students (Stošić et al., 2020) and used their ballet classes, modified with a focus on lower-limb strength (reduction in bar duration (from 45 to 20 ) and the petit and grand allegro exercises at the beginning of center work, for 8 weeks, as an intervention to analyze jumping ability (Tsanaka et al., 2017). Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. Concerning the instrument, two studies have used MyJump2 with ballet dancers, but only one conducted an intervention (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019;Alvarez et al., 2020). ...
... Regarding the results about the jump height, four studies (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) obtained positive results with significant differences, i.e., the applied training promoted improvements in the vertical jump height of the dancer. Concerning the instrument, two studies have used MyJump2 with ballet dancers, but only one conducted an intervention (Escobar- Alvarez et al., 2019;Alvarez et al., 2020). These findings of the authors suggest that the experimental group presented significant differences with large effect sizes (ESs) in CMJ height and other jumping performance variables, namely, the theoretical maximal force (Escobar-Alvarez et al., 2019). ...
Jumping ability is considered a determinant of performance success. It is identified as one of the predictors and talent identification in many sports and dance. This study aimed to investigate the effect of 16 weeks of lower-limb strength training on the jumping performance of ballet dancers. A total of 24 participants from the same dance school were randomly selected in the control group [CG; n = 10; aged 13.00 (1.49) years; 43.09 (9.48) kg and 1.53 (0.11) m] and the intervention group [IG; n = 14; aged 12.43 (1.45) years; 38.21 (4.38) kg and 1.51 (0.07) m], evaluated before and after the applied strength training program mainly using the body weight of each participant. Jump performance was assessed using MyJump2, a scientifically validated mobile phone app. Intergroup and intragroup comparisons were assessed, and the magnitude of change was calculated using the effect size (ES). While CG significantly decreased the relative power over time (p < 0.001, ES = −0.29: small), results from the intragroup comparisons suggest that IG significantly increased the countermovement jump (CMJ) height (p < 0.001, ES = 1.21: large), the relative force (p < 0.001, ES = 0.86: moderate), maximal velocity (p < 0.001, ES = 1.15: moderate), and relative power (p < 0.001, ES = 1.37: large). We concluded that a 16-week strength training program of lower limbs is an effective way to improve CMJ height in young dancers. Supplementary strength training appears to be the determinant for the improvement of the jumping performance of ballet dancers.
... Ballistic actions such as the countermovement jump (CMJ) embody many of the neuromuscular and mechanical qualities demonstrated in lower-limb sport-specific movements (6,55) and therefore are frequently used by sports scientists to profile the force-velocity relationship (10,12,13,18,19,(25)(26)(27)45,46). The force-velocity relationships established within a CMJ profile describe changes to external force and power production at increasing movement velocities (48) while also identifying the underlying neuromuscular and biomechanical factors contributing to jump performance. ...
... In a laboratory setting, vertical jump kinetics are measured from ground reaction force using in-ground or portable force plates while the center of mass velocity is derived from ground reaction force-time data through a forward dynamics approach (11). However, methods for measuring force, velocity, and power during jumping actions using limited technology and basic anthropometric measures have recently gained greater prevalence in biomechanics and sports science because of the simple approach to obtaining mechanical data (12,26,27,34,57). ...
... A simple method to determine vertical force-velocity profiles has previously been proposed by Samozino et al. (2008), hereinafter referred to as the "SAM method" (46). The SAM method has become accessible for practitioners largely because of the simplicity of the approach and negating the need for expensive technology (12). Data generated by the SAM method have previously been used to inform training interventions (25,27) for performance enhancement and monitoring return to play practice. ...
This study aimed to measure agreement between using Samozino’s method and force plates to determine mean force, velocity, and power during unloaded and loaded barbell and hexbar countermovement jumps. Twenty-one subjects performed countermovement jumps
against incremental loads using both loading conditions. Ground reaction force was recorded using a dual-force plate system (1,000 Hz) and used as the criterion method to compare with Samozino’s method. Reliability and validity was determined by intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), coefficient of variation (CV), limits of agreement plots, and least products regression analysis. Samozino’s method provided acceptable levels of reliability for mean force, velocity, and power (ICC . 0.90, CV% , 5.5) across both loading conditions. Limits of agreement analysis showed the mean bias was 2.7, 15.4, and 7.2% during barbell countermovement jumps and 1.8, 12.4, and 5.0% during hexbar countermovement jumps for mean force, velocity, and power, respectively. Based on these findings, Samozino’s method not only is reliable when measuring mean force, velocity, and power during loaded and unloaded barbell and hexbar countermovement jumps but also identifies limitations regarding concurrent validity compared with the gold standard. Across loading conditions, Samozino’s method overestimated mean force (0.5–4.5%) and underestimated mean velocity (11.81–16.78%) and mean power (2.26–7.85%) compared with the force plates. Because of fixed
and proportional bias between criterion and predictor, the results do not support the use of Samozino’s method to measure mean force, velocity, and power. Therefore, it is not recommended for practitioners to use Samozino’s method to estimate mechanical variables during loaded and unloaded countermovement jump actions using a barbell and hexbar.
... A detailed overview of the results of the included studies is presented in Table 1. Twenty-one studies investigated ballet-specific jumps, (32,34,(37)(38)(39)41,(43)(44)(45)47,(49)(50)(51)(52)(53)(55)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60) 6 investi-gated non-specific jumps, (33,36,40,42,46,48) and 2 investigated both ballet-specific and non-specific jumps. (35,54) Appendix 1 provides a glossary of included ballet-specific jumps. ...
... (35,54) Appendix 1 provides a glossary of included ballet-specific jumps. Nineteen studies exclusively investigated female ballet dancers, (33,36,39,41,43,44,46,(48)(49)(50)(52)(53)(54)(55)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60) 2 investigated males, (40,45) 2 investigated males and females, (38,47) and 6 did not specify the sex of participants. (32,34,35,37,42,51) Fourteen studies investigated adults, (35,(39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)47,49,50,54,55,57,59) 10 investigated adolescents, (33,(36)(37)(38)46,48,53,56,58,60) 1 investigated a mix of adults and adolescents, (32) and 3 did not specify the age of participants. ...
... Nineteen studies exclusively investigated female ballet dancers, (33,36,39,41,43,44,46,(48)(49)(50)(52)(53)(54)(55)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60) 2 investigated males, (40,45) 2 investigated males and females, (38,47) and 6 did not specify the sex of participants. (32,34,35,37,42,51) Fourteen studies investigated adults, (35,(39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)47,49,50,54,55,57,59) 10 investigated adolescents, (33,(36)(37)(38)46,48,53,56,58,60) 1 investigated a mix of adults and adolescents, (32) and 3 did not specify the age of participants. (34,45,51) Nine studies investigated professional ballet dancers, (35,40,43,45,46,48,50,51,54) 18 investigated non-professionals, (32)(33)(34)(36)(37)(38)(39)41,42,44,49,52,(55)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60) and 2 investigated a mix of professionals and non-professionals. ...
Aims:
Understanding the biomechanics of jumping in ballet dancers provides an opportunity to optimize performance and mitigate injury risk. This systematic review aimed to summarize research investigating kinetics and kinematics of jumping in ballet dancers.
Methods:
PubMed (MEDLINE), SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were systematically searched for studies published before December 2020. Studies were required to investigate dancers specializing in ballet, assess kinetics or kinematics during take-off or landing, and be published in English.
Results:
A total of 3,781 articles were identified, of which 29 met the inclusion criteria. Seven studies investigated take-off (kinetics: n = 6; kinematics: n = 4) and 23 studies investigated landing (kinetics: n = 19; kinematics: n = 12). Included articles were categorized into six themes: Activity Type (n = 10), Environment and Equipment (n = 10), Demographics (n = 8), Physical Characteristics (n = 3), Injury Status (n = 2), and Skill Acquisition and Motor Control (n = 1). Peak landing vertical ground reaction force (1.4-9.6 times body weight) was most commonly reported. Limited evidence suggests greater ankle involvement during the take-off of ballet jumps compared to countermovement jumps. There is also limited evidence indicating greater sagittal plane joint excursions upon landing in ballet dancers compared to non-dancers, primarily through a more extended lower extremity at initial contact. Only 4 articles investigated male ballet dancers, which is a notable gap in the literature.
Conclusions:
The findings of this review can be used by dance science and medicine practitioners to improve their understanding of jumping in ballet dancers.
... 2,6 Recent studies have shown that training that targets the individual F-v imbalance (F-v IMB , ie, the imbalance between the actual and the theoretically optimal F-v profile, which might reflect either a force or velocity deficit) results in greater performance gains when compared with a standard training intervention. [7][8][9] However, while there is some evidence that this method of training is viable, much more research is needed in order to better understand the actual effectiveness of F-v profile-based training programs when compared with other traditional training interventions. ...
... Although the abovementioned studies support the assessment of the F-v profile with the Samozino method and particularly the development of a F-v IMB score that can be used to guide training prescription, there is still debate on the optimal method for its determination. Whereas some authors [9][10][11][12][13] have conducted the test under unconstrained conditions (ie, using free weights)-as originally proposed 6 , others have combined both unconstrained (for unloaded jumps) and constrained jumps (using a Smith machine for loaded jumps). 5,7,8,14 While both methods have been used, it has yet to be determined whether the data obtained through these 2 assessment methods are interchangeable. ...
... All procedures were performed in accordance with previously published methods. [7][8][9] Subjects' body mass and height were measured immediately before each testing session using an automatic scale and a wall-mounted stadiometer (Seca, Barcelona, Spain). The lower limb length was measured using a tape measure (Lufkin W606PM; Apex tool, Sparks, MA) with an accuracy of 0.1 cm. ...
Purpose: To analyze the differences in the force – velocity (F–v) profile assessed under unconstrained (ie, using free weights) and constrained (ie, on a Smith machine) vertical jumps, as well as to determine the between-day reliability.
Methods: A total of 23 trained participants (18 [1] y) performed an incremental load squat jump test (with ∼35%, 45%, 60%, and 70% of the subjects ’ body mass) on 2 different days using free weights and a Smith machine. Nine of these participants repeated the tests on 2 other days for an exploratory analysis of between-day reliability. F–v variables (ie, maximum theoretical force [F0], velocity [v0], and power, and the imbalance between the actual and the theoretically optimal F–v profile) were computed from jump height.
Results: A poor agreement was observed between the F–v variables assessed under constrained and unconstrained conditions (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] < .50 for all). The height attained during each single jump performed under both constrained and unconstrained conditions showed an acceptable reliability (coefficient of variation < 10%, ICC > .70). The F–v variables computed under constrained conditions showed an overall good agreement (ICC = .75 – .95 for all variables) and no significant differences between days (P > .05), but a high variability for v0, the imbalance between the actual and the theoretically optimal F–v profile, and maximal theoretical power (coefficient of variation = 17.0% – 27.4%). No between-day differences were observed for any F–v variable assessed under unconstrained conditions (P > .05), but all of them presented a low between-day reliability (coefficient of variation > 10% and ICC < .70 for all). Conclusions: F–v variables differed meaningfully when obtained from constrained and unconstrained loaded jumps, and most importantly seemed to present a low between-day reliability.
... Maximum force production of a concentric contraction occurs at submaximal velocity. In contrast, maximum contraction velocity is dependent on a load and slows at the end of a movement [8]. A deceleration at the end of the movement is a result of a muscle reaching its maximal physical limit. ...
... In fact, previous studies have shown that 8 to 9 weeks of training based upon the FVP profiling enhanced %FV imb in rugby athletes and sprint performance [17]. The improved %FV imb was related to an improvement in vertical jumps in trained athletes [8,14], indicating that more time may have allowed for greater improvement. ...
Introduction. Force-velocity-power (FVP) profiling has yet to
be studied in American football. Aim of Study. To determine
(1) if optimized training based upon vertical FVP profiling
could correct FVP imbalances (%FVimb); (2) if optimized
training over a 6-week training program could translate into
performance metrics in American football players. Secondary
aims: To determine if optimized training would translate into
horizontal FVP metrics and provide exploratory observations
on position-specific changes. Material and Methods. Forty-seven
collegiate American football athletes (20.7 ± 1.5 years, mean
± SD) underwent pre- and post FVP profile and performance
testing (countermovement vertical jump [CMJ], flying 10’s speed,
1-repetition maximum [1-RM] barbell back squat, 1-RM power
clean). Based upon individualized FVP profiles, the subjects
were allocated to a force-deficient (FD), velocity-deficient (VD),
or well-balanced (WB) group and received 6 weeks of optimized
training. Paired t-tests with Bonferroni adjustments were used.
Results. Post-intervention, %FVimb of the VD and FD groups
moved toward the well-balanced category. Vertical theoretical
maximum velocity (V0) was significantly improved in the VD
group (21.9%, p = 0.0023), but remained unchanged in the
FD and WB groups. CMJ improved by 4.2% in the FD group
(p = 0.0009), but not in the VD or WB groups (p > 0.05). The
optimized training improved 1-RM back squat by 5.4% in the FD
group (p < 0.0001) and tended to be improved in the WB group
(7.0%, p = 0.0042). Flying 10’s performance was unchanged in all
groups (p > 0.05). Horizontal theoretical maximal force output
and theoretical maximal power output improved in the WB and
FD groups (38.3-47.0%, p < 0.0042), while the VD group tended to
have improvements (26.5%, p = 0.0118). Conclusions. Six weeks
of individualized training was sufficient to correct %FVimb, but
training did not enhance sprinting. While the FVP profiling is
a feasible field-based approach in American football, learning how
to best apply the FVP profiling to optimize performance is needed.
... 228 Science of Gymnastics Journal 90°) (Álvarez, García, da Conceição, & Jiménez-Reyes, 2020;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2014). The measurements required to determine the optimal F-V profile during the performance of a vertical jump were the athlete's body mass, jump height, and HPO, which is defined as the difference between the extended LLL (from the greater trochanter to the metatarsal) and the vertical distance between the greater trochanter and the ground in squat position (Álvarez, Reyes, Sousa, Conceição, & García, 2020;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2014). ...
... Most gymnasts presented a force deficit (72.3%), while 11% had a velocity deficit. In fact, two studies found that entire samples of 46 ballet dancers (Álvarez, Fuentes García, et al., 2020) and 87 dancers presented force deficit. This information could be used for planning a more specific training program to improve jump performance Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2017a;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019). ...
The jump is one of the main body elements in Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG). To perform it correctly, gymnasts must develop appropriate force and velocity levels to reach enough jump height to show the body shape during flight, as defined by the RG Code of Points. Jumping performance is influenced by the mechanical force-velocity (F-V) profile and the maximum power generated by the lower limbs. The F-V profile identification can provide a more accurate and complete mechanical representation of its capabilities and needs. This study aimed to analyse the F-V profile during the counter movement jump of RG athletes, identify the magnitude and direction of the imbalance between the two variables (force and velocity), and compare the jumping ability and mechanical variables of different age groups. Eighteen Portuguese gymnasts (average age 12.2±1.8 years) were evaluated, according to age group: beginner and youth gymnasts (G1- ages 10 to 12) and junior and senior gymnasts (G2 - ages 13 to 16), and according to the F-V profile imbalance detected. The data collection was performed after a covid-19 lockdown period. Results showed anthropometric differences between age groups but no differences in the F-V profile related variables. When gymnasts were compared according to the deficit, differences were found in variables force and velocity. Furthermore, 72.3% of the gymnasts presented force deficit, 11% presented velocity deficit and 16.6% were balanced. Considering the deficits found, the demands of the sport and of each athlete, it is essential to include strength training in the regular training routines of rhythmic gymnasts.
... 228 Science of Gymnastics Journal 90°) (Álvarez, García, da Conceição, & Jiménez-Reyes, 2020;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2014). The measurements required to determine the optimal F-V profile during the performance of a vertical jump were the athlete's body mass, jump height, and HPO, which is defined as the difference between the extended LLL (from the greater trochanter to the metatarsal) and the vertical distance between the greater trochanter and the ground in squat position (Álvarez, Reyes, Sousa, Conceição, & García, 2020;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2014). ...
... Most gymnasts presented a force deficit (72.3%), while 11% had a velocity deficit. In fact, two studies found that entire samples of 46 ballet dancers (Álvarez, Fuentes García, et al., 2020) and 87 dancers presented force deficit. This information could be used for planning a more specific training program to improve jump performance Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2017a;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019). ...
The jump is one of the main body elements in Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG). To perform it correctly, gymnasts must develop appropriate force and velocity levels to reach enough jump height to show the body shape during flight, as defined by the RG Code of Points. Jumping performance is influenced by the mechanical force-velocity (F-V) profile and the maximum power generated by the lower limbs. The F-V profile identification can provide a more accurate and complete mechanical representation of its capabilities and needs. This study aimed to analyse the F-V profile during the countermovement jump of RG athletes, identify the magnitude and direction of the imbalance between the two variables (force and velocity), and compare the jumping ability and mechanical variables of different age groups. Eighteen Portuguese gymnasts (average age 12.2±1.8 years) were evaluated, according to age group: beginner and youth gymnasts (G1-ages 10 to 12) and junior and senior gymnasts (G2-ages 13 to 16), and according to the F-V profile imbalance detected. The data collection was performed after a covid-19 lockdown period. Results showed anthropometric differences between age groups but no differences in the F-V profile related variables. When gymnasts were compared according to the deficit, differences were found in variables force and velocity. Furthermore, 72.3% of the gymnasts presented force deficit, 11% presented velocity deficit and 16.6% were balanced. Considering the deficits found, the demands of the sport and of each athlete, it is essential to include strength training in the regular training routines of rhythmic gymnasts.
... The GPT group trained with a combination of heavy and low loads targeting both the force and velocity spectrum, independent of individual FV profiles. The lightest loading in the present study was jumping with rubber bands (table 1), similar to the majority of research on FV-profiling in younger populations [20][21][22] . Training with specially designed equipment such as the Keiser Leg press is often required to train with higher velocities. ...
... All rights reserved compared to the IPT FORCE training group, which exercised closer to the force portion of the FVcurve. Furthermore, the majority of previous research on FV-profiling in young populations use similar loading strategies as the present study, where the lightest load is jumping with rubber bands [20][21][22] . In addition, several previous studies generally demonstrate larger adaptation in F 0 after heavy load training compared to adaptations in V 0 after low-load high-velocity training [41][42][43][44][45] , like the result of the present study. ...
The study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of an individualized power training program based on force‐velocity (FV) profiling on physical function, muscle morphology, and neuromuscular adaptations in older men. Forty‐nine healthy men (68±5yrs) completed a 10‐week training period to enhance muscular power. They were randomized to either a generic power training group (GPT) or an individualized power training group (IPT). Unlike generic training, individualized training was based on low‐ or high‐resistance exercises, from an initial force‐velocity profile. Lower‐limb FV‐profile was measured in a pneumatic leg‐press, and physical function was assessed as timed up and go time (TUG), sit‐to‐stand power, grip strength, and stair climbing time (loaded [20kg] and unloaded). Vastus lateralis morphology was measured with ultrasonography. Rate of force development (RFD) and rate of myoelectric activity (RMA) were measured during an isometric knee extension. The GPT group improved loaded stair climbing time (6.3±3.8 vs. 2.3±7.3%, p=0.04) more than IPT. Both groups improved stair climbing time, sit to stand, and leg press power, grip strength, muscle thickness, pennation angle, fascicle length, and RMA from baseline (p<0.05). Only GPT increased loaded stair climbing time and RFD (p<0.05). An individualized power training program based on FV‐profiling did not improve physical function to a greater degree than generic power training. A generic power training approach combining both heavy and low loads might be advantageous through eliciting both force and velocity related neuromuscular adaptions with a concomitant increase in muscular power and physical function in older men.
... 2 Recently, several studies have indeed shown that an individualized training program based on FV IMB , targeting the least developed capacity of the participants, is an effective strategy to improve jumping performance. 3,[6][7][8] Specifically, the athletes that have a "force-oriented profile" perform predominantly high-velocity exercises, whereas athletes with "velocity-oriented profiles" perform predominantly high force exercises in their training. 3,6-8 Thereby, improving jumping performance by reducing the athletes individual FV IMB, without changes in P max . ...
... Additionality, due to the lower statistical power, we used three categories for FV deficits, compared to 5 groups used in previous investigations. 3,[6][7][8] Training toward an optimal SJ-FV-profile did not show favorable effects in SJ height, CMJ height, 10 and 30 m sprint time, 1RM strength or leg-press power compared to participants either training away from their optimal profile or balanced training irrespective of their initial FVprofile. Increasing SJ-P max was positively associated with increases in both SJ and CMJ height but not with 10 and 30 m sprint times. ...
The present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of an individualized training program based on force‐velocity (FV) profiling on jumping, sprinting, strength, and power in athletes. Forty national level team sport athletes (20±4yrs, 83±13 kg) from ice‐hockey, handball, and soccer completed a 10‐week training intervention. A theoretical optimal squat jump (SJ)‐FV‐profile was calculated from SJ with 5 different loads (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 kg). Based on their initial FV‐profile, athletes were randomized to train towards, away, or irrespective (balanced training) of their initial theoretical optimal FV‐profile. The training content was matched between groups in terms of set x repetitions but varied in relative loading to target the different aspects of the FV‐profile. The athletes performed 10 and 30 m sprints, SJ and countermovement jump (CMJ), 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat, and a leg‐press power test before and after the intervention. There were no significant group differences for any of the performance measures. Trivial to small changes in 1RM squat (2.9, 4.6 and 6.5%), 10 m sprint time (1.0, ‐0.9 and ‐1.7%), 30 m sprint time (0.9, ‐0.6 and ‐0.4%), CMJ height (4.3, 3.1 and 5.7%), SJ height (4.8, 3.7 and 5.7%) and leg press power (6.7, 4.2 and 2.9%) were observed in the groups training towards, away, or irrespective of their initial theoretical optimal FV‐profile, respectively. Changes towards the optimal SJ‐FV‐profile were negatively correlated with changes in SJ height (r= ‐0.49, p<0.001). Changes in SJ‐power were positively related to changes in SJ‐height (r=0.88, p<0.001) and CMJ‐height (r=0.32, p=0.044), but unrelated to changes in 10 m (r=‐0.02, p=0.921) and 30 m sprint time (r=‐0.01, p=0.974). The results from this study do not support the efficacy of individualized training based on SJ‐FV‐profiling.
... Reductions in FV imb have been shown to enhance jump performance (Escobar Álvarez et al., 2020). Jiménez-Reyes et al. (2017) further underscored the value of addressing FV imb to enhance jump abilities, highlighting its potential as a valuable variable in designing CA tailored to optimize explosive performance. ...
Introduction
Various factors are known to influence the effectiveness of post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) protocols. However, whether individual’s force–velocity (FV) profile affects the impact of conditioning activity (CA) remains unclear. This study examined whether PAPE is influenced by addressing individual strength deficits, identified through FV profiling, using either force- or velocity-oriented conditioning. Specifically, we (i) assessed the effectiveness of force-oriented (PAPE-F) and velocity-oriented (PAPE-V) protocols on acute jump height (JH) performance in individuals with strength deficits and (ii) investigated whether the magnitude of force–velocity imbalance (FVimb) is significantly associated with PAPE in JH.
Methods
Twenty-five young (19–27 years), resistance-trained male individuals (≥2 years of continuous training) who exhibited a strength deficit, determined by FVimb in the squat jump (SJ), were included in this study. They performed either three sets of five assisted jumps (PAPE-V; load reduced by 30% of body mass) or three four-second sets of maximal isometric contractions (PAPE-F), each with 1 min rest intervals. JH was measured at baseline and 3, 6, and 9 min post-CA.
Results
A three-way (group × condition × time) repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant effects of time (F = 7.78; partial-η² = 0.14; p < 0.01) and a significant condition × time interaction (F = 16.57; partial-η² = 0.26; p < 0.01) for JH. The Bonferroni post hoc test revealed significant within-group improvements after PAPE-F at the 6th min (p < 0.01; ES = 0.32) and 9th min (p < 0.01; ES = 0.33) compared to baseline and after PAPE-V at the 3rd min (p < 0.01; ES = 0.24), 6th min (p < 0.01; ES = 0.36), and 9th min (p < 0.01; ES = 0.30) compared to baseline. Linear regression models showed that individuals with lower FVimb exhibited greater PAPE effects following the PAPE-F protocol (β = 0.63; R² = 40; p = 0.03), but no significant associations were observed between these two variables for the PAPE-V protocol (R² = 0.19; p = 0.53).
Discussion
These results suggest that individuals can achieve comparable acute JH improvements using force- or velocity-oriented CAs, although force-oriented CA may promote greater gains in individuals with lower FVimb.
... Delving further, Samozino et al. [19] developed the theory that there exists an individual optimal F-V profile, and if it could be achieved, ballistic performance would improve even if maximal power output did not. This theory has been confirmed in various studies when performance has improved after individualizing training to address a deficit in velocity or force [20][21][22]. ...
Background: Muscle strength plays a critical role in the performance of middle-and long-distance athletes. However, the vertical force-velocity (F-V) profile has not been studied in this population. The objectives of this study were twofold: (i) to characterize the F-V profile in middle-and long-distance athletes and (ii) to explore its relationship with physiological and biomechanical performance variables. Methods: Thirty-nine highly trained athletes (13 middle-distance and 26 long-distance athletes), comprising men (18) and women (21), participated in this study. Each athlete performed a squat-jump to determine their F-V profile, followed by two 5 min bouts of low-intensity running and a graded exercise test to assess physiological and kinematic parameters. Results: Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were observed in maximal estimated power (P max) and jump height between middle-and long-distance female athletes (21.20 ± 4.78 W·kg −1 vs. 15.80 ± 2.83 W·kg −1 ; 26.00 ± 0.05 cm vs. 19.50 ± 0.03 cm), and between male and female long-distance athletes (19.70 ± 2.87 W·kg −1 ; 24.10 ± 0.02 cm). Stride length during low intensity running showed significant correlations with P max (r = 0.340) and jump height (r = 0.374). P max was positively associated with running economy (RE) (r = 0.396) and VO 2max (r = 0.346), and negatively correlated with F-V imbalance (FV imb) (r = −0.531). Conclusions: Middle-and long-distance athletes demonstrate similar F-V profiles; however, middle-distance athletes exhibit a rightward shift, resulting in higher P max and jump height, particularly among women. Nevertheless, F-V profile characteristics display only weak associations with physiological and kinematic variables which directly influence performance.
... Prior research has focused predominantly on lower body strength, endurance and power. 28,29 Although the frequency of upper body movements is much lower than that reported in the lower extremity, 13 this aspect of the dancers training should not be overlooked. ...
Introduction: There is currently little research relating specifically to the muscular strength and endurance requirements of the upper body such as lifts at varying heights, ground floor contact with the hands and inversions such as handstands. Enhanced understanding of muscular demands can inform training program design to build physical tolerance to meet the demand of the activity. The aim of this study was to ascertain the frequency of upper body muscular skills in contemporary and ballet dance performance. Methods: Analysis of 46 individual ballet performers (F = 23, M = 23) from 12 performances (duration 63.5 ± 44.5 minutes) and 44 individual contemporary performers (F = 21, M = 23) from 12 performances (duration 35.7 ± 4.3 minutes) was carried out. Frequency of upper body skills was recorded using Dartfish Easytag-Note and converted to mean frequency per minute of total performance and per performance by genre and by sex. Differences in frequency between genre were analyzed via Mann–Whitney U. Phase two analyzed differences between sex via Mann–Whitney U. Finally, analysis of differences between sex within dance genre was carried out via Wilcoxon signed rank test. Significance was accepted at P < .05. Results: A significant difference was apparent between ballet and contemporary dance for holding own weight ( P < .05) with a greater total mean frequency within contemporary performances of 8.50 ± 9.03 compared to a total mean frequency of 1.51 ± 3.13 within ballet performances. Additionally, there was a significant difference for above shoulder assisted lift ( P < .05) when comparing male dancers, with male contemporary dancers carrying out significantly more (9.82 ± 8.56) per performance than male ballet dancers (2.33 ± 4.66). A higher mean frequency of below shoulder lifts than above shoulder lifts was also noted, with the majority of above shoulder lifts remaining at eye level. Conclusion: Training programs must prepare dancers for upper body movements that consider differing biomechanical demands of a variety of lifts and inversions.
... The latter is noteworthy because the nature and magnitude of FV imbalance could be sports speci c. For instance, Escobar Álvarez et al. [32] found a large force de cit of more than 40% in both, their experimental and control groups. Against this background, using more homogenous populations in upcoming trials may help to better delineate the potential of FV based training. ...
Background Exercise has numerous benefits for health, well-being and performance. However, due to factors such as genetics or training status, the individual response can be highly different. Force-velocity (FV) based training is a popular method to individualize exercise programs aiming to improve speed and power. This systematic review investigated the effects of FV based training on motor performance. Methods A systematic literature search was conducted by two independent examiners using PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. We included randomized controlled trials involving healthy adults and comparing individualized (FV) to non-individualized training programs with a minimal duration of four weeks. Study quality was evaluated using the PEDro scale, publication bias was checked by inspection of funnel plots. We used robust variance estimation to pool the effects of individualized vs. non-individualized training for sprint time, strength, and jump height. Results Searches returned 684 articles, and n = 10 papers were included. Study quality was good (5.3 ± 0.8 / 7 points on the PEDro scale) and no indication of publication bias was found. Meta-analysis did not reveal differences between FV based and non-individualized training for strength (SMD: -0.04, 95%CI: -0.34 to 0.26, p = 0.72, I2: 0%), sprint time (SMD: 0.28, 95%CI: -0.75 to 1.32, p = 0.49, I2: 69,7%), and jump height (SMD: 1.8, 95%CI: -0.57 to 4.2, p = 0.11, I2: 90.8%). Conclusion Although FV profiling represents a plausible approach to individualize speed and power training, our meta-analysis does not support its application for performance reasons at present. Future research should investigate more specific conditions and homogenous populations such as elite athletes.
... B. Morin & Samozino, 2016). While jumping ability is essential in several sport-specific actions, loaded vertical jump FvP profiling has gained attention in the past years to give individualized training recommendations to athletes (Escobar Álvarez et al., 2020;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2017. ...
The objectives of our study were 1) to examine whether the force-velocity-power (FvP) outcomes in the concentric and eccentric phases of flywheel (FW) squats differ among sports disciplines and 2) to investigate the association between FvP outcome variables and two key sport-performance indicators: countermovement jump height (CMJ) and change of direction (CoD) time involving 90° or 180° turns. Tests were performed by 469 athletes from five different sport disciplines and physical education students. Our results showed that FvP outcomes, when measured during the eccentric phase of the FW squat, effectively differed between athletes from different sports. However, during the concentric phase of the squat, only for the slope variable differences between sports were found. Contrary to our hypothesis, there were no statistically significant correlations between FW squat FvP outcomes and CMJ or CoD test results. These results suggest that FvP outcomes derived from FW squats may lack external validity and cannot be reliably used as a predictor of athletes’ jumping and agility performance. The paper discusses possible reasons for the larger differences between sports in eccentric FvP outcomes, as well as the absence of correlations between FvP outcomes and functional tests.
... Otras investigaciones han seleccionado 9 semanas (Dowse et al., 2019; Escobar-Álvarez et al., 2019) para una mejora en la relación fuerza-velocidad. Por último, otros estudios muestran protocolos de 8 semanas (Tsanaka et al., 2017;Escobar-Álvarez et al., 2019;Dowse et al., 2020;Stošić et al., 2020) Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el impacto de 8 semanas de entrenamiento pliométrico sobre la capacidad de salto vertical y el rendimiento en los petit allegros en bailarinas de ballet clásico. Se plantea la hipótesis de que el entrenamiento pliométrico podría ser una estrategia efectiva que requiere poco tiempo para mejorar el salto vertical y la técnica de los ejercicios específicos en bailarinas de ballet clásico. ...
Jump capacity is an important quality in classic ballet. Plyometric training has been shown effective in many sports to improve vertical jump. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of 8 weeks of plyometric training on vertical jump capacity and allegros jump in classic ballet dancers. 9 female classic dancers (22.4 ± 3.05 years; 167 ± 0.6 cm; 56.1 ± 7.66 kg.; 14.2 ± 2.11 years of experience) carried out 8 weeks plyometric training. Before (pre) and after (post) training, CMJ, mean 32-allegro jump height, G force and jump efficiency were evaluated. CMJ and allegro jump were improved after training (p<.05; 17.4; 14.5 % change). The mean 32-allegro jump was also improved after training (p<0.05: 17.2% change). No changes were observed in G force and jump efficiency (p>.05). In conclusion, 8 weeks of plyometric training was effective to improve CMJ in rest and fatigue conditions and specific dance skills in ballet classic dancers.
... Whereas, if force production at low velocities is a characteristic of positional play i.e., female attackers, then exercises which require the player to express force at a slower velocity such as resisted sprint training or back squat (Cormie et al., 2010) at higher percentages of one repetition maximum, would be useful to prepare for the positional demands of gameplay. Similar studies aimed at improving jump performance, have demonstrated individualized training based on F-v characteristics was attributed to significant changes in the performance outcome compared with a non-individualized, traditional resistance training approach (Escobar-Álvarez et al., 2020;Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2016;. Further to our first hypothesis, despite not achieving significance (p ≥ 0.07), large mean differences in relative P MAX (6.96 -10.61%) were evident between positional groups (Table 4 and Figure 4). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate differences between sex and positional demands in club-based field hockey players by analyzing vertical force-velocity characteristics. Thirty-three club-based field hockey athletes (16 males - age: 24.8 ± 7.3yrs, body mass: 76.8 ± 8.2kg, height: 1.79 ± 0.05m; 17 females - age: 22.3 ± 4.2yrs, body mass: 65.2 ± 7.6kg, height: 1.66 ± 0.05m) were classified into two key positional groups (attacker or defender) based on dominant field position during gameplay. Force-velocity (F-v) profiles were established by performing countermovement jumps (CMJ) using a three-point loading protocol ranging from body mass (i.e., zero external mass, 0%) to loads corresponding to 25% and 50% of their own body mass. Across all loads, between-trial reliability of F-v and CMJ variables was determined by intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and coefficient of variation (CV) and deemed to be acceptable (ICC: 0.87-0.95, CV% 2.8-8.2). Analysis by sex identified male athletes had significantly greater differences in all F-v variables (12.81-40.58%, p ≤ 0.001, ES = 1.10-3.19), a more enhanced F-v profile (i.e., greater theoretical maximal force, velocity, and power values), plus overall stronger correlations between relative maximal power (PMAX) and jump height (r = 0.67, p ≤ 0.06) when compared to female athletes (-0.71≤ r ≥ 0.60, p = 0.08). Male attackers demonstrated a more 'velocity-oriented' F-v profile compared to defenders due to significant mean differences in theoretical maximal velocity (v0) (6.64%, p ≤ 0.05, ES: 1.11), however differences in absolute and relative theoretical force (F0) (15.43%, p ≤ 0.01, ES = 1.39) led to female attackers displaying a more 'force-oriented' profile in comparison to defenders. The observed mechanical differences identify the underpinning characteristics of position specific expression of PMAX should be reflected in training programmes. Therefore, our findings suggest F-v profiling is acceptable to differentiate between sex and positional demands in club-based field hockey players. Furthermore, it is recommended field hockey players explore a range of loads and exercises across the F-v continuum through on-field and gym-based field hockey strength and conditioning practices to account for sex and positional mechanical differences.
... Prior research has focused predominantly on lower body strength, endurance and power. 28,29 Although the frequency of upper body movements is much lower than that reported in the lower extremity, 13 this aspect of the dancers training should not be overlooked. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the occurrence of skills that utilise upper body muscular strength and strength endurance within ballet and contemporary performances.
Literature review
To date there has been little research into upper body muscular strength and endurance in dance. It has been proposed that ballet, predominantly, requires use of the lower body and does not significantly engage the upper body musculature. Conversely, modern dance requires partner lifts, controlled falls to the floor and inversions such as handstands. Prior research has recorded 0.14±0.29 assisted lifts per minute in ballet performance and 0.02±0.07 in contemporary, with 0.97±2.53 and 0.12±0.23 solo lifts respectively. However this does not provide detail of other demands including throws, catches and inversions. Understanding these demands on upper body musculature during performance is therefore required and can be utilised to design effective trainng programmes to help dancers increase physical tolerance and reduce risk of injury.
Methods
Manual performance analysis of 24 randomly selected digital dance performances was performed. Where possible four dancers (2 = M, 2 = F) were analysed per performance totalling 46 individual ballet performances and 44 individual contemporary performances with an average duration of 63.53±44.53 mins and 35.65±24.26 mins respectively.
Frequency of discrete skills relating to upper body engagment; lifts, assisted lifts, weight bearing movements involving ground contact with the hands was recorded. Each discrete skill was converted to mean frequency per performance and compared between genre and sex for differences.
Results and discussion
Significantly more (p<0.001) inversions and holding own weight were carried out during contemporary performances (2.02±5.01 and 8.70±10.73) than ballet (0.17±0.68 and 1.37±4.12). Male dancers also carried out more lifts across all descriptors (p>0.001) than female dancers, although more lifts took place below the shoulder (Ballet = 3.24±6.17, Contemporary = 2.25±4.75) than above the shoulder (Ballet = 1.33±2.86, Contemporary = 0.73±2.02). Those that were above the shoulder were predominantly assisted by the other dancer jumping into the lift.
Conclusion
Higher prevelance of upper body muscular engagement, including below shoulder lifts, suggest a greater focus in training is required. Further research is required to ascertain strength requirements of the involved muscle groups and thus recommendations for future training.
... 26,82,83 Several authors have suggested that resistance training programmes during this phase of training should focus on various aspects of the force-velocity curve to better optimise the athlete's performance. 1,36,46,47 This form of training is known as a mixed method approach, which involves a wide range of training loads and exercises. 30 An example of a training programme with cluster sets that is structured to target the goals of a strength-power phase is presented in Table 6. ...
Altering the configuration of a training set can add a unique training
variation to a resistance training programme. Cluster sets can be used
by strength and conditioning (S&C) professionals to modify the internal
and external training loads that impact the training adaptations that
result from resistance training. The purpose of this review is to provide
the theoretical foundation for the use of cluster sets within resistance
training programmes and to offer practical examples of how to implement
cluster sets as part of a periodised training plan.
... In the context of dancers and leaping, isolated anklejoint training may serve a three-fold purpose: (1) to enhance dance-specific SSC performance (Rice et al., 2021), (2) to prevent injury (Moita et al., 2017), and (3) to maintain or increase aesthetic appeal (Brown et al., 2007). While it appears that multijoint exercise interventions may still benefit dancers' athletic and qualitative dance-specific performance (Angioi et al., 2012;Dowse et al., 2020;Escobar Alvarez et al., 2020;Grigoletto et al., 2020), isolated ankle-joint exercises might elicit adaptations that directly translate to saut de chat leaping biomechanics while preserving aesthetics (Rice and Nimphius, 2020). Previous research demonstrates that increasing maximal strength, rate of force development, muscle cross-sectional area, tendon stiffness, joint stiffness, and joint power concomitantly result in improved SSC performance (Kyrolainen et al., 2005;Kubo et al., 2007;Lamas et al., 2012;Katsikari et al., 2020;Laurent et al., 2020). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a 12-week ankle-specific block progression training program on saut de chat leaping performance [leap height, peak power (PP), joint kinetics and kinematics], maximal voluntary isometric plantar flexion (MVIP) strength, and Achilles tendon (AT) stiffness. Dancers (training group n = 7, control group n = 7) performed MVIP at plantarflexed (10◦) and neutral ankle positions (0◦) followed by ramping isometric contractions equipped with ultrasound to assess strength and AT stiffness, respectively. Dancers also performed saut de chat leaps surrounded by 3-D motion capture atop force platforms to determine center of mass and joint kinematics and kinetics. The training group then followed a 12-week ankle-focused program including isometric, dynamic constant external resistance, accentuated eccentric loading, and plyometric training modalities, while the control group continued dancing normally. We found that the training group's saut de chat ankle PP (59.8%), braking ankle stiffness (69.6%), center of mass PP (11.4%), and leap height (12.1%) significantly increased following training. We further found that the training group's MVIP significantly increased at 10◦ (17.0%) and 0◦ (12.2%) along with AT stiffness (29.6%), while aesthetic leaping measures were unchanged (peak split angle, mean trunk angle, trunk angle range). Ankle-specific block progression training appears to benefit saut de chat leaping performance, PP output, ankle-joint kinetics, maximal strength, and AT stiffness, while not affecting kinematic aesthetic measures. We speculate that the combined training blocks elicited physiological changes and enhanced neuromuscular synchronization for increased saut de chat leaping performance in this cohort of dancers.
... The athletes who took part in this investigation are amateurs, and therefore, our results provide a reference about the effectiveness of the use of optimal loading for maximal power output 9,10 in this population. Future investigations may focus on the effect of individualized training plans based on the vertical development of strength [33][34][35] , horizontal strength and the combination of both on sprint performance in amateur, professional and elite rugby players. It is also important to notice that we did not monitor athletes during the 4 weeks after the end of RST, what may have provided even greater improvement according to recent findings published during the review of this manuscript 10 . ...
This study aimed to observe the effect of 8 weeks of resisted sled training (RST), with optimal loading for maximal power output production and initial levels of force, on the magnitude of improvement in sprint performance and individual sprint mechanical outputs in female amateur rugby union players. The study examined the horizontal Power-Force-Velocity profile (P-F-V profile), which provides a measure of the athlete’s individual balance between force and velocity capabilities (Sfv), theoretical maximum force (F0), theoretical maximum velocity (V0), maximum power (Pmax), the maximum ratio of force (Rfmax) and rate of decrease in ratio of force (Drf). Thirty-one participants (age=23.7 ± 3.3years, BM=69 ± 9Kg, height=167.5 ± 5.2 cm) were divided into a control group and two experimental groups; forwards (FG) and backs (BG). For 8 consecutive weeks (16 sessions), all groups performed the same training program: 2 sets of 5 × 30 m, but athletes assigned to FG and BG ran towing a resisted sled attached to their waists, with optimal loading for maximal power output production. Both FG and BG significantly improved (p≤0.05) in 5 m and 20 m sprint performance, and in the mechanical properties related to the horizontal P-F-V profile. The correlation between the initial level of horizontal strength and the magnitude of improvement in Pmax also suggests that higher levels of horizontal force may lead to greater adaptations in RST. The P-F-V profile is a useful field method for identifying the weakest mechanical variable in rugby players during sprinting and enabling the prescription of individualized training programs according to specific running performance.
Altering set configurations during a resistance training program can provide a novel training variation that can be used to modify the external and internal training loads that induce specific training outcomes. To design training programs that better target the defined goal(s) of a specific training phase, strength and conditioning professionals need to better understand how different set configurations impact the training adaptations that result from resistance training. Traditional and cluster set structures are commonly implemented by strength and conditioning. The purpose of this review is to offer examples of the practical implementation of traditional and cluster sets that can be integrated into a periodized resistance training program.
The aim of the study was to examine the test-retest reliability and agreement across methods for assessing individual force-velocity (FV) profiles of the lower limbs in athletes. Using a multicenter approach, 27 male athletes completed all measurements for the main analysis, with up to 82 male and female athletes on some measurements. The athletes were tested twice before and twice after a 2- to 6-month period of regular training and sport participation. The double testing sessions were separated by ~1 week. Individual FV-profiles were acquired from incremental loading protocols in squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ) and leg press. A force plate, linear encoder and a flight time calculation method were used for measuring force and velocity during SJ and CMJ. A linear regression was fitted to the average force and velocity values for each individual test to extrapolate the FV-variables: theoretical maximal force (F0), velocity (V0), power (Pmax), and the slope of the FV-profile (SFV). Despite strong linearity (R²>0.95) for individual FV-profiles, the SFV was unreliable for all measurement methods assessed during vertical jumping (coefficient of variation (CV): 14–30%, interclass correlation coefficient (ICC): 0.36–0.79). Only the leg press exercise, of the four FV-variables, showed acceptable reliability (CV:3.7–8.3%, ICC:0.82–0.98). The agreement across methods for F0 and Pmax ranged from (Pearson r): 0.56–0.95, standard error of estimate (SEE%): 5.8–18.8, and for V0 and SFV r: -0.39–0.78, SEE%: 12.2–37.2. With a typical error of 1.5 cm (5–10% CV) in jump height, SFV and V0 cannot be accurately obtained, regardless of the measurement method, using a loading range corresponding to 40–70% of F0. Efforts should be made to either reduce the variation in jumping performance or to assess loads closer to the FV-intercepts. Coaches and researchers should be aware of the poor reliability of the FV-variables obtained from vertical jumping, and of the differences across measurement methods.
Aims
We analysed the changes in force-velocity-power variables and jump performance in response to an individualized training program based on the force-velocity imbalance (FVimb). In particular, we investigated (i) the individual adaptation kinetics to reach the optimal profile and (ii) de-training kinetics over the three weeks following the end of the training program.
Methods
Sixty subjects were assigned to four sub-groups according to their initial FVimb: high or low force-deficit (FD) and high or low velocity-deficit (VD). The duration of training intervention was set so that each individual reached their “Optimal force-velocity (F-v) profile”. Mechanical and performance variables were measured every 3 weeks during the program, and every week after the end of the individualized program.
Results
All subjects in the FD sub-groups showed extremely large increases in maximal theoretical force output (+30±16.6% Mean±SD; ES = 2.23±0.28), FVimb reduction (-74.3±54.7%; ES = 2.17±0.27) and large increases in jump height (+12.4±7.6%; ES = 1.45±0.23). For the VD sub-groups, we observed moderate to extremely large increases in maximal theoretical velocity (+15.8±5.1%; ES = 2.72±0.29), FVimb reduction (-19.2±6.9%; ES = 2.36±0.35) and increases in jump height (+10.1±2.7%; ES = 0.93±0.09). The number of weeks needed to reach the optimal F-v profile (12.6 ± 4.6) was correlated to the magnitude of initial FVimb (r = 0.82, p<0.01) for all participants regardless of their initial subgroup. No significant change in mechanical variables or jump performance was observed over the 3-week de-training period.
Conclusions
Collectively, these results provide useful insights into a more specific, individualized (i.e. based on the type and magnitude of FVimb) and accurate training prescription for jumping performance. Considering both training content and training duration together with FVimb may enable more individualized, specific and effective training monitoring and periodization.
Purpose:
The aims of this study were (I) to quantify the magnitude of the association between the same variables of the force-velocity (FV) profile and the performance variables (unloaded squat jump [SJ] height and 20 m sprint time) obtained during the jumping and sprinting testing procedures, and (II) to determine which mechanical capacity (i.e., maximum force [F0], maximum velocity [V0] or maximum power [Pmax]) presents the highest association with the performance variables.
Methods:
The FV profile of 19 elite female soccer players (age: 23.4±3.8 years, height: 166.4±5.6 cm, body mass: 59.7±4.7 kg) was determined during the jumping and sprinting tasks. The F0, V0, FV slope, Pmax, and FV imbalance (difference respect to the optimal FV profile in jumping and the decrease in the ratio of horizontal force production in sprinting) were determined for each task.
Results:
Very large correlations between both tasks were observed for Pmax (r= 0.75) and the performance variables (r= -0.73), moderate correlations for V0 (r= 0.49), while the F0 (r= -0.14), the FV slope (r= -0.09), and the FV imbalance (r= 0.07) were not significantly correlated between both tasks. The Pmax obtained during each specific task was the mechanical capacity most correlated with its performance variable (r= 0.84 in jumping and r= 0.99 in sprinting).
Conclusions:
The absence of significant correlations between some of the FV relationship parameters suggests that for an individualized training prescription based on the FV profile both jumping and sprinting testing procedures should be performed with elite female soccer players.
Ballistic performances are determined by both the maximal lower limb power output (Pmax) and their individual force-velocity (F-v) mechanical profile, especially the F-v imbalance (FVimb): difference between the athlete's actual and optimal profile. An optimized training should aim to increase Pmax and/or reduce FVimb. The aim of this study was to test whether an individualized training program based on the individual F-v profile would decrease subjects' individual FVimb and in turn improve vertical jump performance. FVimb was used as the reference to assign participants to different training intervention groups. Eighty four subjects were assigned to three groups: an “optimized” group divided into velocity-deficit, force-deficit, and well-balanced sub-groups based on subjects' FVimb, a “non-optimized” group for which the training program was not specifically based on FVimb and a control group. All subjects underwent a 9-week specific resistance training program. The programs were designed to reduce FVimb for the optimized groups (with specific programs for sub-groups based on individual FVimb values), while the non-optimized group followed a classical program exactly similar for all subjects. All subjects in the three optimized training sub-groups (velocity-deficit, force-deficit, and well-balanced) increased their jumping performance (12.7 ± 5.7% ES = 0.93 ± 0.09, 14.2 ± 7.3% ES = 1.00 ± 0.17, and 7.2 ± 4.5% ES = 0.70 ± 0.36, respectively) with jump height improvement for all subjects, whereas the results were much more variable and unclear in the non-optimized group. This greater change in jump height was associated with a markedly reduced FVimb for both force-deficit (57.9 ± 34.7% decrease in FVimb) and velocity-deficit (20.1 ± 4.3%) subjects, and unclear or small changes in Pmax (−0.40 ± 8.4% and +10.5 ± 5.2%, respectively). An individualized training program specifically based on FVimb (gap between the actual and optimal F-v profiles of each individual) was more efficient at improving jumping performance (i.e., unloaded squat jump height) than a traditional resistance training common to all subjects regardless of their FVimb. Although improving both FVimb and Pmax has to be considered to improve ballistic performance, the present results showed that reducing FVimb without even increasing Pmax lead to clearly beneficial jump performance changes. Thus, FVimb could be considered as a potentially useful variable for prescribing optimal resistance training to improve ballistic performance.
Purpose:
1) to analyze the reliability and validity of a simple computation method to evaluate force (F), velocity (v) and power (P) output during a countermovement jump (CMJ) suitable for use in field conditions; and 2) to verify the validity of this computation method to compute the CMJ Force-velocity (F-v) profile (including unloaded and loaded jumps) in trained athletes.
Methods:
Sixteen high-level male sprinters and jumpers performed maximal CMJs under six different load conditions (from 0 to 87 kg). A force-plate sampling at 1000 Hz was used to record vertical ground reaction force and derive vertical displacement data during CMJ trials. For each condition, mean F, v, and P of the push-off phase were determined from both force plate data (reference method) and simple computation measures based on body mass, jump height (from flight time), and push-off distance, and used to establish linear F-v relationship for each individual.
Results:
Mean absolute bias values were 0.9% (±1.6), 4.7% (±6.2), 3.7% (±4.8), and 5% (±6.8) for F, v, P and slope of the F-v relationship (SFv), respectively. Both methods showed high correlations for F-v profile related variables (r = 0.985 - 0.991). Finally, all variables computed from the simple method showed high reliability with ICC > 0.980 and CV < 1.0%.
Conclusions:
These results suggest that the simple method presented here is valid and reliable for computing CMJ force, velocity, power, and force-velocity profiles in athletes and could be used in practice under field conditions when body mass, push-off distance, and jump height are known.
Recent studies have brought new insights into the evaluation of power-force-velocity profiles in both ballistic push-offs (e.g. jumps) and sprint movements. These are major physical components of performance in many sports, and the methods we developed and validated are based on data that are now rather simple to obtain in field conditions (e.g. body mass, jump height, sprint times or velocity). The promising aspect of these approaches is that they allow for a more individualized and accurate evaluation, monitoring, and training practices; the success of which are highly dependent on the correct collection, generation and interpretation of athletes' mechanical outputs. We therefore wanted to provide a practical vade mecum to sports practitioners interested in implementing these power-force-velocity profiling approaches. After providing a summary of theoretical and practical definitions for the main variables, we have first detailed how vertical profiling can be used to manage ballistic push-off performance with emphasis on the concept of optimal force-velocity profile and the associated force-velocity imbalance. Further, we have discussed these same concepts with regards to horizontal profiling in the management of sprinting performance. These sections have been illustrated by typical examples from our own practice. Finally, we have provided a practical and operational synthesis, and outlined future challenges that will help in further developing these approaches.
Performance during human movements is highly related to force and velocity muscle capacities. Those capacities are highly developed in elite athletes practicing power-oriented sports. However, it is still unclear whether the balance between their force and velocity-generating capacities constitutes an optimal profile. In this study, we aimed to determine the effect of elite sport background on the force-velocity relationship in squat-jump, and evaluate the level of optimization of these profiles. Ninety-five elite athletes in cycling, fencing, taekwondo, athletics and 15 control participants performed squat jumps in seven loading conditions (range: 0-60% of the maximal load they were able to lift). Theoretical maximal power (Pm), force (F0) and velocity (v0) were determined from the individual force-velocity relationships. Optimal profiles were assessed by calculating the optimal force (F0th) and velocity (v0th). Athletic sprinters and cyclists produced greater force than the other groups (P<0.05). F0 was significantly lower than F0th, and, v0 was significantly higher than v0th for female fencers and control participants, and for male athletics sprinters, fencers and taekwondo practitioners (P<0.05). Our study shows that the chronic practice of an activity leads to differently balanced force-velocity profiles. Moreover, the differences between measured and optimal force-velocity profiles raise potential sources of performance improvement in elite athletes.
Manipulation of external loads typically provides a range of force, velocity, and power data that allows for modeling muscle mechanical characteristics. While a typical force-velocity relationship obtained from either in vitro muscles or isolated muscle groups can be described by a hyperbolic equation, the present review paper reveals the evidence that the same relationship obtained from maximum-performance multi-joint movements could be approximately linear. As a consequence, this pattern also results in a relatively simple shape of the power-velocity relationship. The parameters of the linear force-velocity relationship reveal the maximum force, velocity and power. Recent studies conducted on various functional movement tasks reveal that these parameters could be reliable, on average moderately valid, and typically sensitive enough to detect differences among populations of different physical abilities. Therefore, the linear force-velocity relationship together with the associated parabolic power-velocity relationship could provide both a new and simplified approach to studies of the design and function of human muscular system and its modeling. Regarding the practical applications, the reviewed findings also suggest that the loaded multi-joint movements could be developed into relatively simple routine tests of the force-, velocity- and power-generating capacity of the neuromuscular system.
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.
The purpose of this investigation was to analyze the concurrent validity and reliability of an iPhone app (called: My Jump) for measuring vertical jump performance. Twenty recreationally-active healthy men (age: 22.1 ± 3.6 years) completed five maximal countermovement jumps (CMJ), which were evaluated using a force platform (time in the air –TIA– method) and a specially designed iPhone app. My jump was developed to calculate the jump height from flight time using the high-speed video recording facility on the iPhone 5s. Jump heights of the 100 jumps measured, for both devices, were compared using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r), Cronbach’s alpha (α), coefficient of variation (CV) and Bland-Altman plots. There was an almost perfect agreement between the force platform and My Jump for the CMJ height (ICC = 0.997, p < 0.001; Bland-Altman bias= 1.1 ±0.5cm, p < 0.001). In comparison with the force platform, My Jump showed good validity for the CMJ height (r = 0.995, p < 0.001). The results of the present study show that CMJ height can be easily, accurately, and reliably evaluated using a specially developed iPhone 5s app.
Purpose
To study the effect of a countermovement on the lower limb force–velocity (F–v) mechanical profile and to experimentally test the influence of F–v mechanical profile on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, independently from the effect of maximal power output (P max).
Methods
Fifty-four high-level sprinters and jumpers performed vertical maximal CMJ and squat jump (SJ) against five to eight additional loads ranging from 17 to 87 kg. Vertical ground reaction force data were recorded (1,000 Hz) and used to compute center of mass vertical displacement. For each condition, mean force, velocity, and power output were determined over the entire push-off phase of the best trial, and used to determine individual linear F–v RELATIONSHIPS and P max. From a previously validated biomechanical model, the optimal F–v profile maximizing jumping performance was determined for each subject and used to compute the individual mechanical F–v imbalance (Fv IMB) as the difference between actual and optimal F–v profiles.
Results
A multiple regression analysis clearly showed (r 2 = 0.952, P < 0.001, SEE 0.011 m) that P max, Fv IMB and lower limb extension range (h PO) explained a significant part of the interindividual differences in CMJ performance (P < 0.001) with positive regression coefficients for P max and h PO and a negative one for Fv IMB.
Conclusion
Compared to SJ, F–v relationships were shifted to the right in CMJ, with higher P max, maximal theoretical force and velocity (+35.8, 20.6 and 13.3 %, respectively). As in SJ, CMJ performance depends on Fv IMB, independently from the effect of P max, with the existence of an individual optimal F–v profile (Fv IMB having an even larger influence in CMJ).
The physical demands imposed on contemporary dancers by choreographers and performance schedules make their physical fitness just as important to them as skill development. Nevertheless, it remains to be confirmed which physical fitness components are associated with aesthetic competence. The aim of this study was to: 1. replicate and test a novel aesthetic competence tool for reliability, and 2. investigate the association between selected physical fitness components and aesthetic competence by using this new tool. Seventeen volunteers underwent a series of physical fitness tests (body composition, flexibility, muscular power and endurance, and aerobic capacity) and aesthetic competence assessments (seven individual criteria commonly used by selected dance companies). Inter-rater reliability of the aesthetic competence tool was very high (r = 0.96). There were significant correlations between the aesthetic competence score and jump ability and push-ups (r = 0.55 and r = 0.55, respectively). Stepwise backward multiple regression analysis revealed that the best predictor of aesthetic competence was push-ups (R(2) = 0.30, p = 0.03). Univariate analyses also revealed that the interaction of push-ups and jump ability improved the prediction power of aesthetic competence (R(2) = 0.44, p = 0.004). It is concluded that upper body muscular endurance and jump ability best predict aesthetic competence of the present sample of contemporary dancers. Further research is required to investigate the contribution of other components of aesthetic competence, including upper body strength, lower body muscular endurance, general coordination, and static and dynamic balance.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a pre-season taper on individual power-force-velocity profiles and jump performance in professional National Rugby League (NRL) players. Seven professional rugby league players performed concentric squat jumps using ascending loads of 25, 50, 75, 100% body mass before and after a 21 day step taper leading into the in-season. Linear force-velocity relationships were derived and the following variables were obtained: maximum theoretical velocity (V0), maximum theoretical force (F0) and maximum power (Pmax). The players showed likely-to-very likely increases in F0 (ES=0.45) and Pmax (ES=0.85) from pre to post taper. Loaded squat jump height also showed likely-to-most likely increases at each load (ES=0.83-1.04). The 21 day taper was effective at enhancing maximal power output and jump height performance in professional rugby players, possibly due to a recovery from fatigue and thus increased strength capability after a prolonged preseason training period. Rugby league strength and conditioning coaches should consider reducing training volume while maintaining intensity and aerobic conditioning (e.g. step taper) leading into the in-season.
This study determined the concurrent validity and reliability of force, velocity and power measurements provided by accelerometry, linear position transducer and Samozino’s methods, during loaded squat jumps. Seventeen subjects performed squat jumps on two separate occasions in 7 loading conditions (0% to 60% of the maximal concentric load). Force, velocity and power patterns were averaged over the push-off phase using accelerometry, linear position transducer and a method based on key positions measurements during squat jump, and compared to force plate measurements. Concurrent validity analyses indicated very good agreement with the reference method (CV=6.4-14.5%). Force, velocity and power patterns comparison confirmed the agreement with slight differences for high-velocity movements. The validity of measurements was equivalent for all tested methods (r=0.87-0.98). Bland-Altman plots showed a lower agreement for velocity and power compared to force. Mean force, velocity and power were reliable for all methods (ICC=0.84-0.99), especially for Samozino’s method (CV=2.7-8.6%). Our findings showed that present methods are valid and reliable in different loading conditions and permit between-session comparisons and characterization of training-induced effects. While linear position transducer and accelerometer allow for examining the whole time-course of kinetic patterns, Samozino’s method benefits from a better reliability and ease of processing.
This study sought to lend experimental support to the theoretical influence of force-velocity (F-v) mechanical profile on jumping performance independently from the effect of maximal power output (P max ). 48 high-level athletes (soccer players, sprinters, rugby players) performed maximal squat jumps with additional loads from 0 to 100% of body mass. During each jump, mean force, velocity and power output were obtained using a simple computation method based on flight time, and then used to determine individual linear F-v relationships and P max values. Actual and optimal F-v profiles were computed for each subject to quantify mechanical F-v imbalance. A multiple regression analysis showed, with a high-adjustment quality (r²=0.931, P<0.001, SEE=0.015 m), significant contributions of P max , F-v imbalance and lower limb extension range (h PO ) to explain interindividual differences in jumping performance (P<0.001) with positive regression coefficients for P max and h PO and a negative one for F-v imbalance. This experimentally supports that ballistic performance depends, in addition to P max , on the F-v profile of lower limbs. This adds support to the actual existence of an individual optimal F-v profile that maximizes jumping performance, a F-v imbalance being associated to a lower performance. These results have potential strong applications in the field of strength and conditioning.
Prospective, descriptive single-cohort study.
To assess the incidence and severity of injuries to a professional ballet company over 1 year.
Data for an elite-level ballet company of 52 professional dancers were collected by an in-house medical team using a time-loss injury definition.
A total of 355 injuries were recorded, with an overall injury incidence of 4.4 injuries per 1000 hours (female, 4.1; male, 4.8; P>.05) and a mean of 6.8 injuries per dancer (female, 6.3; male, 7.3; P>.05). Mean injury severity was 7 days (female, 4; male, 9; P<.05). Most injuries were classified as overuse (64%; female, 68%; male, 60%; P>.05); mean severity of injury was 3 days for females and 9 days for males (P<.05). The percentage of traumatic injuries was 32% for females and 40% for males (P<.05); the corresponding severity was 6 and 10 days, respectively (P<.05).
The relatively high number of injuries reported and the resulting loss of dance time support the need to introduce interventions to reduce the risk of injury in professional dancers.J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2012;42(9):781-790. Epub 19 July 2012. doi:10.2519/jospt.2012.3893.
The study's purpose was to determine the respective influences of the maximal power (Pmax) and the force-velocity (F-v) mechanical profile of the lower limb neuromuscular system on performance in ballistic movements.
A theoretical integrative approach was proposed to express ballistic performance as a mathematical function of Pmax and F-v profile. This equation was (i) validated from experimental data obtained on 14 subjects during lower limb ballistic inclined push-offs and (ii) simulated to quantify the respective influence of Pmax and F-v profile on performance.
The bias between performances predicted and obtained from experimental measurements was 4%-7%, confirming the validity of the proposed theoretical approach. Simulations showed that ballistic performance was mostly influenced not only by Pmax but also by the balance between force and velocity capabilities as described by the F-v profile. For each individual, there is an optimal F-v profile that maximizes performance, whereas unfavorable F-v balances lead to differences in performance up to 30% for a given Pmax. This optimal F-v profile, which can be accurately determined, depends on some individual characteristics (limb extension range, Pmax) and on the afterload involved in the movement (inertia, inclination). The lower the afterload, the more the optimal F-v profile is oriented toward velocity capabilities and the greater the limitation of performance imposed by the maximal velocity of lower limb extension.
High ballistic performances are determined by both maximization of the power output capabilities and optimization of the F-v mechanical profile of the lower limb neuromuscular system.
The physical demands imposed on contemporary dancers by choreographers and performance schedules make their physical fitness just as important to them as skill development. Nevertheless, it remains to be confirmed which physical fitness components are associated with aesthetic competence. The aim of this study was to: 1. replicate and test a novel aesthetic competence tool for reliability, and 2. investigate the association between selected physical fitness components and aesthetic competence by using this new tool. Seventeen volunteers underwent a series of physical fitness tests (body composition, flexibility, muscular power and endurance, and aerobic capacity) and aesthetic competence assessments (seven individual criteria commonly used by selected dance companies). Inter-rater reliability of the aesthetic competence tool was very high (r = 0.96). There were significant correlations between the aesthetic competence score and jump ability and push-ups (r = 0.55 and r = 0.55, respectively). Stepwise backward multiple regression analysis revealed that the best predictor of aesthetic competence was push-ups (R(2) = 0.30, p = 0.03). Univariate analyses also revealed that the interaction of push-ups and jump ability improved the prediction power of aesthetic competence (R(2) = 0.44, p = 0.004). It is concluded that upper body muscular endurance and jump ability best predict aesthetic competence of the present sample of contemporary dancers. Further research is required to investigate the contribution of other components of aesthetic competence, including upper body strength, lower body muscular endurance, general coordination, and static and dynamic balance.
The physical demands placed on dancers make their physiology and fitness just as important as skill development. However, dancers’ muscular strength and bone and joint integrity seem to suffer as a result of the dance-only selection and training system. This partly reflects the unfounded view that exercise training that is not directly related to dance would diminish dancers’ aesthetic appearances and destroy muscle flexibility. Nevertheless, data on male and female dancers have demonstrated that supplemental strength training can lead to better dancing and reduced incidents of dance injuries without interfering with key artistic and aesthetic requirements. An awareness of these factors will assist dancers and their teachers in improving training techniques, employing more effective injury prevention program, and in determining better physical conditioning strategies.
Jumping plays an integral part of ballet performance and this study examines some of the ballet dancer’s characteristics that influence jump height. Forty-nine dancers (M = 21; F = 28) completed a series of tests that included two footed vertical jump height, single leg vertical jump height and anthropometric measurements. Supplemental training history and company position were also recorded. Statistical analysis (ANCOVA and MANOVA) indicated males had a greater vertical jump height than females (p < 0.01) and soloist and first artists had significantly greater vertical jump height than principals and artists for both male and females (p < 0.05). Anthropometric data indicated males having significantly larger leg girths than females. Males and females had no significant bilateral differences in girth measurements though male artists had significantly smaller thighs and calves than the other seniority levels (p < 0.05). Supplemental training did not influence jump height in this study’s population though males carried out significantly more weight training (p < 0.01) and females more aerobic training (p < 0.05). When jump height was analyzed in relation to cross-sectional area of the calf and thigh, there was no gender difference (p > 0.05). These results corroborate to previous research and also provide greater insight on how anthropometric and choreographic factors potentially influence vertical jump height in ballet dancers. The ineffective influence of supplemental training on vertical jump height needs greater examination. How other training regimens could influence jump height in dancers needs to be examined.
Our aim was to clarify the relationship between power output and the different mechanical parameters influencing it during squat jumps, and to further use this relationship in a new computation method to evaluate power output in field conditions. Based on fundamental laws of mechanics, computations were developed to express force, velocity and power generated during one squat jump. This computation method was validated on eleven physically active men performing two maximal squat jumps. During each trial, mean force, velocity and power were calculated during push-off from both force plate measurements and the proposed computations. Differences between the two methods were not significant and lower than 3% for force, velocity and power. The validity of the computation method was also highlighted by Bland and Altman analyses and linear regressions close to the identity line (P<0.001). The low coefficients of variation between two trials demonstrated the acceptable reliability of the proposed method. The proposed computations confirmed, from a biomechanical analysis, the positive relationship between power output, body mass and jump height, hitherto only shown by means of regression-based equations. Further, these computations pointed out that power also depends on push-off vertical distance. The accuracy and reliability of the proposed theoretical computations were in line with those observed when using laboratory ergometers such as force plates. Consequently, the proposed method, solely based on three simple parameters (body mass, jump height and push-off distance), allows to accurately evaluate force, velocity and power developed by lower limbs extensor muscles during squat jumps in field conditions.
The purpose of this study was to test the effect of a jump-training program on landing mechanics and lower extremity strength in female athletes involved in jumping sports. These parameters were compared before and after training with those of male athletes. The program was designed to decrease landing forces by teaching neuromuscular control of the lower limb during landing and to increase vertical jump height. After training, peak landing forces from a volleyball block jump decreased 22%, and knee adduction and abduction moments (medially and laterally directed torques) decreased approximately 50%. Multiple regression analysis revealed that these moments were significant predictors of peak landing forces. Female athletes demonstrated lower landing forces than male athletes and lower adduction and abduction moments after training. External knee extension moments (hamstring muscle-dominant) of male athletes were threefold higher than those of female athletes. Hamstring-to-quadriceps muscle peak torque ratios increased 26% on the nondominant side and 13% on the dominant side, correcting side-to-side imbalances. Hamstring muscle power increased 44% with training on the dominant side and 21% on the nondominant. Peak torque ratios of male athletes were significantly greater than those of untrained female athletes, but similar to those of trained females. Mean vertical jump height increased approximately 10%. This training may have a significant effect on knee stabilization and prevention of serious knee injury among female athletes.
The physical demands placed on dancers from current choreography and performance schedules make their physiology and fitness just as important as skill development. However, even at the height of their professional careers, dancers' aerobic power, muscular strength, muscular balance, bone and joint integrity are the 'Achilles heels' of the dance-only selection and training system. This partly reflects the unfounded view, shared by sections of the dance world, that any exercise training that is not directly related to dance would diminish dancers' aesthetic appearances. Given that performing dance itself elicits only limited stimuli for positive fitness adaptations, it is not surprising that professional dancers often demonstrate values similar to those obtained from healthy sedentary individuals of comparable age in key fitness-related parameters. In contrast, recent data on male and female dancers revealed that supplementary exercise training can lead to improvements of such fitness parameters and reduce incidents of dance injuries, without interfering with key artistic and aesthetic requirements. It seems, however, that strict selection and training regimens have succeeded in transforming dance to an activity practised by individuals who have selectively developed different flexibility characteristics compared with athletes. Bodyweight targets are normally met by low energy intakes, with female dance students and professional ballerinas reported to consume below 70% and 80% of the recommended daily allowance of energy intake, respectively, while the female athlete 'triad' of disordered eating, amenorrhoea and osteoporosis is now well recognised and is seen just as commonly in dancers. An awareness of these factors will assist dancers and their teachers to improve training techniques, to employ effective injury prevention strategies and to determine better physical conditioning. However, any change in the traditional training regimes must be approached cautiously to ensure that the aesthetic content of the dance is not affected by new training techniques. Since physiological aspects of performing dance have been viewed primarily in the context of ballet, further scientific research on all forms of dance is required.
Retrospective descriptive cohort study.
To describe the distribution and rate of injuries in elite adolescent ballet dancers, and to examine the utility of screening data to distinguish between injured and noninjured dancers.
Adolescent dancers account for most ballet injuries. Limited information exists, however, regarding the distribution of, rate of, and risk factors for, adolescent dance injuries.
Two hundred four dancers (age, 9-20 years) were screened over 5 years. Screening data were collected at the beginning and injury data were collected at the end of each training year. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize distribution and rate of injuries. Inference statistics were used to examine differences between injured and noninjured dancers.
Fifty-three percent of injuries occurred in the foot/ankle, 21.6% in the hip, 16.1% in the knee, and 9.4% in the back. Thirty-two to fifty-one percent of the dancers were injured each year, and, over the 5 years, there were 1.09 injuries per 1000 athletic exposures, and 0.77 injuries per 1000 hours of dance. Significant differences between injured and noninjured dancers were limited to current disability scores (P = .007), history of low back pain (P = .017), right foot pronation (P = .005), insufficient right-ankle plantar flexion (P = .037), and lower extremity strength (P = .045).
Distribution of injuries was similar to that of other studies. Injury rates were lower than most reported rates, except when expressed per 1000 hours of dance. Few differences were found between injured and noninjured dancers. These findings should be considered when designing and implementing screening programs.
Aims
The aim of the study was to assess mechanical muscle capacities and profiles of well-trained soccer goalkeepers playing at a national amateur level.
Methods
Eleven goalkeepers (from 4th French division) performed vertical jump tests and series of loaded half squat and bench throw tests to assess lower and upper limbs force-velocity profiles, respectively. Force, velocity and power produced during each exercise were determined using a guided barbell. Maximal theoretical velocity and maximal theoretical force were determined from the force-velocity profiles. Slopes of those profiles were also calculated.
Results
Vertical jump performances were 38.5 ± 4.5 cm for the squat jump and 41.6 ± 5.5 cm for the countermovement jump. Lower limbs stiffness was 304.2 ± 55.1 N.m⁻¹.kg⁻¹. Lower limbs force-velocity profile was described by a slope of −11.5 ± 4.0 N.s.m⁻¹.kg⁻¹, with maximal theoretical force and velocity reaching 34.3 ± 5.9 N.kg⁻¹ and 3.2 ± 0.2 m.s⁻¹, respectively. Upper limbs muscular profile was described by a slope of −3.7 ± 1.1 N.s.m⁻¹.kg⁻¹, with maximal theoretical force and velocity of 13.6 ± 3.7 N.kg⁻¹ and 3.7 ± 0.6 m.s⁻¹, respectively. These values reveal that goalkeepers’ muscles profiles are oriented towards velocity.
Conclusion
This suggests that whatever the goalkeepers’ level, specific and conditioning trainings should mainly focus on velocity to optimize the performance of this specific soccer player.
Dowse, RA, McGuigan, MR, and Harrison, C. Effects of a resistance training intervention on strength, power, and performance in adolescent dancers. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2017-The aim of this study was to determine whether a 9-week resistance training program could have a significant effect on maximum lower-body strength and power, dynamic balance, and dance performance in adolescent dancers. Twelve competitive adolescent female dancers trained in jazz, ballet, and contemporary were recruited from local dance schools and assigned to a resistance training group (dance experience 9.2 ± 2.4 years; age 14.2 ± 1.9 years; height 155.6 ± 9.1 cm; and mass 48.9 ± 13.8 kg). Anthropometry (height, seated height, mass, and skinfolds), subjective dancing performance, dynamic balance (eyes open [EO] and eyes closed), maximum lower-body strength (isometric midthigh pull), and power (vertical countermovement jump, squat jump, and single-leg countermovement jump) were assessed before and after the 9-week intervention period. Posttesting identified a significant improvement EO overall stability (p = 0.003; effect size [ES] = 0.88), EO anterior-posterior stability (p = 0.003; ES = 0.92), peak force (p < 0.001; ES = 0.61), peak power (p = 0.021; ES = 0.22), and subjective dancing performance (p = 0.008; ES = 0.76). These results were accompanied by a trivial but significant change in mass (p = 0.023; ES = 0.09) that was attributed to growth and no significant change in body fat or the sum of skinfolds. This study demonstrated that resistance training can have a significant effect on dynamic balance, maximum lower-body strength, and power without adversely affecting artistic or esthetic components. The results suggest that incorporating resistance training may enhance strength and power adaptations and manage growth-related changes in adolescent dancers.
Purpose:
To describe the training demands of contemporary dance and determine the validity of using the session-RPE (sRPE) method to monitor exercise intensity and training load in this activity. In addition, we examined the contribution of training (i.e. accelerometry and heart rate) and non-training related factors (i.e. sleep and wellness) to perceived exertion during dance training.
Methods:
Training load and actigraphy for sixteen elite amateur contemporary dancers were collected during a 49 day period, using heart rate monitors, accelerometry and sRPE. Within-individual correlation analysis was used to determine relationships between sRPE and several other measures of training intensity and load. Stepwise multiple regressions were used to determine a predictive equation to estimate sRPE during dance training.
Results:
Average weekly training load was 4283 ±2442 AU, monotony 2.13 ±0.92 AU, strain 10677± 9438 AU, and average weekly vector magnitude load 1809707 ±1015402 AU. There were large-to-very large within-individual correlations between sRPE-TL and various other internal and external measures of intensity and load. The stepwise multiple regression analysis also revealed that 49.7% of the adjusted variance in sRPE-TL was explained by HRpeak, METs, soreness, motivation and sleep quality (Y = -4.637 + 13.817 %HRpeak + 0.316 METS + 0.100 soreness + 0.116 motivation - 0.204 sleep quality).
Conclusion:
The current findings demonstrate; the validity of the sRPE method for quantifying training load in dance, that dancers undertake very high training loads and a combination of training and non-training factors contribute to perceived exertion in dance training.
While the benefits of traditional strength training for dancers has been examined, no such investigation has been performed for plyometric training. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of plyometric training and traditional weight training on aesthetic jumping ability, lower-body strength, and power in collegiate dancers. Eighteen female dancers who were enrolled in a minimum of one intermediate or advanced ballet or modern class at Skidmore College volunteered to participate in the study. Twelve subjects were randomly assigned to a plyometric (n = 6) or traditional weight training (n = 6) group. The remaining six subjects served as a self-selected control group. The plyometric group performed 3 sets of 8 repetitions of 4 different lower-body plyometric exercises twice a week. The weight training group performed 3 sets of 6 to 8 repetitions of 4 lower-body isotonic exercises twice a week. The control group refrained from all forms of strength training. Each subject maintained her normal dance classes throughout the six week intervention. All subjects were tested prior to and following the six-week training period. Testing consisted of assessments of jumping skill and lower-body strength and power. Strength was assessed via 3 one-repetition maximum tests: leg press, leg curl, and leg extension. Power was assessed with a Wingate anaerobic power test and vertical jump height tests. Aesthetic jumping ability was assessed via an evaluation by dance faculty at Skidmore College on ballon, jump height, ability to point the feet in the air, and overall jumping ability. There were no differences in the descriptive measures of jumping ability, strength or power among the groups at the start of the study. The plyometric group significantly increased leg press strength (37%), standing vertical jump height (8.3%), and aesthetic jump height (14%). The weight training group significantly increased leg press strength (32%), leg curl strength (23%), mean anaerobic power (6%), aesthetic jump height (22%), and aesthetic ability to point the feet in the air (20%). No significant changes were seen in the control group. The results of this study indicate that either plyometric training or traditional lower-body weight training can be useful in improving variables applicable to dance. This study also supports the notion that short-term dance training alone may not be sufficient to elicit improvements in these variables.
The work of dancers today embraces not only the art of communicating the joy and aesthetics of movement executing in perfect harmony and style, the power to express ideas and emotions through movement and musicality and the effortless display of technical virtuosity, but also these days a far more athletic and often acrobatic approach to movement is required which choreographers are insisting on more and more as a result of the increased cross fertilization between classical ballet and contemporary dance.”
— Sir Peter Wright*
In recent years it has frequently been suggested that dancers may not be sufficiently prepared for the physical demands of dance. The majority of researchers have arrived at the conclusion that there are gaps in the structure of dance training programs that could be filled with the type of physical training that has benefited other elite athletes. This article reviews some recommendations in light of current research for the supplementation of dance training and the inclusion of fitness concepts in traditional dance classes.
Statistical guidelines and expert statements are now available to assist in the analysis and reporting of studies in some biomedical disciplines. We present here a more progressive resource for sample-based studies, meta-analyses, and case studies in sports medicine and exercise science. We offer forthright advice on the following controversial or novel issues: using precision of estimation for inferences about population effects in preference to null-hypothesis testing, which is inadequate for assessing clinical or practical importance; justifying sample size via acceptable precision or confidence for clinical decisions rather than via adequate power for statistical significance; showing SD rather than SEM, to better communicate the magnitude of differences in means and nonuniformity of error; avoiding purely nonparametric analyses, which cannot provide inferences about magnitude and are unnecessary; using regression statistics in validity studies, in preference to the impractical and biased limits of agreement; making greater use of qualitative methods to enrich sample-based quantitative projects; and seeking ethics approval for public access to the depersonalized raw data of a study, to address the need for more scrutiny of research and better meta-analyses. Advice on less contentious issues includes the following: using covariates in linear models to adjust for confounders, to account for individual differences, and to identify potential mechanisms of an effect; using log transformation to deal with nonuniformity of effects and error; identifying and deleting outliers; presenting descriptive, effect, and inferential statistics in appropriate formats; and contending with bias arising from problems with sampling, assignment, blinding, measurement error, and researchers' prejudices. This article should advance the field by stimulating debate, promoting innovative approaches, and serving as a useful checklist for authors, reviewers, and editors.
This study examined the cardiorespiratory and anthropometric indices of professional classical ballet dancers in relation to company seniority, gender, and supplemental training. Forty-nine participants from an international touring company carried out a peak Vo(2) test and vertical jump test. Anthropometric measurements and supplemental training activities were also recorded for each participant. Statistical analyses showed significant differences between gender and dancer seniority levels. Gender differences were seen for jump height (M = 52.7 +/- 7.12 cm; F = 37.6 +/- 5.32 cm) and peak Vo(2) (M = 49.32 +/- 3.72 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); F = 43.3 +/- 5.16 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)). Differences were also seen between dancer levels for peak Vo(2) (artist = 46.47 +/- 4.67 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); first artist = 42.72 +/- 5.81 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); soloist = 43.38 +/- 7.14 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); principal = 49.04 +/- 3.63 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)) and jump height (artist = 42.0 +/- 9.11 cm; first artist = 50.33 +/- 11.65 cm; soloist = 45.6 +/- 9.78 cm; principal = 44.67 +/- 9.53 cm). Pairwise post hoc comparisons showed that corps and principals had significantly greater relative peak Vo(2) than first artists and soloists (p < 0.05), while soloists and first artists had significantly greater jump heights compared to principals and corps (p < 0.05). Analysis of covariance modeling indicated that the self-reported mode of supplemental training had no association with relative peak Vo(2) or the percentage at which ventilatory threshold occurred. The present study has provided further insight into the cardiorespiratory profiles of classical ballet dancers, where soloists have significantly greater power capacities compared to principals and corps, who in turn had significantly greater aerobic power. These data can help guide strength and conditioning intervention strategies that need to take into account the nuances of the different seniority levels within a dance company.
It's the effect size, stupid-what effect size is and why it is important. Paper presented at: Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association
- R Coe
Coe R. It's the effect size, stupid-what effect size is and why it is
important. Paper presented at: Annual Conference of the British
Educational Research Association, University of Exeter; September
12-14, 2002; England, UK.