Challenges of Integrated Water Resources Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa

Full text

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
2019; 8(2): 9-20
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/wros
doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20190802.11
ISSN: 2328-7969 (Print); ISSN: 2328-7993 (Online)
Challenges of Integrated Water Resources Management in
the Western Cape Province, South Africa
Ntokozo Malaza1, Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda2
1Department of Environmental and Occupational Studies, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
2Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa
Email address:
To cite this article:
Ntokozo Malaza, Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda. Challenges of Integrated Water Resources Management in the Western Cape Province, South.
Africa. Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science. Vol. 8, No. 2, 2019, pp. 9-20. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20190802.11
Received: September 3, 2018; Accepted: September 18, 2018; Published: June 5, 2019
Abstract: The increased demand for water and land in South Africa, in particular the Western Cape Province as a
consequence of population growth, climate change and economic development has reportedly been accelerated from year to
year. The province has been adhering to the Intergrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) which was developed in the
Water Indaba of 2009 in order to respond to the joint National and Provincial action towards managing the water resources in
the Western Cape Province. At the same time, there is growing empirical evidence that challenges the scientific consensus and
the practical implications of implementing IWRM provincially and nationally, although the nature of the implementation
challenges may differ in different contexts. Against this background, this paper investigates the nature of the practical
challenges to implementing water resource management in the Western Cape region. The study reviewed existing literature on
the various issues of IWRM in South Africa; the various basins in the country; the existing measures that the authorities have
in place to deal with water resources management issues; the challenges that hinder the progress of their achievements and
some suggestions that if considered can improve the current water resources management situations in South Africa. The
availability of water and a broader range of water-related issues are identified. The recommended actions for improving the
future IWRM are suggested. Challenges to improve the capacity buildings of IWRM related to enabling environment,
institutional frameworks and management instruments are verified to contribute to the future directions for efficient problem-
solving ability.
Keywords: Enabling Environment, Climate Change, Sustainable Development, Water Management Practices
1. Introduction
Globally, water resources are becoming increasingly
vulnerable as a result of escalating demand arising from
population growth, the need for increased food production,
expanding industrialization due to rising living standards,
pollution due to various anthropogenic activities, and climate
change impacts. The traditional, single focus sectoral
organisation of water management bodies has proved to be
ineffective in dealing with the multifunctional nature of
water. Many authors have described the situation as a crisis
of governance. This led to the search for an appropriate
management approach for water resources. In the process the
concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
has been developed by many theorists, policy makers and
international bodies.
Consequently, ensuring availability and sustainable
management of water has been adopted as part of the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals, Transforming Our
World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [23].
According to [17], even though who’s definition of access to
safe water which defines it as the receipt of 25-30 litres of
safe water per person per day is acceptable, the notion of
water scarcity has been a hot topic for many years as some
perceive it as an issue of supply or demand or a merger of the
two. According to [28], water services and access to water
are also important features of water availability but are not
constantly decided by scarcity. Sometimes, what generally is
seen as water scarcity are policies promoted by the result of
maladministration. At the same time, it is argued that the
concept is poorly articulated by epistemic communities [6].

10 Ntokozo Malaza and Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda: Challenges of Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa
Yet, it is heavily marketed through professional communities,
supported on the one hand, by the aid agencies and, on the
other hand, by international declarations that adopt this
concept [1].
Against this background, the objectives of this study are as
follows: (1) to briefly overview the water availability and
water-related issues in the province; (2) to evaluate the
progress in implementing the IWRM plans in the Western
Cape including the biases and problems being inherent
inefficiency of national government and provincial
administration; and (3) to describe the challenges and the
benefits to the provinces applying it to their water resources
management.
2. Water Availability and the Seasonality
of the Western Cape Climate
South Africa is considered to be a water scarce country
and, if the current rate of water usage continues, demand is
likely to exceed supply at some point in the future. The
improvement of water conservation, water quality and water
use efficiency is a key national priority. When compared
against a global rainfall average of 870 mm per year, the
country only receives 450 mm. This makes South Africa the
world’s 30th driest country [11].
Water in the Western Cape Province is a very scarce
resource with an annual mean of rainfall which dropped from
544 mm in the period of 1944-1949 to 348mm in 2005 [15]. It
also experiences with highest variability in its mean annual
precipitation. For example, in June 2013 the Western Cape
experienced extreme weather with very cold and heavy rains
which lead to flooding in low lying areas, but in 2016 the
province experienced very little rains. High levels of
precipitation (over 2000 mm per annum) occur in the
mountainous areas around the city (the Helderberg basin,
Franschhoek and Steenbras) where the major dams are situated.
Rainfall is seasonal, and mainly occurs during winter (May-
August), while the period of October–March is the dry season.
The seasonal pattern and low level of rainfall makes the
province highly dependent on stored water resources. Over
440 million m3 of wateris being stored in five major dams
(Wemmershoek, Steenbras, Voelvlei, Berg River and
Theewaterskloof) in the surrounding catchments.
Approximately 8 million m3 of bulk water supply currently
comes from groundwater resources [11]. The construction of
the Berg River projec near Franschhoek is the largest water
infrastructure project in the Southern African Development
Community (SADC). The dam was inaugurated in 2009, and
yields an additional 80 million m3per annum increasing the
water storage capacity of the city [11]. The province is facing
various challenges with regard to water resources
conservation and its management.
3. Iwrm Paradigm in South Africa
In dealing with the water crisis, management approaches
and planning methods for water resources are mandatory in
order to avoid environmental deterioration of water bodies
(National Water Act, Act No. 36 of 1998). The debate on
water management has involved the science community and
the policy world. As the South African government is the
custodian of all water bodies, this paradigm urges the
government to involve various stakeholders for matters
pertaining to water resource management to promote efficient
water use and the protection and conservation of
catchments/water resource bodies. The foundation of this
thinking is to enforce sustainable development in water
resource management initiatives which will be able to restore
and maintain a continuous flow of water (National Water Act,
Act No. 36 of 1998).
Many water theorists favour IWRM as the best way to
manage water resources [13] and it now enjoys international
endorsement at the highest level, such as the 2002 World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD),
Johannesburg, and the different World Water Forums [14].
This global paradigm shift from single purpose/sector
specific approaches to IWRM is good because it is
comprehensive and holistic considering all sectors, all types
of water and all resources in the region at the same time and
‘reinforces an ecological approach to land use and planning’
[19] (Table 1).
Table 1. Changing paradigms in water resources management in the Western Cape.
Old (1912-1997) and new (1998-present) paradigms and their implications in water resources management
Old paradigm Implication New paradigm Implication
Elements
Government regime apartheid system of segregation or
discrimination on grounds of race Democracy All the eligible members
participate
Administrative rule Centralisation Concentration on national
administration Decentralisation Provincial administration
Decision making
process Top down All decisions made based on
administrator interests Bottom up All decision made based on
stakeholders aspiration
Budgetary system Government
allocation
Financial sources from government
budget Water users sharing model Financial sources from water user,
polluters and government budget
Project interests Supremacy
instruction Increase in personal popularity People aspiration Solving water related problems
Project preparations Based on short term
planning Based on local/personal interests Based on master plan Approved based on
comprehensive studies

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2019; 8(2): 9-20 11
4. Water Related Challenges in the
Western Cape Province
4.1. Climate Change
Climate change increases the probability of extreme
weather events such as droughts, gradual variations in
temperature and rainfall. Warming of the earth witnessed in
the past 5 decades is attributed to anthropological actions
[28]. In the Western Cape, suggestions from climate change
projections indicate increased variability in precipitation,
regular extreme events and increased temperatures. The
province is currently experiencing drought conditions which
are characterised by very low rainfall. The province is
extremely under pressure as the dam’s levels are critically
low because of severe prolonged drought. This is evident by
researchers from the Alliance for Collaboration on Climate
and Earth Systems Science (ACCESS) in collaboration with
the South African Weather Service (SAWS), the Council for
Scientific and Industrial research (CSIR), the University of
Cape Town, the University of Pretoria, the World Wildlife
Fund (WWF), the South African Environmental Observation
Network (SAEON), the Agricultural Research Council
(ARC) and other organisations including local and provincial
government. The researchers are in agreement that the
extremely low reservoir levels are a result of an accumulated
2-3 years of relatively low winter rainfalls which limited the
reservoir levels. They also argue that the current drought is a
combination of a decrease in previous years’ rainfall as well
as an increased demand for water.
Climate change affects water quality i.e. creeks and
groundwater become more saline. As the levels of the sea
rises which results from the warming of the earth, an
intrusion into groundwater tables and creeks in the coast
occurs [22]. Another problem is that the recharge rate is
decreased which results in the concentration of salts being
increased. Furthermore, the presence of pollutants will be
promoted and such sediments, dissolved organic carbon and
pesticides will flourish due to warmer water temperatures
which will lead to longer periods of low flow [22]. The
amount and location of accessible usable water is affected
byalterations in precipitation patterns, surface runoff,
evaporation rates, groundwater recharge and water quality
which are said to result from climate change [22].
20/02/2018
06/02/2018

12 Ntokozo Malaza and Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda: Challenges of Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa
30/01/2018
23/01/2018
21/11/2017

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2019; 8(2): 9-20 13
07/11/2017
Figure 1. Western Cape Province and the City of Cape Town dam levels and weather focus for selected Tuesdays in the month of November; (a) 20/02/2018
(b) 06/02/2018 (c) 30/01/2018 (d) 23/01/2018 (e) 21/11/2017 and (f) 07/11/2017 (Source: [2] and [3]).
In the province, climate change is projected to alter present
hydrological resources and place added pressure on the
adaptability of future water resources [16]. Most of South
Africa has experienced extensive droughts in the past few
decades, the most recent being in 2000 - 2001 and 2004 -
2005 [28]. The province dam levels have been recorded at
their lowest during the summer months of 2017 and 2018
(Figures 1, 2 and 3). Droughts affect both surface and
groundwater resources and can lead to reduced water supply.
Furthermore, droughts interrupt the transportation of
sediments, organic matter and nutrients to surface waters
through runoff. Most researchers believe that the change of
climate have resulted in very less water recharge to water
resources and have caused water stress in the Western Cape
Province at large.
4.2. Population Growth, Poverty and Informal Settlements
Exponential growth is synonymous with increasing
demand and competition for water for domestic, industrial,
and municipal uses thus population growth is a major
contributor to water scarcity [29]. An increase in population
in the province limits the amount of water available for
everyone, with per capita water availability projected to fall
by half in 2050. Most of the water used in the city is for
agricultural purposes and a growth in population means more
food is required. However, more water is required to ensure
that food is available, therefore, the production of food is a
significant part of food security thus food insecurity and
water scarcity are interconnected. This is particularly
concerning as there will be a need to increase production in
the agricultural sector which will place further stress on
water resources. Poverty and unemployment will cause
people to migrate from rural areas to urban areas in search of
work opportunities. However, this will cause people to
become concentrated in one area leading to heavy burdens on
water resources. Moreover, there will be an intensification of
water demand and a strain on local water capacity due to
increases in per capita water consumption driven by
development. There is also a growing water demand for
industrial use as rapid industrialization tries to meet the needs
of a rising population. This will cause more stress on water
resources as industrial production is heavily reliable on water
for processing, cooling and disposal of waste products.
The province and the greater city of Cape Town face
challengesin providing basic services in informal areas.
Informal settlements are impoverished communities as they
are unable to pay for water related services. Therefore, it is
the duty of the government to provide water services in such
communities. These settlements are marked by daily invasion
of informal settlers, thus increasing the number of people
who live in them and so is the amount of water needed.
Figure 2. Informal settlements in Khayelitsha, an outskirt of Cape Town.

14 Ntokozo Malaza and Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda: Challenges of Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa
4.3. Water as a Resource for Agricultural Productivity
The province is characterized by various agricultural
activities. These activities include citrus farming, vineyards
(grapes), potato farming, vegetable farming etc. The common
attributes with these specific agricultural activities is that
they require irrigation in order to produce their end products.
The agricultural field is also a market driven commodity in
that it plays a competitive role in the global market,
contributes to the country’s GDP and they also have
influence in market prices of their products. The Department
of Water Affairs maintained that irrigated agriculture is the
largest single use of water in South Africa (accounting to
60%) and it has a huge potential of socio-economic impact in
rural communities. Water is the major limiting factor to the
growth of this sector and poor water quality has a negative
impact on agricultural exports and associated foreign income
[10]. Moreover, there is large consumption of water resources
in order to produce crops. With the growth in the country’s
population and the province’s population as well, there is
without doubt increasing food demand to cater for.
Therefore the agricultural industry poses an inconvenience
in the aspect of water sharing needed for domestic use and/or
for commercial purposes. This scenario is related to the
assurance of having enough food available at all times. This
is important because in order to have food security there
needs to be enough water allocation to irrigated agricultural
activities [9]. The agricultural sector is a water user and
therefore it is the duty of the government sphere to manage
and control utilization of water resources by the agricultural
industry. There are a number of agricultural activities which
are produced at certain periods of the year in the province
which includes vineyards which is dependent on the winter
rainfall. If the rainfall rates decrease and patterns changes,
crops require other interventions, which in this case it is
irrigation. Now, with the water being scarce in the province
the use of dam water for irrigation has created water stress
issues.
4.4. Water Quality Issues
The human population and the natural ecosystems
elements are all dependent on clean water. The quality of
water is compromised by a number of aspects that include the
use of pesticides and fertilizers in the agricultural sphere,
pollution of all kinds (air is attributed to emissions of
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere by industries and
transport systems of the world, land pollution cause by
landfills and illegal disposal of waste which also causes
ground water contamination, sedimentation from agricultural
activities and water pollution in water bodies where the
disposal site is in a tributary or near a water source).
The province of the Western Cape, and its Water Service
Authorities, currently owns, operates and maintains 156
Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs). In the city of Cape
Town there are 24 WWTWs, all of which need to be
upgraded to meet the DWA’s requirements (Western Cape
Government, 2012 (a)). A national survey on Wastewater
Treatment in South Africa reported that a significant number
of WWTWs are not properly operated and maintained and
discharge poor quality effluent to streams and rivers. This
situation is intolerable as it impacts directly on the
downstream water users, the quality of natural waters and the
cost and availability of potable water and its treatment in
South Africa.
4.5. Alien Invasive Species
According to [4] alien invasions reduce the annual rainfall
by 350 mm per annum in the catchments of the Western Cape
and these catchments have an average annual rainfall of
about 1500 mm of which around 600 mm reaches the
streams. The displacement of natural vegetation by invasive
species will intensify this use by 350 mm per annum leaving
only 250 mm per annum for the streams (Chamier et al.,
2012). Therefore, widespread alien invasion of mountains is
likely to have a harmful impact on water supplies. The
displacement of fynbos which is an indigenous species by
pine trees resulted in stream flow reductions of up to 50 % in
the Western Cape [5]. Furthermore, groundwater-dependent
alien plants present various challenges to an already water-
scarce South Africa since they consume individually up to 50
litres of water per day [12]. These species access ground
water using their deep tap roots which have been recorded at
depths of about 50 m in some parts of the arid savannah [12].
Alien plant species may transpire for water four times more
than indigenous plants. Moreover, invasive plants are very
dense in comparison with indigenous vegetation and their
ability to form dense thickets with large numbers of plants
per unit area as opposed to high transpiration by singular
trees is the central reason why they use more water than
indigenous plants [4].
4.6. Water Governance and Management Practices
The Department of Water Affairs is the custodian of all
water affairs in the country working with the department of
environmental affairs and development planning, local
government and agriculture. The Department has developed
various plans with regard to water resources management and
in particular to Western Cape and these are; Western Cape
Sustainable Water Management Plan of 2012, Western Cape
Integrated Water Resources Management Action Plan of
2011. The IWRM plans are well developed with clear
objectives and recommended institutional structures that can
effectively carry out these tasks. The major shortfall with
these plans is lack of implementation which is fuelled mostly
by financial constraints and political interventions. Lack of
leadership continuity, shortage of skills and high staff
turnover are other contributing factors hindering progress in
terms of implementation of these plans (Integrated Water
Resources Management Action Plan, 2011). The effective
implementation of IWRM due to its complexity can be best
done in an iterative, ‘learning-by-doing’ approach which is

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2019; 8(2): 9-20 15
reflexive in nature and builds learning into the next
management cycle [20].
5. Iwrm Implementation in the Western
Cape
5.1. The Development and Acceptance of Iwrm in South
African Provinces
South Africa’s national water policies and legislation fully
subscribe to protecting and managing the natural resource
base of economic and social development as stated in the
National Water Act of 1998 [8]. A report by the Water
Resource Commission (WRC) unearthed all water court
cases since 1912 to 1998 [24]. Under the 1998 Act, a
complete record of all water cases was required, to determine
existing lawful water uses for purposes of the establishment
of water use entitlements under the new acts, and also to
understand the water law of the previous dispensation, to
facilitate continuity of water use and water resource
development and management [24]. The author found that
the majority of water court cases were decided before 1956,
when water users relied heavily on the courts to establish and
declare their water rights, mainly because the water law was
a statutory system and not an administrative system. After the
1956 Act, the minister increased the asssumption of control
over water sources, by the declaration of government water
control areas [24].
5.1.1. Water Laws
In pre-colonial times, comprehensive customary local
approaches with taboos and prohibitions backed by
authorising systems played a key role in water laws [1].
Customary laws and practices covered water conservation,
pollution control, protection of catchments and protection of
fisheries [1]. In South Africa, water laws were first
established in 1652 during the arrival and establishment of
the Dutch Colony at the Cape of Good Hope, present day the
province of the Western Cape [21]. In 1655, Jan Van
Riebeeck established the first act of State (by way of
Placcaet) control over public streams to prohibit upstream
use of streams for washing persons and possessions [21].
Water courts were established by colonial legislation,
consolidated in the Irrigation Act, 1912, and abolished by the
National Water Act, 1998 [24].
5.1.2. Water Legislation
Prior to colonisation of South Africa, African customary
law governed water rights in the pre-colonial society [21].
The Bantu people of Southern Africa had a subsistence
economy based on hunting of animals and gathering of food.
The San were hunter-gatherers while the Khoikhoi were
stock farmers. In these native communities water like land
was free, but land tenure was controlled by the chief and
private ownership was not permitted [21]. There are two
general water Acts which were current during the period of
1912 to 1998, namely the Irrigation and Conservation of
Waters Act 1912 (Act 8 of 1912), and the Water Act 1956
(Act 54 of 1956). The 1956 Act repealed the 1912 Act and
the 1956 Act was inturn repealed by the National Water Act
1998 (Act 36 of 1998) [24]. Table 2 summarises the South
African water related laws from 1912-1998.
Table 2. South African water related laws enacted (1912-1998) [21].
Year Water laws
1912 Completion of the codification of the law of water rights for the Union of South Africa.
1952-1972
A Commission of Inquiry into Water Matters was set up to report on the water needs of various secondary water users as well as their
effects on water availability. The Commission of Inquiry was set up with pressure from the lobbying of the industrialists who had the
support of mining and commerce industries. The report of this Commission became the basis for the new Water Act (No. 54 of 1956). This
permitted the state to use the principle of government control areas which was systematically extended to cover in some or other measure
all sources of natural water. The state was thus re-invested with dominus fluminis status for all practical purposes, bearing in mind the
increasing demand for water and fixed water supply.
1984 Water rights for the forestry sector controlled by an Act of Parliament after its identification as a major water user with direct effect for
downstream users.
1994 The democratic transition necessitated a water legislation rationalisation and amendment process. Consultations that led to the writing of a
new Water Act began.
1996 The Fundamental Principles and Objectives for a New Water Law in South Africa were approved by the Cabinet.
1997-1998 The National Water Act and Water Services Act were passed and published.
5.1.3. The Recent Policies and Practice of Iwrm in the
Western Cape Province
Because the implementation of IWRM in the Western
Cape and South Africa in general remains theoretical, some
limitations play out in practice, such that: (1) regulatory
functions and service provision functions of water resources
may still amalgamate; (2) law enforcement is not fully
functional as well the frameworks for water management
have not yet been legalized; (3) most human resources in the
water resources sector, especially those in the fields and
offices are not trained professionally for their respective jobs;
(4) there is still lack of enough participation by both the
Departments of Basic and Higher Education and Training in
executing IWRM education; (5) municipal infrastructure are
not adequately operated, maintained and refurbished due to
lack of public participation, resources and capacity; (6) Focus
on politics of responsible people in the water resources sector
instead of good governace with regard to IWRM.
The Department of Water Affairs and Sanitation (DWAS)
is the government department responsible for the formulation
and implementation of policies governing South Africa’s
water and sanitary sector. It strives to ensure that South

16 Ntokozo Malaza and Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda: Challenges of Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa
Africans gain access to clean water and safe sanitation, and
promotes effective and efficient water resources management
to ensure sustainable economic and social development [8].
Presently it is responsible for water resource management in
terms of developing policies, implementing programmes as
well as monitoring and regulating all South Africa’s water
resources.
5.1.4. The Iwrm Action Plan for the Western Cape Province
2009
At the Water INDABA, Western Cape, held in November
2009, the Provincial Department of Environmental Affairs
(DEA) and Development Planning (DP), in conjunction with
the National Department of Water Affairs, other Provincial
Departments and Local Government in the Western Cape
agreed to develop an Integrated Water Resource Management
(IWRM) Action Plan for the Western Cape Province. The
plan was set up to identify short, medium and long term
actions to guide implementation of projects/activities towards
achieving integrated water resource management in the
Western Cape.
The development of the IWRM Action Plan was separated
into two phases, the first being the Status Quo Phase I, and
the second being the IWRM Action Plan Phase II [25]. Each
Phase of the project was planned to incorporate public
engagement sessions at various representative areas within
the province. The objective of this Phase is to determine the
current status of water resources in terms of water quality,
water supply and demand, and water and land use practices
[26]. The Status Quo Report has investigated:
(a) Gaps and overlaps in Legislation (National, Provincial
and Local Government Legislation);
(b) Gaps and overlaps in Institutional Structures;
(c) Review of Existing Strategies, Plans and Programmes;
(d) Review of Water Availability;
(e) Review of current Water Quality and Monitoring
Programmes;
(f) Water and Climate Change;
(g) Water and Land-use / Planning;
(h) Summary of public engagement meetings and
(i) I dentified problem areas.
The objective of Phase II was to promote integrated water
resource management that focuses on water quality and water
quantity and demand management in the Western Cape. This
phase investigated:
(a) Actions and activities, as in Status Quo Report;
(b) Performance measures/indicators linked to actions;
(c) Short, medium and long term timeframes for actions;
(d) Roles and responsibilities of Government and
Stakeholders and
(e) Indicative costing of the actions.
5.1.5. Western Cape Sustainable Water Management Plan
2011
The Sustainable Water Management Plan (hereafter
referred to as “the Water Plan”) for the Western Cape
Province was developed, following the recommendations
made at the Water INDABA held in Cape Town during
November 2009. Its development was undertaken
collaboratively by the Western Cape Government and the
National Department of Water Affairs. Short (1-5 years),
medium (6-15 years) and long term (+16 years) actions to
guide the implementation of projects / activities were
developed, as a means towards achieving integrated and
sustainable management of water in the Western Cape [25].
The overall aim of the Water Plan was to guide sustainable
water management towards meeting the growth and
development needs of the region. According to the province,
these practices were geared towards reducing the amount of
water used and also to increase water provision in an efficient
manner. The Water Plan covered four Water Management
Areas (WMAs), namely; Olifants-Doorn, Berg, Breede-
Overberg and Gouritz, and small section of the Fish to
Tsitsikamma (Figure 3). The idea for this was to provide for
sustainable water management in the province in which it
aims at meeting its growth and development needs without
jeopardizing ecological integrity [25]. The IWRM paradigm
is concerned with the implementation of policies, plans and
programs for development of national and/or regional
strategies, plans and programs with regards to river basin,
watershed and ground water management [10]
5.1.6. Recent Water Plans Critical Water Shortages Disaster
Plan
In October 2017, the City of Cape Town came up with a
new plan called the Critical Water Shortages Disaster Plan.
The severe water shortages in the province called for
different management practices to be adopted in dealing with
the current drought crisis. According to the greater City of
Cape Town’s statement, the full plan comprised of three
phases, and supported by sectoral operational plans and
protocols, which guides the city’s operations and
preparedness actions in the unlikely event of critical water
shortages. The disaster plan which entails water rationing as
Phase 1; Phase 2 comprises disaster phases and Phase 3
comprises a more extreme disaster interventions.
Phase 1: Preservation Restrictions - rationing
Implementation of this phase included instituting water
rationing through limiting supply and advanced pressure
management. Limiting supply entails the controlled manual
closing of valves to reticulation sub-districts in the city to
further drive down demand. Advanced pressure management
entails the limitation of water into the water reticulation
system through automatic controllers at specific choke
points.
This process did not result in a complete shutdown of the
water reticulation system, but it severely limit available water
supply in the system per day, some areas experienced water
supply outages. During such time, short periods of limited to
no water available to some neighbourhoods. Water users
were advised to make alternative arrangements for water or
store water for usage. It was advised that up to five litres of
water was to be kept as emergency storage for essential usage
in the event of intermittent supply. Numerous gaps, concerns
and issues were identified during Phase 1. These themes are:

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2019; 8(2): 9-20 17
Institutional Capacity, Cooperative Governance, Enforcement
and Legislation, Water Conservation/ Water Demand
Management, Ecological Sustainability of Water Resources,
Water Scarcity, Water Quality, Groundwater Use, Allocation
of Budget, Planning, Infrastructure Ownership, Information
Management.
Figure 3. Water Management Areas of the Western Cape [27].
Phase 2: Disaster Restrictions
Disaster Restrictions was to be implemented if and when
the total available surface water storage in the Western Cape
Water Supply System reaches a point where intensive daily
rationing is required to ensure the province has enough water
supply to safely reach the next rainfall season or the
activation of non-surface water augmentation. Water
rationing in this phase was aimed at maintaining human life
and critical services (hospitals, schools etc.). Implementation
of Phase 2 was to be considered when there was a high
likelihood the dam storage will drop below 10% before the
onset of the winter rains. This is significantly different from
Preservation Restrictions in that the province will more
actively assume control over the daily water supply available
to households and businesses.
Phase 3: Full-scale disaster implementation
Full-scale disaster implementation is the extreme disaster
scenario which would occur if the Western Cape Water
Supply System no longer has surface water supply which the
province can access. Non-surface drinking water supplies,
sourced from groundwater abstraction from various aquifers
and spring water, will be available for drinking purposes
only. The province will distribute this water, supplemented
by bottled water, to residents through water distribution
points. Critical services will be significantly reduced. The
province promised the residences that this scenario can be
avoided with progressive rationing in Phase 1 and 2.
5.2. Day Zero and Public Panic A case of the City of Cape
Town
On “Day Zero”, as it is called, the ordinary water supply
will be shut down and taps will run dry. Residents of the city
of four million will then be forced to collect a daily water
ration of just 25-litres from 200 water collection points – not
even enough for a two-minute shower in normal times. The
city explained that day Zero is calculated by subtracting the
expected usage of water from the Western Cape Water
Supply System current dam volumes. The method of
calculation is not enough to deal with this extremely complex
water problem that impacts the lives of the citizens.
5.2.1. The Days Before Day Zero
The calculation method ignored a key uncertainty; how the
city’s population will behave in the weeks and days leading
up to Day Zero. A more accurate calculation would take into
account exponentially rising water demand as Day Zero

18 Ntokozo Malaza and Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda: Challenges of Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa
approaches. It is more likely that as the reality of the taps
running dry sets in, the human instincts of self-preservation
and panic will begin to take hold and spread across the city’s
population. This will result in people stockpiling as much
water as they can, irrespective of the cost and/or fines,
because the consequences of not having supply of water post
Day Zero. Thus, it is important that the province either
institute broad measures to control water stockpiling, or take
the expected escalating demand into consideration when
forecasting the Day Zero date.
5.2.2. The day after Day Zero
The limited information communicated with the public the
day after day zero includes the following:
(a) When the taps go off, residents will have to collect a
predefined quantity of drinking water per person per day
from approximately 200 sites collection sites across the city
that will operate day and night;
(b) Residents will be able to collect 25 litres per person per
day to be used for washing, cooking and personal hygiene;
(c) Each site is expected to service up to 20 000 people per
day;
(d) The province’s Water and Sanitation Department will
try to limit the impact on sanitation services to limit the risk
of disease; and
(e) The South African Police Services (SAPS) and the
National Defence Force were consulted to help maintain law
and order with law enforcement at collection points.
The communication above was not clear to all citezens and
showed an apparent lack of preparedness for the day after
Day Zero stems from its shadowy lack of transparency. Such
concerns included; the number of water collection sites needs
to be at least doubled or tripled to cater for all citezens;
parking at the water collection sites, the chaotic queues up
kilometres long, and scotching daytime temperatures.
Figure 4. The daily water usage of less than 50 litres per person per day,
implemented in Level 6b water restrictions (Graphic: City of Cape Town,
2018).
6. The Iwrm Pilot Projects Progress and
Challenges
6.1. Progress
The Water Plan links with the strategies and planning
initiatives of the country and the Western Cape, at National,
Provincial and Local Government levels. Below is a
summary of the key strategies and planning initiatives
reviewed during the development of the Water Plan. The
Water Plan has the following 4 strategic goals, which
collectively incorporates the 12 themes which were identified
in Phase I.
Goal 1
Goal 1ensures effective co-operative governance and
institutional planning for sustainable water management. It
has three objectives namely: (1) to strengthen and build
institutional capacity and integrate institutional structures and
mechanisms; (2) adequately allocation of budget in all
aspects of sustainable water management and (3) strengthen
integration between sustainable water management,
ecological sustainability and planning processes, and
integrate these with water allocation reform and water
reconciliation strategies.
Goal 2
Goal 2 ensures the sustainability of water resources for
growth and development. It has three objectives namely: (1)
to develop, promote and implement effective and efficient
water conservation and water demand management; (2) to
promote the sustainable use of groundwater and (3) to
effectively monitor, evaluate and report water conservation
and water demand management
Goal 3
Goal 3 ensures the integrity and sustainability of socio-
ecological systems. It has three objectives namely: (1)
strengthening the monitoring and enforcement of compliance
to water quality objectives; (2) to ensure that ecological
sustainability is maintained and (3) to effectively implement
monitoring programmes to report on the status of water
quality objectives.
Goal 4
Goal 4 ensures effective and appropriate information
management, reporting and awareness-raising of sustainable
water management. It has two objectives namely: (1)to raise
awareness of sustainable water management and ecological
systems and (2) to effectively and integrate management and
reporting of water information.
6.2. Challenges
It can be argued by many authors that IWRM might be
considered as the means to resolve complex environmental
problems caused by anthropogenic sources. In South Africa
and other developing countries, the implementation of water
resource management has shifted over the years into a more
cooperative governance framework. This framework promotes
local level management of resources which requires both
financial resources and capacity at a local level. Ensuring

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2019; 8(2): 9-20 19
stakeholder willingness requires that both government and
civil society understand the necessity surrounding water
resource management, however the skills shortage in both
local and national departments may impact on its ability to
effectively monitor the local level situation. The programmes
developed for capacity building at a government level and
awareness training at a local level will promote water resource
management from a bottom up approach.
The greatest challenge is the minimal skills and capacity of
water sector practitioners (engineers, technicians and
scientists) as well as the Civil Society Organizations
operating in the sector. This challenge also poses a threat to
sustainability of services which have to be ensured by among
other things proper constant maintenance and operations
systems of completed schemes.
Climate change continues to have the potential to impact
in the Western Cape and South Africa’s water resources
significantly and long-term planning and water management
decisions must incorporate both the current water demands
whilst still implementing strategies to minimise the impacts
of climate change on future water resources. Seeking
environmentally acceptable and cost efficient water supply
technologies remains a challenge to South Africa. The
Western Cape has currently developed alternative resource
supplementation for consideration in the future (such as
desalination and groundwater).
6.3. Implications of Iwrm Practice for Water Resource
Management in the Western Cape
A critical question is - what does the above analysis imply
in terms of the challenges facing the application and
implementation of IWRM in the Western Cape?
First, there are internal and external factors that led to
water sector reforms in South Africa. The internal factors
include water scarcity in terms of quantity (seasonal,
geographical and especially in relation to agriculture; floods
and droughts in recent years) and quality; the conflicts
between the new users in the context of population growth
and urbanisation. This called for IWRM in the province. The
external factors include the fact that the government,
supported by influential political organisations, and not by
the water resource stakeholders themselves, initiated IWRM
and to that extent represents ideologies and principles
imported from groups not trained professionally for water
resource management. These approaches did not take into
account the nature of the social and economic problems; and
the available resources in the province and country; or
existing stakeholder perceptions; and the prolonged climate
predictions from both the South African Weather Services
(SAWS) and Water Research Commission (WRC). This
resulted in a discrepancy between the scientific research
outputs from water resource related issues and the decision
makers, thus impacting the relevance and ownership of and
commitment to the concept of IWRM.
Challenges to IWRM and good water governance should
allow all stakeholders to participate directly in all aspects of
policy making. Significant connections exist between the
elements of social capital and the perceptions of stakeholders
towards water allocation policies.
Figure 5. Scenes from a water protest in Cape Town.
Figure 6. People protesting against major political parties (Democratic
Alliance, DA and the African National Congress) asking them to refrain from
water issues (Source: [18]).
7. Conclusions
This paper presented a brief review on water availability
and water-related issues in the Western Cape and reveals
challenges of the future IWRM to support sustainable
development. Taken together, the key challenges identified in
the management of water resources are climate change, and
increasing water demand due to population growth and
agricultural production. The most apparent measure toward
resolving the present problems and constraints of
implementing the IWRM approach is by means of good
water governance, transparency and full stakeholder
involvements, which first of all must start with massive
campaigning programs to develop the public’s sense of
belonging, so that the communities as a whole are willing to
participate in IWRM practices. Capacity buildings of
enabling environment, institutional frameworks and
management instruments were highlighted to contribute
towards implementation of the future Iwrm.

20 Ntokozo Malaza and Azwihangwisi Irene Mabuda: Challenges of Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Western Cape Province, South Africa
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support
from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
University Research Fund: Research Project: R588 and the
Environmental Management Masters Class of 2017.
References
[1] Agyenim, J. B. and Gupta, J. 2012. “IWRM and developing
countries: Implementation challenges in Ghana.” Physics and
Chemistry of the Earth 47-48: 46–57.
[2] Cape Argus. “Western Cape Weather” Cape Argus, 2017.
[3] Cape Argus. “Western Cape Weather” Cape Argus, 2018.
[4] Chamier, J., Schachtschneider, K., Le Maitre, D. C., Ashton, P.
J. and Van Wilgen, B. W., “Impacts of invasive alien plants on
water quality, with particular emphasis on South Africa.”
Water SA 38 (2): 345-356.
[5] Colvin, C. and Saayman. I. 2007. “Challenges to groundwater
governance: A case study of groundwater governance in Cape
Town, South Africa.” Water Policy 9: 127-148.
[6] Conca, K. 2006. “Governing water, contentions transnational
politics and global institution building.” International
Environmental Agreements, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Governing Board.
[7] Crane, W. and Swilling, M. 2008. “Environment, Sustainable
Resource Use and the Cape Town Functional Region - An
Overview.” Urban Forum, 19, (3): 263-287.
[8] Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 1998. Guide to the
National Water Act, Accessed 09 November 2017,
http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Publications/NWAguide.pdf
[9] Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 2004. National
Water Resource Strategy: Our Blue print for survival." 1st
Edition ed, Accessed 06 October 2017
http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Ot
her/NWRA%20Sept04.pdf
[10] Department of Water Affairs. 2012. "Proposed National Water
Resources Strategy 2 (NWRS 2): Summary." Accessed 11
November 2017, https://cer.org.za/wp-
content/uploads/2017/10/Draft-NWRS2.pdf
[11] Department of Water Affairs. 2013. “Annual national state of
water report for the hydrological year 2012/2013.” Accessed
10 November 2017,
http://www.dwa.gov.za/Groundwater/documents/Annual%20
National%20State%20Water%20Report%20for%20Hydrologi
cal%20Year%202012-13_Final.pdf.
[12] Enright, W. D. 2000. “The effect of terrestrial invasive alien
plants on water scarcity in South Africa.” Physics and
Chemistry of the Earth, Part B: Hydrology, Oceans and
Atmosphere, 25 (3): 237-242.
[13] Figueres, C. M., Tortajada, C. and Rockstrom, J, 2003.
“Rethinking water management: innovative approaches to
contemporary issues.” Earths can Publications Ltd, London.
[14] Hooper, B. 2005. “Integrated river basin governance. learning
from international experience.” International Water
Association Publishing, London.
[15] MacKellar., N., New, M. and Jack, C. 2014. “Observed and
modelled trends in rainfall and temperature for South Africa:
1960-2010.” South African Journal of Science 110 (7-8): 1-13.
[16] Mukheibir, P. and Ziervogel, G. 2007. “Developing a
Municipal Adaptation Plan (MAP) for climate change: the city
of Cape Town.” Environment and Urbanization 19 (1): 143-
158.
[17] Mukheibir, P. 2010. “Water access, water scarcity, and climate
change.” Environmental management 45 (5): 1027-1039.
[18] News 24. 2018. “Panic and blame as Cape Town braces for
water shut-off” Available
athttps://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/panic-and-
blame-as-cape-town-braces-for-water-shut-off-20180128.
[19] Pahl-Wostl, C. 2007. “Transition towards adaptive
management of water facing climate and global change.”
Water Resources Management 21, 49-62.
[20] Pollard, S. and du Toit, D. 2008. “Integrated Water Resources
Management in a Complex System.” Water SA 6, (34): 671-
680.
[21] Tewari, D. D. 2009. “A detailed analysis of evolution of water
rights in South Africa: An account of three and a half centuries
from 1652 AD to present.” Water SA 35 (5): 693-710.
[22] Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M.,
Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., Erasmus, B. F., De
Siqueira, M. F., Grainger, A., Hannah, L. and Hughes, L.
2004. “Extinction risk from climate change.” Nature, 427
(6970): 145-148.
[23] United Nations General Assembley, 2015, United Nations
Summit on Sustainable Development 2015, 25-27 September
2015, United Nations Headquarters, New York.
[24] Uys, M. 2008. “Water law of South Africa 1912-1998, Water
Research Commission.” Accessed 03 January 2018,
http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/R
esearch%20Reports/KV203-WATER%20LAW.pdf.
[25] Western Cape Government. 2011. “Integrated Water
Resources Management Action Plan.” Accessed 15 October
2017
https://www.westerncape.gov.za/other/2011/8/final_draft_exec
_summary_report_2011.pdf
[26] Western Cape Government. 2012 (a). “Municipal governance
reports for the period ended June 2012, Accessed 10 October
2017, https://www.westerncape.gov.za/text/2012/11/city-of-
cape-town-rmt.pdf
[27] Western Cape Government. 2012 (b). “Western Cape
Sustainable Water Management Plan: Part 1: "The Water
Plan.” Accessed January 03 2018,
https://www.greencape.co.za/assets/Water-Sector-Desk-
Content/WC-DEAP-DWS-Western-Cape-sustainable-water-
management-plan-2012.pdf.
[28] Wilson, J. 2011. “Water and climate change: an exploration
for the concerned and curious.” Environmental Monitoring
Group, Cape Town, South Africa.
[29] Ziervogel, G., Shale, M. and Du, M. 2010. “Climate change
adaptation in a developing country context: The case of urban
water supply in Cape Town.” Climate and Development 2 (2):
94-110.