An Overview of Dyslexia: Definition, Characteristics, Assessment, Identification, and Intervention

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Science Journal of Education
2019; 7(4): 81-86
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/sjedu
doi: 10.11648/j.sjedu.20190704.11
ISSN: 2329-0900 (Print); ISSN: 2329-0897 (Online)
An Overview of Dyslexia: Definition, Characteristics,
Assessment, Identification, and Intervention
Jane Roitsch
*
, Silvana Watson
Department of Communication Disorders and Special Education, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, USA
Email address:
*
Corresponding author
To cite this article:
Jane Roitsch, Silvana Watson. An Overview of Dyslexia: Definition, Characteristics, Assessment, Identification, and Intervention. Education
Journal. Vol. 7, No. 4, 2019, pp. 81-86. doi: 10.11648/j.sjedu.20190704.11
Received: July 19, 2019; Accepted: August 15, 2019; Published: September 3, 2019
Abstract:
Background: Dyslexia is a developmental brain-based type of learning disability that affects a person's ability to
read and spell words. Best estimates place 5 percent to 10 percent of the population with the condition, but the incidence of
dyslexia is challenging to pinpoint, as the definition of dyslexia varies throughout research. Objective: The purpose of this article
is to provide an overview of dyslexia, its characteristics, assessment and identification, and intervention techniques for the
condition. Results: Although the disorder varies from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia
include difficulty with phonological skills, low accuracy and fluency of reading, poor spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal
responding. Dyslexia is a neurological condition and can be inherited, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that
may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia. Identification of dyslexia early requires recognition of characteristics such
as difficulty associating sounds with letters, reading dysfluencies, spelling difficulties, challenges with written expression and
poor handwriting. Dyslexia assessments can guide professions in ways to best administer treatment, such as via strategies to
enhance word training and improve decoding skills. All of these interventions have shown to benefit the reading and writing
abilities of persons with dyslexia. Conclusions: The unique nature and presentation of dyslexia varies among individuals. The
importance of understanding as much as possible and keeping abreast of the assessment and intervention strategies available is
critical to minimizing the long-term effects of dyslexia.
Keywords:
Identification and Causes of Dyslexia, Characteristics of Dyslexia, Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention
1. Introduction
Dyslexia is a neurobiological, developmental,
language-based learning disability that affects individuals’
ability to learn to read (accuracy and fluency) and the
development of spelling skills. Individuals with dyslexia
have difficulty connecting spoken language and the printed
word because they have deficits in the phonological
component of language. Difficulty decoding words
accurately and fluently can affect reading comprehension and
vocabulary development [1, 2]. Spelling difficulties may
affect the production of written composition. Dyslexia can
lead to poor academic performance, low self-esteem, and
lack of motivation. It is not a sign of low intelligence,
laziness, or poor vision, and occurs across the range of
intellectual abilities [3, 4].
2. Background
Initially termed “word blindness” [5], the word dyslexia is
of Greek origin, meaning having impaired (days) word (lexi
from lexicon) and the suffix (ia). Developmental dyslexia is a
condition present in individuals who have word-level
difficulties in reading decoding and spelling; the most
persistent problem seems to be spelling [6, 7].
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA), the working definition of dyslexia labels it as a
“specific learning disability.” It is “a disorder in one or more
of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that
may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations,
including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain

82 Jane Roitsch and Silvana Watson: An Overview of Dyslexia: Definition, Characteristics,
Assessment, Identification, and Intervention
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia.” See 20 U.S.C. §1401 (30) and 34
CFR §300.8 (c) (10) (emphasis added) (IDEA, 2004).
Dyslexia is distinguished from other learning disabilities due
to its phonological core deficit and persisting spelling
difficulties.
As a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in
origin, dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate
and fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and
decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a
deficit in the phonological component of language that is often
unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the
provision of effective classroom instruction [8, 9]. Simply
stated, when a student with dyslexia begins to learn to read,
s/he has difficulty at the phoneme or sound level which
adversely impacts spelling and reading. Secondary
consequences may include problems in reading
comprehension and reduced reading experience that can
impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge
[10].
2.1. Risk Factors: Genetic and Neurological Components of
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is the outcome of multiple risk factors. Research
has shown that dyslexia has a complex genetic basis. The
prevalence of dyslexia is higher in those children who have a
family history of dyslexia [10, 11]. The risk of having dyslexia
in first-degree relatives who have this reading and spelling
disorder exceeds that in the general population [12].
(Pennington & Olson, 2008). Studies have shown that young
children with a family history of dyslexia have reduced
activation in neural correlates of phonological processing
before reading onset compared to those without family history
of dyslexia [13]. However, dyslexia should not be considered
as a pure genetic component, but as a multifactorial
developmental disorder [14, 15].
Studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and other
medical assessment devices provide evidence that most
individuals with dyslexia have reduced brain volume,
less-than-normal gray matter volume, and a significant
reduction of the outer white matter compartment of the brain
which contributes to a less efficient brain circuit for reading
[16-18]. Several studies have indicated that in individuals with
dyslexia, there is a shift in hemisphere dominance for reading
from the left to the right hemisphere. Researchers have
described this shift as a deficit in intrahemispheric “short” or
malfunction in corticocortical connectivity [19, 20].
In dyslexia, there seems to be an atypical reliance on the
right region of the brain instead of the left regions that are
activated in typically developing readers during phonological
awareness tasks [21]. This inefficient reading circuit is
revealed in the difficulty individuals with dyslexia have in
phonological process and awareness (i.e., the ability to
identify and manipulate sounds) despite normal to
above-normal cognitive abilities [2, 10, 22, 23]. Evidence
from the literature indicates that the small activation in the left
regions for phonological processing in dyslexia is linked to
phonological awareness deficits as the cause for dyslexia.
In addition to challenges with phonological awareness,
researchers have asserted that rapid automatized naming
(RAN) deficits contribute to reading difficulties and are
apparent in some individuals with developmental dyslexia [24,
25, 26]. By definition, RAN is the rate with which a person
can name a series of visually-familiar stimuli like letters,
colors, and numbers [27], and indicates automaticity of
processes that are essential to reading [28].
Impairments in the working memory phonological loop
(RAN) and switching/flexible attention (rapid automatic
switching [RAS]) have been suggested as hallmarks of
dyslexia [28]. Although RAN and phonological processes
affect reading, they contribute differently to the acquisition of
reading skills and are activated in different hemispheres and
brain regions. Authorities in the field have suggested that
individuals with deficits in both phonological processing and
RAN, the “double-deficit,” have more severe difficulties in
reading than those with single deficits [28-30].
2.2. Characteristics of Individuals with Dyslexia
As with most learning deficits, dyslexia presents with a
wide array of characteristics in the individuals it affects.
Further, throughout the development from childhood to
adulthood, the difficulties encountered by individuals with
dyslexia are manifested differently. Young children have
difficulty associating sounds with letters, while older
individuals have problems with reading fluency, spelling, and
written expression. These challenges persist into adulthood [2,
6,]. Identifying the signs of dyslexia requires knowing the
features of the condition depending on the age at which it is
first determined to exist.
As aforementioned, researchers have identified preschool
children with dyslexia based on a familial predisposition to the
condition [2, 10] Thompson et al., 2015). Most common
dyslexia characteristics of this preschool, pre-literate
population include challenges in learning to speak, learning
sound and letters, colors and numbers, handwriting, fine
motor skills and sight word identification. The difficulties
these children have with phonology often suggest they may
develop a reading impairment as they mature [10, 31].
Older children with dyslexia may have poor handwriting,
difficulty learning foreign languages, problems organizing
language, memorizing difficulties, spelling errors and
persistent reading, writing and calculating difficulties [10]. In
written language, spelling and recall of multi-syllable words
may be noted. In reading skills, comprehension and decoding
may be a challenge, and slow and often inaccurate reading
skills may be noted. Individuals with dyslexia often show
deficits in phonological word coding, such as understanding
the sounds and meanings or words [2].
The importance of phonological abilities on reading and writing
has been validated across languages but is even more challenging
in language such as English where orthographic symbols are not as
transparent or correlation as their corresponding sound [32]. Due to
this, English-speaking individuals with dyslexia often require
reading and spelling instruction [6].

Science Journal of Education 2019; 7(4): 81-86 83
Cognitively, it has been shown that individuals with
dyslexia have difficulty with recognition of hidden shapes, [33]
poor ability to shift their focus of attention, and deficits in
aspects of working memory related to spoken and written
language (the phonological loop) [34]. In fact, one of the most
frequently named characteristics of dyslexia involves working
memory. When working memory is impaired, a person with
dyslexia has difficulty with the temporary storage of
information while engaged in other cognitive activities at the
same time [35]. The role of verbal working memory becomes
more connected with vocabulary knowledge influencing
adolescents’ ability to read fluently [36].
Another aspect of working memory includes the
orthographic loop (which provides for the ability to form
letters, spell, read and write) and the morphological loop
(which allows for vocabulary and reading development).
Individuals with dyslexia have been shown to have challenges
with the orthographic loop and the morphological loops of
working memory, and thus present with errors of the
aforementioned skills [34]. Instruction for middle childhood
and adolescents with dyslexia must address the
interrelationships among phonology, morphology, and
orthography because English and most other languages have a
morphophonemic orthography [34, 37].
Another population of individuals-those who are gifted but
also have dyslexia-present interventionists, diagnosticians and
language specialists with unique challenges. These individuals,
termed “twice exceptional” often outperform normal peers on
verbal, working memory and language skill tasks but have
delays in phonological awareness and rapid naming tasks.
They also demonstrate very high verbal reasoning, and further,
the challenge for teachers and parents of these individuals thus
lies in identification of dyslexia as abilities of gifted
individuals with dyslexia often mask the effects of dyslexia on
oral and written language tasks as well as standardized tests
[38], while core deficits associated with dyslexia remain [39].
Similarly, characteristics of adults with dyslexia are often
less obvious as often the individual has learned how to
compensate for the condition and its associated challenges.
However, cognitive challenges such as poor phonological
awareness and rapid naming skills, deficits in working
memory and written language may remain [40-42], along with
other cognitive and literacy issues [43].
2.3. A Word on Reversals and Corresponding Conditions
Not all individuals with dyslexia make reversals. Although
individuals with dyslexia have a higher incidence of reversals
than those without dyslexia, not all individuals with dyslexia
demonstrate this characteristic [10, 44].
Some individuals with dyslexia may present with other
conditions also affected by working memory deficits, such as
writing difficulties. As dysgraphia has been shown to occur
concurrently with dyslexia, researchers point to cognitive
assessments of attention regulation and working memory for
individuals with these co-occurring disabilities to best plan
treatment [10, 45].
Table 1. Summary of Characteristics of Individuals with Dyslexia.
The following characteristics are associated with dyslexia:
1. Difficulty with the development of phonological awareness and
phonological processing skills.
2. Difficulty accurately decoding nonsense or unfamiliar words.
3. Difficulty reading single words in isolation.
4. Inaccurate and labored oral reading.
5. Lack of reading fluency.
6. Various degrees of learning the names of letters and their associated
sounds.
7. Difficulty with learning to spell.
8. Difficulty in word finding and rapid naming.
9. Variable difficulty with aspects of written composition.
10. Variable degrees of difficulty with reading comprehension.
3. Identification and Assessment
Identification of individuals with dyslexia can be
challenging, as IQ test and language are not necessarily
indicative of the disorder. The most tried-and-true indicator
that a student may have dyslexia is difficulty learning how to
read. Early identification of children at risk for reading
difficulties may help assess and address this condition as
soon and as optimally as possible. Because dyslexia is a
specific learning disability in word reading and spelling
(written language) characterized by impairments in verbal
working memory, assessment measures of word reading (i.e.,
real words and pseudo words), spelling, and working
memory are necessary for the identification of individuals
with dyslexia. The assessments listed below (Table 2) are
suggested measures for reading and writing outcome and
working memory.
Table 2. Tests for Dyslexia.
Some of the most commonly used tests for dyslexia include:
1. Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP)-measure of phonological coding
2. Delis Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS)-Color Word Form Inhibition and Verbal Fluency Letters subtests.
3. Gray Oral Reading Test, Fifth Edition (GORT-5)-Accuracy and rate of oral reading of connected text.
4. Process Assessment of the Learner, Second Edition: Diagnostics for Reading and Writing (PAL-II Reading and Writing).
5. RAN/RAS: Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Stimulus Tests.
6. Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition (TOWRE-2)-Phonemic Decoding Efficiency and Sight Word subtests.
7. Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Third Edition (WIAT-III) –Spelling subtest.
8. Wechsler Fundamentals: Academic Skills.
9. Wide Range Achievement Test 4 (WRAT4)-Spelling subtest.
10. Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests, Third Edition (WRMT –III)-The Word Identification and the Word Attack subtest.

84 Jane Roitsch and Silvana Watson: An Overview of Dyslexia: Definition, Characteristics,
Assessment, Identification, and Intervention
Intervention Strategies
Once identified, individuals with dyslexia will benefit from
programs targeting letters and phonemes as well as tasks
addressing reading strategies. Word training and decoding
skills, and the use of computers to aid in writing have also
proven beneficial to this population, in individuals as young as
kindergarten age [10, 46].
4. Conclusion
It is suggested that as many as 10 percent of the population
is affected by dyslexia. With the compounding reading and
spelling difficulties that are common to persons with dyslexia,
education and vocation can be adversely affected in this
population if dyslexia is not identified and managed as early
and as effectively as possible.
Common risk factors for dyslexia include having a genetic
predisposition and/or a family member with dyslexia. Imaging
studies suggest right-hemisphere reliance in the brain during
typically left-hemisphere dominant phonological tasks can be
observed in persons with dyslexia. Impairments in
phonological processing and awareness while normal or
above-normal cognitive abilities may also exist in persons
with dyslexia and can cause difficulty and frustration.
Early identification of dyslexia relies on early symptom
recognition. Common characteristics include difficulty
associating sounds with letters, reading dysfluencies, spelling
difficulties, challenges with written expression and poor
handwriting. Tests for dyslexia guide professions in
identification and treatment of the condition. Once identified,
strategies to enhance word training and improve decoding
skills have shown to benefit the reading and writing abilities of
persons with dyslexia.
In this paper, we have attempted to highlight information
regarding the characteristics persons with dyslexia often present
with, as well as review assessment, identification and intervention
strategies currently available. Studies have suggested that this
unique population often presents with normal to above-normal
intelligence, and just as often, normal language skills.
Thus the need for educators, physicians and professionals to
be armed with specific key factors regarding dyslexia and its
identification cannot be understated. Overall, this work wants
to provide information and encourage early assessment and
intervention for children at high-risk for presenting with
dyslexia.
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