Challenges for Research on Reading, Writing, Interpreting, and Translation

Abstract

This rather plain account falls short of telling the whole story and the several challenges that Márcia Schmaltz had to face, but her experience within cognitive translation studies in general and TPR in particular is a source of inspiration to us all. This is why we have decided to pay this homage to her in this issue of Domínios de Lingu@gem. In our opinion, there could be no better way to do that than collecting original papers on the challenges and applications to/of empirical and experimental research on reading, writing and interpreting/translating, a path that she herself took during the last decade of her life.

Full text

DOI: 10.14393/DL38-v13n2a2019-1
Apresentação
Challenges for Research on Reading, Writing,
Interpreting, and Translation:
In honor of Márcia Schmaltz (1973*-2018†)
Desafios na Pesquisa de Leitura, Escrita, Interpretação e Tradução:
uma homenagem a Márcia Schmaltz (1973*-2018†)
Igor Antônio Lourenço da Silva*
Aline Ferreira**
John W. Schwieter***
Márcia Schmaltz
Available at: https://marciaschmaltz.wordpress.com. Accessed on: 10 June 2019.
* PhD in Linguistics, Assistant Professor of Translation Studies at Universidade Federal de Uberlândia
(UFU). ORCID: 0000-0003-0738-3262. ials@ufu.br, ialsigor@gmail.com.
** PhD in Linguistics, Assistant Professor of Spanish and Portuguese at University of California, Santa
Barbara. ORCID: 0000-0002-2906-7343. aferreira@spanport.ucsb.edu.
*** PhD in Spanish and Linguistics, Professor of Spanish and Linguistics at Wilfrid Laurier University.
ORCID: 0000-0003-1798-3915. jschwieter@wlu.ca.

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First words
“… e de seu cajado nasceu uma imensa floresta de pessegueiros,
repleta de frutos cheirosos e suculentos, que saciam a sede de quem
luta para atingir um objetivo, sem nunca desistir.”
Anonym, from Shan’haijing. Translated into Portuguese by
Schmaltz & Capparelli.
Free translation: “… and from his staff a huge forest of peach trees was
born, full of fragrant and juicy fruits that quench the thirst of those
who strive to reach a goal, without ever giving up.”
It was with great sorrow that we learnt of the premature death from lung cancer
of our dear colleague Márcia Schmaltz on September 7th, 2018, at the age of 45. She
was a kind, brave, brilliant, tenacious woman, teacher, translator, researcher, mother,
spouse and friend who left us too early, way before we could ever express our deep
gratitude for her generous contribution to the world.
She was born in Porto Alegre, Brazil, and lived for six years in Taiwan. She
graduated in Language and Literature from Faculdade Porto-Alegrense de Educação,
Ciências e Letras in 2001. She obtained her MA in Language and Literature from
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul in 2006, her diploma in translation from
Beijing Language and Culture University in 2006, and her PhD in Linguistics from
University of Macau in 2015.
She published a range of literary translations (see a partial list in the Appendix).
The translation Histórias da mitologia chinesa earned her and her mother Janete Luiza
Schmaltz two awards: Xerox/Livro Aberto in the category translation in 1999, and
Prêmio Açorianos de Literatura. She also produced several specialized/technical
translations.
She worked as a Chinese-Portuguese interpreter and translator for
governmental institutions and companies. Some of them included: the Brazilian

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Ministries of Defense, Technology, Industry and Commerce, Mines and Energy, and
Foreign Affairs; Petrobras; Eletrobras; and banks Caixa Federal and Banco do Brasil.
She worked as a lecturer in the University of Macau from 2008 to 2015, where
she also completed her PhD studies. Towards the beginning of this period, Márcia
Schmaltz started querying the translation process from an experimental perspective.
By then, she became a great enthusiast of cognitive translation studies in general
and translation process research (TPR) in particular (see ALVES; HURTADO, 2009),
and focused her efforts on tapping into the cognitive aspects of translating linguistic
metaphors from Chinese into Portuguese. She decided that triangulating (see ALVES,
2003) using eye tracking, key logging and verbal protocols would be the best approach
to understanding problem solving for the translation of linguistic metaphors.
From right to left: Igor A. Lourenço da Silva, Márcia Schmaltz, and Norma Barbosa de Lima Fonseca
at the I Congreso Internacional Traducción, Interpretación y Cognición, in Mendoza, Argentina.
Source: Da Silva’s personal records.

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That was the beginning of her quite long, hard road to figuring out how to
process user activity data with Chinese script alongside Roman script as collected
through the keylogging and eye tracking software Translog-II (see Carl, 2012). Not
only did she learn and develop a method that was unique from everything she had
done before and also demanded statistics and programming skills, but she also
engaged in exchanges with TPR scholars who sometimes doubted her skills and
sometimes helped her through. The English language was a barrier that she refused to
accept: she spoke, she presented, and she asked for constant feedback.
She proved to be a tenacious researcher who never thought of giving up on her
quest, even though that also meant manually processing tons of data and seeking the
help of others. In the end, it all paid off, as she managed to successfully complete her
quest and deliver her PhD dissertation (see SCHMALTZ, 2015).
Moving on…
Os últimos raios de sol iluminavam o rosto de Kuafu, que lamentou
não ter conseguido realizar o que havia planejado. Deu um longo
suspiro, largando o cajado, e fechou os olhos para sempre.
Anonym, from Shan’haijing. Translated into Portuguese by
Schmaltz & Capparelli.
Free translation: The last rays of sunlight illuminated the face of
Kuafu, who regretted not being able to accomplish what he had
planned. He took a long breath, dropping his staff, and closed his eyes
forever.
This rather plain account falls short of telling the whole story and the several
challenges that Márcia Schmaltz had to face, but her experience within cognitive
translation studies in general and TPR in particular is a source of inspiration to us all.
This is why we have decided to pay this homage to her in this issue of Domínios de
Lingu@gem. In our opinion, there could be no better way to do that than collecting

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original papers on the challenges and applications to/of empirical and experimental
research on reading, writing and interpreting/translating, a path that she herself took
during the last decade of her life.
A growing area of inquiry in translation studies, psycholinguistics and
multilingualism alike is the cognitive processes that underpin humans’ ability to
translate, read, and write. Such processes, usually investigated by analyzing how an
individual responds to a stimulus, are commonly accessed indirectly, through
methods that hint at aspects of our perception, attention and memory, among others
(see BADDELEY; HITCH, 1994; ERICSSON et al., 2018).
Particularly, several studies have focused on cognitive effort. This term has not
always been clearly defined, but it is often associated with the allocation of additional
cognitive resources to perform a task and sometimes measured/identified through
extreme/deviant values for any task-related parameter. In the search for behavioral
patterns among subjects located at various points in the novice-expert continuum,
researchers, whether they use the term or not, interpret default/automatic procedures
or behaviors as instances that require less cognitive effort, while deviations from
default behaviors are counted as instances of greater cognitive effort.
For example, research based on analyzing pauses during translation may seek
to identify systematic size of segments located between pauses and indicate that the
greater the number of pauses or the longer the duration of pauses, the greater the
likelihood of cognitive effort. Such a phenomenon may be triggered by difficulties
imposed by the source text and particularities of the linguistic pairs, by some working
condition (e.g., with or without time pressure, the input of machine translation, or
matches in the translation memory system) and/or by limitations of the translator
him/herself (e.g., no previous experience in a domain).
The notion of cognitive effort was originally developed in psychological
studies. It refers to the mental work involved in decision making, more specifically to

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work related to the intense use of cognitive resources for information processing (LEE;
SWINNEN; SERRIEN, 1994). One of the most important findings from studies on
cognitive effort is that effort tends to be avoided because it involves the use of limited
resources by nature (GARBARINO; EDELL, 1997). In other words, humans tend to be
“cognitive misers” (FISKE; TAYLOR, 1984, p. 12), i.e., they spend only the necessary
effort to make a satisfactory, rather than optimal, decision. Based on this assumption,
in translation process research, an individual’s deviant behaviors in relation to his/her
own performance throughout a task or in relation to the performance of other
individuals may be interpreted as instances of cognitive effort and tend to show,
respectively, translation problems and different translator profiles.
Translation is a particular case in point because it involves both reading
(i.e., understanding) and writing (i.e., producing) a text. Reading requires that the
individual recognize the letters, avoids distraction with irrelevant stimuli, and
remember words that have already been processed, etc. (see JAKOBSEN; JENSEN,
2008; ALVES; PAGANO; DA SILVA, 2011). In turn, writing requires, for any purposes,
planning, organization of thoughts and information, remembering previous sentences
and paragraphs, etc. (see SCARDAMALIA; BEREITER, 1991).
In the last decade or so, we have seen a marked increase in research that takes
a variety of approaches in the reading, writing and interpreting/translating domains
(see ALVSTAD; HILD; TISELIUS, 2011; SCHWIETER; FERREIRA, 2014). Approaches
have varied in theoretical assumptions or in materials and methods. When it comes to
theoretical frameworks, we find, for instance, interfaces across fields, including studies
of expertise and expert performance, translation studies, and psycholinguistics, and
also different perspectives within the same field (i.e., cognitive linguistics, systemic-
functional linguistics). Regarding materials and methods, we see studies tapping into
different profiles (from novice and field specialists to experts), tasks, conditions, text
types, and language pairs, and employing different or combined methods, including

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eye tracking, key logging, verbal protocols, Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(FMRI) and electroencephalogram (EEG).
Many of these studies have offered reflections on the applicability of their
results to classroom and learning contexts and have provided noteworthy theoretical
and methodological implications, allowing improved data collection procedures,
instruments, and comparability across studies. In this special issue of Domínios de
Lingu@gem, we have brought together a set of original studies that offer applications
of empirical research and underscore the challenges of conducting experiments in
reading, writing, and translation. Below, we provide a brief overview of the papers
that appear in this issue.
The first paper by Bruno de Azevedo and Lêda Maria Braga Tomitch presents
a framework for analyzing vocabulary activities in a foreign language. In the study,
the authors compare how vocabulary and reading are presented in foreign language
textbooks. Within these analyses, there are several variables investigated including
word frequency, cognate status, introduction of vocabulary in multiple
contexts/activities, and the level of cognitive processing that is exerted by the activities.
The second study by Ana María Díaz Ferrero presents a didactic analysis on
semantic errors in digital journalistic texts that have been translated from Portuguese
into Spanish. The author focuses on interferences that arise from false cognates and
chooses five terms that exemplify errors of meaning or misunderstandings in meaning.
She concludes that immediatism, lack of lexicon mastery or underestimating of the
differences between two similar languages (i.e., Portuguese and Spanish) can lead to
an erroneous interpretation of the meaning in the original text, eventually resulting in
inaccurate texts that fail to account to the original news.
In the third paper authored by Marileide Dias Esqueda and Flávio de Sousa
Freitas, the authors provide a synthesis of the development of research on machine
interpreting (speech-to-speech translation). They begin the article by reviewing early

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research which first aimed to understand how human speech was processed and how
it was produced by the machine. These studies laid the groundwork for subsequent
techniques and approaches to investigating how computational system processes,
represent, and produce human speech. From this, the authors discuss the need to
consider the speaker’s intention that characterize the context and communicative
purpose of the discourse. They offer implications for the future evolution of the
discursive intention in machine interpreting software.
The fourth paper by Carlito Antonio Companhia investigates categorical
selection patterns during interlingual translation. The authors draw on a corpus of 114
sentences produced by 40 undergraduate students in a translation program in
Mozambique. Their analyses suggested that interlingual translation presents linguistic
difficulties for the students. Specifically, these challenges seem to manifest themselves
in the establishment of categorical selection properties of lexical items at the level of
prepositional, nominal, and phrasal arguments.
In the fifth article by Tania Liparini and Camila Braga, the authors present
results from a longitudinal study on strategic and instrumental subcompetences in
translator training. The study identifies key strategies for solving translation problems
as used by the participants and draws on PACTE’s (2003) holistic model of translation
competence which describes the underlying knowledge system utilized in translation.
Analyses were conducted on data collected from Translog and Camtasia and were
classified by type of pause (orientation and revision) and type of support (internal-
external; simple-dominant). The results indicated that participants’ instrumental and
strategic subcompetences were underdeveloped, suggesting that they are unable to
properly utilize them to create accurate translations. The authors conclude the paper
by discussing implications for translator training.
The sixth paper by Cecília Franco Morais and Marileide Dias Esqueda is a study
exploring the role that domain knowledge plays in simultaneous interpreting. From

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the questionnaires and audio-recordings, which allowed for analyses to be conducted
on variables representing cognitive effort, the results revealed changes in declarative
and procedural knowledge after being exposed to training in simultaneous
interpreting. However, these moderate changes were insufficient to avoid a high level
of cognitive effort.
The seventh paper by Gleiton Malta reports and discusses data elicited through
retrospective verbal protocols collected upon a (re)translation task. The researcher
provided the participants with three stimuli (a source text and two previous published
translation) that they could use freely to produce a target text. The author concludes
that such protocols are still valuable to understand the translation process as it can
provide us with information that is often difficult to access through other data
collection instruments (e.g., eye tracking and key logging) or help us corroborate the
results obtained through them.
Bernardo Kolling Limberger and Ana Paula Biasibetti in the eighth article offer
insights on methodological issues involved in reading processing. They specifically
focus on the use of PsychoPy in a Stroop task and a lexical decision task. The authors
provide a step-by-step protocol on how to design the tasks along with some of the
strengths and weaknesses of using PsychoPy, an open-code, free and user-friendly
piece of software. Besides, they provide insights on how to implement the study and
process the collected data.
In the ninth study, James Musselman, Kristen Ellis and Pedro Craveiro had five
graduate students and one undergraduate student translate an 80-word-long text on
politics from English into Spanish using key-logging software Inputlog. They
examined several relations to draw conclusions about cognitive effort during
translation, namely: self-reported L1 and verbal fluency scores in L1 and L2; verbal
fluency score and perceived level of task difficulty; degree of satisfaction with the
target text and perceived level of task difficulty. They also investigated total task time,

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total pause time, number of pauses, and mean time of pauses. Their results pointed to
some correlations and to the usefulness of pauses as indicative of cognitive effort.
The tenth paper by Claudia Marchese Winfield and Norma Barbosa de Lima
Fonseca analyzes the influence of reading purpose and translation experience on
summary and translation tasks. They tested the hypothesis that professional
translators and undergraduate students produce translated texts and summaries of
different quality. They also investigated the time each group spent on the tasks. They
found that translation experience, reading purpose and task repetition influence both
quality and time spent on task.
In the eleventh study, Kyoko Sekino revises the notion of micro and macro
translation units and the importance of context in translation by using application
MicroUnitsAPP to analyze the data of one single participant. She identifies 96 micro
translation units, 70 of which were part of one single macro translation unit. She points
out that context gained relevance after the participant completed such 70 units, as his
process became more linear and faster.
Finally, in the twelfth paper, Norma Barbosa de Lima Fonseca, Cecília Gomes
Frugoli and Fabio Alves both report on a study and pay homage to Márcia Schmaltz.
They analyze the translation process of professional translators and translation
students in a translation task involving a news text in the language pair Chinese
Mandarin => European Portuguese. Materials and methods included answering a
profile questionnaire, translating on Translog, and providing free retrospective verbal
protocols upon translation. The results showed that the professional translators were
faster than students, but they were unclear as to differences in their levels of meta-
reflection. Most importantly, as the authors themselves state:
In this article, we honor Dr. Márcia Schmaltz (1973-2018) presenting
the results of her latest research while she was a postdoctoral fellow at
the Postgraduate Program in Linguistic Studies (PosLin) at UFMG. In
addition, we provide in Annex B a target text in European Portuguese

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translated by the researcher from the source text in Mandarin Chinese
[…]. As such, we provide the reader of this article with a sample of
how the translator unveiled China to Portuguese-language speakers.1
(FONSECA; FRUGOLI; ALVES, 2019, p. 784)
These twelve studies may take different approaches, but their common thread
is their keen interest on methods that may well contribute to our understanding of
how humans write, read, interpret, and translate. We are certain that these twelve
studies will have important implications in the field and hopefully will encourage new
research avenues, methods, and theories.
References
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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2003. DOI https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.45
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1 Our translation to: “Neste artigo, homenageamos a profa. Dra Márcia Schmaltz (1973-2018)
apresentando os resultados da última pesquisa coorientada por ela quando cursava o pós-doutorado
no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Estudos Linguísticos (PosLin), na UFMG. Ademais, fornecemos, no
Anexo B, um texto-alvo em Português europeu traduzido pela pesquisadora, a partir do texto-fonte em
Chinês mandarim utilizado para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa aqui relatada, proporcionando ao
leitor deste artigo uma amostra de como a tradutora divulgava a China aos falantes de português.”

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Appendix 1
Complete books
LU, X. Contos completos de Lu Xun. 《鲁迅小说全集》. [By Márcia Schmaltz]. Porto
Alegre: L&&PM, no prelo.
SCHMALTZ, M.; CAPPARELLI, S. (org.). 50 fábulas da China fabulosa. Porto
Alegre/RS: L&PM, 2007.
SCHMALTZ, M.; CAPPARELLI, S. (org.). Contos sobrenaturais chineses. Porto
Alegre: L&PM, 2010.
SCHMALTZ, M.; CAPPARELLI, S. (org.). Fábulas chinesas. Porto Alegre: LP&M,
2012.
SCHMALTZ, M.; SCHMALTZ, J. (org.). Histórias da mitologia chinesa. Porto Alegre:
Da Casa/Palmarinca, 2001.
SHE, L. O garoto do riquixá. 《骆驼祥子》. [By Márcia Schmaltz]. São Paulo: Estação
Editorial, 2017.
YU, H. Viver. [By Márcia Schmaltz]. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2008.
Articles
SCHMALTZ, M. Três Irmãs. Extramuros – a China além da China, on-line, 17 August.
2017.
SCHMALTZ, M. Cartoons de Ding Cong. Extramuros – a China além da China, on-
line, 23 March 2017.
SCHMALTZ, M. Um amor que atravessa a Via Láctea. Revista Macau, p. 108-113, 15
October 2013.
SCHMALTZ, M. Lendas, mitos e histórias sobre a serpente. Revista Macau, Macau,
p. 56-67, 20 February 2013.

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ANÔNIMO. Os galanteios de Lü Dongbin para Peônia. Revista Macau, p. 53-55, 01
December 2011.
ANÔNIMO. O estro do poeta. Revista Macau, p. 28-32, 01 September 2011.
ANÔNIMO. Os coelhos e o gato. Revista Macau, p. 104-106, 16 December 2010.
HOU, Yi; CHANG, E. A lenda do arqueiro imortal que flechou os sóis. Revista Macau,
p. 98-100, 01 September 2010.
ANÔNIMO. A lenda dos cálamos na porta. Revista Macau, p. 108-109, 01 June 2010.
Further reading
ESCAVADOR. Márcia Schmaltz. Available at
https://www.escavador.com/sobre/502229/marcia-schmaltz. Accessed on: 10 June
2019.
EXTRAMUROS. Recordar Márcia Schmaltz. Available at
https://extramuros.me/2018/09/08/recordar-marcia-schmaltz/. Accessed on: 10 June
2019.
JTM. Márcia Schmaltz deixa paixão pela língua/cultura chinesa. Available at
https://jtm.com.mo/local/marcia-schmaltz-deixa-paixao-pela-lingua-cultura-chinesa/.
Accessed on: 10 June 2019.
LINKEDIN. Márcia Schmaltz. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/in/marcia-
schmaltz-修安琪-56ab9819/?originalSubdomain=br. Accessed on: 10 June 2019.
MARCIA SCHMALTZ. Avaiable at https://marciaschmaltz.wordpress.com. Accessed
on: 10 June 2019.
PONTO FINAL. Morreu a mulher que tinha como compromisso aproximar o chinês
do português. Available at:
https://pontofinalmacau.wordpress.com/2018/09/10/morreu-a-mulher-que-tinha-
como-compromisso-aproximar-o-chines-do-portugues/. Accessed on: 10 June 2019.
RESEARCH GATE. Márcia Schmaltz. Available at
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marcia_Schmaltz. Accessed on: 10 June 2019.

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REVISTA MACAU. Márcia Schmaltz. Avaiable at
https://www.revistamacau.com/2013/08/09/marcia-schmaltz/. Accessed on: 10 June
2019.
UFMG. Exposição. Available at: https://ufmg.br/comunicacao/eventos/exposicao-
sobre-marcia-schmaltz-no-centro-de-memoria-da-fale. Accessed on: 20 October 2019.
UFSC. Dicionário de Tradutores. Available at
https://dicionariodetradutores.ufsc.br/pt/MarciaSchmaltz.htm. Accessed on: 10 June
2019.
Apresentação recebida em: 20.04.2019
Apresentação aprovada em: 25.05.2019