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34 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. THE DESIGN AFTER
35 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. SENSING THE CITY, SENSING THE RURAL
SENSING IGOLI:
APPLYING TYPOLOGICAL
ACTIVITY SYSTEM
MODELS IN THE DESIGN
OF INNOVATIVE AND
APPROPRIATE URBAN
TECHNOLOGIES
Terrence Fenn
Department of Multimedia
University of Johannesburg
tfenn@uj.ac.za
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes an interdisciplinary project involving
fourth-year industrial and interaction design students working
in collaborative teams to consider how the emerging ‘smart’
technologies of the 21st Century, can be implemented in a human-
centric manner, particularly in the complex context of the inner-
city of Johannesburg, South Africa.
If statistical models are correct, one decade from now, there will
be nearly 30 cities around the world with more than 10 million
inhabitants; with some cities even expanding beyond the 20
million mark (Muñoz & Cohen, 2016, p. 71). It is predicted that
nearly 90% of this inux into cities will take place in Africa and
Asia (Praharaj, Han, & Hawken, 2018, p. 36).1 As populations
rise coupled with largely stagnant economies, the services and
infrastructure in many urban centres struggle to meet the
demands and expectations of those living there, resulting in a
declining standard of living (Khatoun & Zeadally, 2016, p. 46).
There is therefore an increasing need for cities to respond
in innovative and creative ways to these challenges (Snow,
Håkonsson, & Obel, 2016, p. 92), one such approach is to make
cities ‘smarter’. Considering with the nite limit of our planet’s
resources, economic instability and climate change (Gascó-
hernandez, 2018, pp. 50-51; Kitchin, 2014, pp. 1-2) there is no “one-
size-ts-all” solution to the variations of contextual complexities
facing urban centres. However, from the beginning of human
activity, technology has been an important means for people to
enact control on the environment in both positive and negative
ways (Kline, 2003). To this point, this paper, addresses how the
opportunities aorded by ‘smart’ technology, can be envisioned to
provide a positive contribution to urban futures.
‘Smart’ cities are described as places where digital technology
integrates with urban infrastructure, architecture, everyday
objects, and sometimes even human bodies to “address social,
economic and environmental problems” (Townsend, 2013, p.
15). At a technological level there is a fairly consistent view
of what ‘smart’ city infrastructure includes, however there
is less consensus on how the design of ‘smart’ cities should
be approached (Gascó-hernandez, 2018, pp. 50-51; Kitchin,
2014, p. 1). At one extreme is a ‘top-down’ approach typically
categorised as city-wide planning and/or high-level technological
implementation (Gardner & Hespanhol, 2018, p. 54). On the
While much of the development of ‘smart’ technologies occurs in the Global
North, the logical expectation is that in the near future ‘smart’ technologies
will be implemented across the world. Technology is never value neutral
and always carries particular cultural and political assumptions. Ensuring
technology is meaningful to people implies that it should acknowledge
and support their conceptions and desires. If the particular needs and
contexts of local, urban African communities are not recognised, ‘smart’
technologies, when implemented in urban contexts such as Johannesburg,
South Africa (also known as iGoli in isiZulu – the City of Gold), may be
undertaken in an uncritical and perhaps even detrimental manner.
This paper describes an interdisciplinary project involving fourth-year
industrial and interaction design students working in collaborative teams
to consider how the emerging ‘smart’ technologies of the 21st Century,
can be implemented in a human-centric manner, particularly in the
complex context of Johannesburg. The central conceptual framework
that orientated the teams’ design thinking was a novel integration of
McCullough’s Typology of Thirty Situations (TTS) with Engeström’s Activity
System Model (ASM).
Keywords: smart technology, 4IR, activity theory, urban contexts,
Johannesburg
1 While the UN predictions of global population growth (United Nations, 2017)
are currently being debated (see Bricker & Ibbitson, 2019), the fact remains
that in Africa and Asia numerous mega-cities already exist under extreme
environmental and economic diculties.
Angus Donald Campbell
Department of Industrial Design
University of Johannesburg
acampbell@uj.ac.za
36 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. THE DESIGN AFTER
37 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. SENSING THE CITY, SENSING THE RURAL
other, is a ‘bottom-up’ community-led, site specic approach
characterised by authors such as Greeneld (2017), Townsend
(2013), Kitchin (2014), de Waal (2014) and Rose (2015). Much of
this discourse is framed in terms of ‘the right to the smart city’
(Cardullo, Di Feliciantonio, & Kitchin, 2019) which places emphasis
on “small-scale or ner grain workings of the city” (Gardner &
Hespanhol, 2018, p. 55).
An important acknowledgment at this point in time is that there
are no existing ‘smart’ cities, only cities trying to be ‘smart’ (Snow,
Håkonsson, & Obel, 2016, p. 92). To this end the ‘smart’ city concept
is typically centred on speculative visions of how cities could be.
Thus, particularly for academics, designers, architects and urban
planners in the Global South, now is the time to act. Technology
is never value neutral and always carries particular cultural and
political assumptions (Al-Hunaiyyan, 2009; Bardzell & Bardzell,
2015). Ensuring technology is meaningful to people implies that
it should acknowledge and support their conceptions and desires
(Krippendorf, 2007) thus, if the particular needs and contexts
of local, urban African communities are not recognised, smart
technologies, when implemented in urban contexts such as
Johannesburg may be undertaken in an uncritical and perhaps
even detrimental manner. However, as design practitioners in the
Global South, we are in a good position to do something about it.
In reference to the broader framings of the ‘smart’ city, as
interaction and industrial designers, we are principally concerned
with preparing our students to design creative and innovative
urban experiences at the immediate, embodied scale. Thus, the
student project, which is the focus of this paper can be understood
as operating within a bottom-up, participatory mode. In this
manner it aligns closely with the eld of urban informatics2 and as
such can be compared to other research concerned with preparing
students for ‘smart’ city design such as Gardner and Hespanhol
(2018) and Caldwell et al. (2013).
However, since much of the existing student work and indeed
theoretical accounts of bottom-up smart cities originate from
the disciplines involved in the built environment, as product
and service designers we sought to establish the eectiveness
of working within the broader ‘smart’ city conceptual setting by
rstly, focusing the role of the product within the ‘smart’ space,
and, secondly, orientating the design activity in alignment with
theoretical concepts, specically activity theory, which has been
proven to be eective in product design.
The structure of this paper is as follows. Firstly, Johannesburg,
as the site of the project, will be very briey introduced. This
introduction will be complimented by a short framing of
considerations of human activity in contemporary city-making.
Secondly, the activity theory framework will be introduced outlining
fundamental historical and conceptual precedents. In particular,
Engeström’s Activity System Model (ASM) will be discussed in
reference to how, it was adapted in the Typological Activity System
Model (TASM) to focus on urban spatial activities. Thirdly, the
methodology of the student design project is outlined. Fourth, the
application of the TASM in the student’s design process is illustrated
and described in a brief examples of work. Lastly, in the discussion
section of the paper, we critically reect on the eectiveness of the
TASM to enable the students to engage with emerging technologies
through a consideration of the embedded social.
SPATIAL AND THEORETICAL CONTEXT
Established in 1886 as the mining town, Johannesburg with an
estimated population of nearly 5.6 million,3 is the largest city in
South Africa and its economic centre. Like most cities of its size,
Johannesburg is a highly complex city faced with many (often
paradoxical) challenges such as poverty and waste; urban sprawl
and high-density; slum conditions and gentrication (Ruhiiga,
2017). The focus of the student project was centred on the inner
city of Johannesburg characterised by both urban decay and
renewal. While Johannesburg was built as an apartheid city and
as such has numerous societal issues, the students involved in the
project, many of whom live in the city, where expected to engage
with their experience of the city. As a city, Johannesburg is a
location buzzy with human activity.
The notion of activity as the fundamental unit of human-centric
design has an established tradition in architecture. For example,
Alexander’s (1977) A Pattern Language focuses on the interactions
between the physical spaces and the way in which they inhibit
or facilitate shared societal values and customs (Benyon, 2014,
p. 33). Likewise, premised on three categories of activity namely:
necessary, optional and social activities Gehl (1987) is concerned
with the everyday activities of people and the impact of these
activities on urban planning. In contemporary architectural
practice these considerations of place have been incorporated
into the concept of the architectural program, a strategic method
2 According to McCullough (2015, p.16) the eld of urban informatics seeks to
“collect, share, embed, and interpret urban infrastructural and environmental
data” whilst emphasizing human-centric priorities such as “urban resilience,
livability, and socialization”.
3 The city has a greater metropolitan area with a population of over 10 million
(World Population Review , 2019)
38 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. THE DESIGN AFTER
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which associates the functional requirements of a space with
the activities and behaviours that they are envisioned to support
(Shepard, 2011, p. 23). One of the ways to focus in on the various
human activities that take place in cities is through McCullough’s
Typology of Thirty Situations (McCullough M. , 2005, pp. 52-57).
McCullough’s theory of [activity] typology suggests that the
modelling of daily life ensures a cultural sustainability in the
urban environment that can be incorporated into the design of
place through activity ‘types’ (2005, pp. 52-57).4 Activity typology
suggests that environments should be perceived not in terms of
what they can contain but rather in terms of the possible human
activities they can support. Thus, McCullough (2005, pp. 119-
120) provides a Typology of Thirty Situations as detailed in Table
1. Each element of the typology suggests a situated action that
describes the everyday living patterns of a particular category of
place (McCullough M. , 2005, p. 118). For example, the situation
“Gathering (places to meet)” recognises that in the urban sphere
certain environments exist to support the human activity of
meeting other people.5
While referring to activity, McCullough, as with many other
authors from an architectural background, does not specically
unpack the concept of activity. However, in product design, and
most notably interaction design, activity is an often-theorised
concept6. We will therefore briey unpack the concept of activity
in relationship to activity theory.
Activity theory proposes that in order to study subjects and
objects the most eective manner to do this is by studying the
manifest activity between them (Leontiev, 1978). Therefore, by
studying how people act we can arrive at a much more accurate
understanding of a person’s motivations. “Broadly dened, activity
theory is a philosophical and cross-disciplinary framework for
studying dierent forms of human practices as development
processes, both individual and social levels interlinked at the
same time.” (Kuutti, 1995). Originating in Russian psychology
through Lev Vygotsky (1982) and his student Alexei Leontiev
(1978) it was popularized in Western discourse mainly through
its dissemination by Yrjö Engeström (1987). Enegeström’s activity
model depicts mediated action undertaken by a person (subject/s),
towards the solution of a problem (object), mediated by tools
(technology), in order to achieve the goal (outcome). This model
Table 1. McCullough’s
typology of thirty situations
(2005, p. 120).
(at work….)
1. Deliberating (places for thinking)
2. Presenting (places for speaking to groups)
3. Collaborating (places for working with groups)
4. Dealing (places for negotiating)
5. Documenting (places for reference resources)
6. Ociating (places for institutions to serve their constituencies)
7. Crafting (places for skilled practices)
8. Associating (places where businesses form ecologies)
9. Learning (places for experiments and explanation)
10. Cultivating (places for stewardship)
11. Watching (places for monitoring)
(at home….)
1. Sheltering (places with comfortable climate)
2. Recharging (places for maintaining the body)
3. Idling (places for watching the world go by)
4. Conning (places to be held in)
5. Servicing (places with local support networks)
6. Metering (places where services ow incrementally)
(at on the town….)
1. Eating, drinking, talking (places for socializing)
2. Gathering (places to meet)
3. Cruising (places for seeing and being seen)
4. Belonging (places for insiders)
5. Shopping (places for recreation retailing)
6. Sporting (places for embodied play)
7. Attending (places for cultural production)
8. Commemorating (places for rituals)
(on the road….)
1. Gazing/touring (places to visit)
2. Hoteling (places to be at home away from home)
3. Adventuring (places for embodied challenge)
4. Driving (car as place)
5. Walking (places at human scale)
4 McCollough’s theory is focused on activity, and hence we describe it as activity
typology to dierentiate it from more generic concepts of typology.
5 Activity typologies are not meant to be regarded as denitive and timeless
but should rather instead recognise as a human-centric, emergent situated
contributions to institution-building (McCullough, 2005, p. 57).
6 See Rogers’ HCI Theory Classical, Modern, and Contemporary (2012)
Figure 1. Engeström’s
second generation activity
system model (adapted from
Engeström, 1987, p.78).
40 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. THE DESIGN AFTER
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highlights how cultural and socio-historical factors inuence
human activity, these factors include conventions (rules), social
organisation (division of labour), and the context of the subject’s
broader society (community).
Activity theory is useful to focus on the operations undertaken
in an environment, these then lead into actions, driven by goals,
that nally lead to the higher order motivation behind the
activity. It is dicult for most individuals to access the emotional
motivations behind rational actions, but activity theory provides
a means to start with the more rational operations and actions in
order to delve into the subconscious of human motivation. As a
means to practically engage with the complexity of motivations
Table 2. Sheldon et al. (2010)
Top-10 Psychological Needs.
This version is based on
Hassenzahl (2010 p. 46.)
AUTONOMY /
INDEPENDENCE
Feeling like you are the cause of your own actions
rather than feeling that external forces or
pressure are the cause of your action
COMPETENCE /
EFFECTANCE
Feeling that you are very capable and eective in
your actions rather than feeling incompetent or
ineective
RELATEDNESS /
BELONGINGNESS
Feeling that you have regular intimate contact
with people who care about you rather than
feeling lonely and uncared for
SELF-ACTUALIZING /
MEANING
Feeling that you are developing your best
potentials and making life meaningful rather
than feeling stagnant and that life does not have
much meaning
SECURITY / CONTROL Feeling safe and in control of your life rather
than feeling uncertain and threatened by your
circumstances
MONEY / LUXURY Feeling that you have plenty of money to buy
most of what you want rather than feeling like a
poor person who has no nice possessions
INFLUENCE / POPULARITY Feeling that you are liked, respected, and have
inuence over others rather than feeling like
a person whose advice or opinion nobody is
interested in
PHYSICAL THRIVING /
BODILY
Feeling that your body is healthy and well-taken
care of rather than feeling out of shape and
unhealthy
SELF-ESTEEM /
SELF-RESPECT
Feeling that you are a worthy person who is as
good as anyone else rather than feeling like a
“loser”
PLEASURE / STIMULATION Feeling that you get plenty of enjoyment and
pleasure rather than feeling bored and under
stimulated by life
Sheldon et al’s top 10 psychological needs (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, &
Kasser, 2001) are useful as a means to predict why certain human
activities take place. As designers, this provides the opportunity to
understand the driving force behind action, and therefore design
within that desire, as opposed to possibly misinterpreting simple
operations or more complex actions as reecting real needs.7
In summary and in order to better situate this project in the
urban context, we equate the “object” of Enegström’s ASM with
McCullough’s typology of thirty situations (2005, p. 120), and
the “outcome” informed by the 10 Psychological Needs (Sheldon,
Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001) to arrive at the TASM. As designers,
a product intervention is situated conceptually at the point of
the “mediating tool” in the T/ASM, however as opposed to typical
use of activity theory in Human Computer Interaction where it
is focused on micro or product wide interactions (Kaptelinin &
Nardi, 2012), we rather use the TASM as a research tool to frame
the overall urban ecosystem as a means to contextualise product
and service design.
TEACHING METHODOLOGY
The project commenced with a series of short theoretical lectures
that presented the conceptual framework of the project to the
students. Major themes presented included: the 4th Industrial
Revolution (Schwab, 2016), Floridi’s 4th Scientic Revolution (2014),
Embodied cognition (Dourish, 2004; McCullough M. , 2005) and
Activity theory (Kaptelinin & Nardi, 2012; Engeström, 1999).
Students from both departments were combined into small
design teams. Teams were tasked with exploring a particular
activity typology in the Johannesburg inner city district using
a range of qualitative and quantitate design research methods,
framed by the TASM model. This exploration was situated, and
people focused. Students were expected to visit their selected
spaces throughout the duration of the project and engage with
the communities using them.
Once the initial design research was completed, students, again,
applied concepts from activity theory to guide their speculative
design considerations of future city-making in Johannesburg.8
7 The use of Sheldon et al’s top 10 psychological needs in the TASM is informed by
Hassenzahl’s use of it in his ‘three level hierarchy of goals’ model (2010, pp. 44-46).
8 Concurrent to the theoretical lectures and site visits, students undertook weekly
Aurdino programming classes. Aurdino is an Open Source computer hardware
and software that provided the students with the skills required to prototype
their nal designs both in terms of interface and product outcomes.
42 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. THE DESIGN AFTER
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Student teams, through both independent lecturer engagement
and in peer critique sessions, critically reected on their own design
concepts and learning development. At the culmination of the
project, the entire process was documented through an electronic
publication, which included the nal prototype outcomes.
CASE STUDY IDŌ: A SPACE FOR RECHARGING BY
NATALIA DELGADO AND RIAN PRETORIUS
In this case study we use one student project as an example of how
the TASM was applied over seven-weeks. This is one of nine design
outcomes from a project that has been rened over three years.
In the chosen case, using the typology “a space for recharging”
as the initial starting point, the design team engaged with
community members in Johannesburg in order to better
understand their experience of physical health. After engaging
with participants (subjects in the TASM), they rstly identied a
core set of psychological needs which included: bodily health, self-
esteem, pleasure and stimulation (Fig. 2).
Once they had established their object and outcome pairing, their
research activities then focused on social approaches to exercise
as well as exiting technological support for such activities.
The Idō concept consists of two key products, a wearable watch
and a mobile application. Beyond recording biometric data
for health feedback, Idō helps to guide movement through
the use of integrated sensors to improve technique. Through
visual illumination it can sync the users’ movements to others,
hence creating a shared exercise routine regardless of whether
participants are in a shared environment or in the privacy of
their own home. Exercises thus become more a more engaging
experience, motivating the user to continue with the practice.
Figure 2. Persona Board
(Delgado & Pretorius, 2018).
Figure 3. Typological Activity
System Model (Delgado &
Pretorius, 2018).
Figure 4. Idō visualization
(Delgado & Pretorius, 2018).
44 Cumulus Conference Proceedings Bogotá 2019. THE DESIGN AFTER
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students’ strategy and ideation could be validated against.
Fourthly, it could also be used to systemically speculate on the
impact of designerly intervention into a particular urban space.
In the sense a change in one of the TASM nodes (typically Tools/
Instrument) could be used to predict change in the other nodes.
And nally, as evidenced in the provided student example
but also true of the other projects, we found the students’
concepts to be well-integrated product/service systems. In
our previous experience of teaching the same collaborative
project we found that students from dierent disciplines would
limit product integration within the knowledge frameworks
of their specialisations; whereas we found the TASM enabled
better synthesis of design strategy and ideation across the
interdisciplinary groups.
CONCLUSION
As design practitioners in the Global South in the post-digital
age our students need to be prepared to engage with design
approaches that include and integrate computational, physical
and spatial domains. Typically, digital and product designers
have not explored the spatial realm, however these elds bring
their own knowledge with regards to people and technology in an
immediate and embodied manner. Activity theory, generally, and
the TASM, specically, help to bridge between product making and
urban informatics in a manner that helps students to formulate
designerly concepts in a mature and systemic manner.
While we have applied TASM in the urban context only, we
believe that it is equally benecial in its application in the rural
context or scaled up to explore more regional contexts. This is an
opportunity for future research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the University of Johannesburg Teaching
Innovation Fund for their nancial support in realising this
project in 2018. We would also like to thank our students, in
particular Natalia Delgado and Rian Pretorius, for their creative
work and their detailed documentation of their design process.
Figure 5. Curating shared
experiences with Idō (Delgado
& Pretorius, 2018).
Figure 6. Group Interaction
with Idō (Delgado & Pretorius,
2018).
Case Study Reection
Reecting on our experience working with our students on
this project, we found the TASM to be a very useful tool. Firstly,
it acts as a visual mapping of research process, which enabled
conversation and reection between students, and, with lecturers.
Secondly, it allowed students to structure their thinking and
to be generally more strategic in design concept development
as it encouraged a focus on peoples’ goals (objectives) and
needs (outcomes) rather than technological and/or aesthetic
specication. Thirdly, it provided a background logic that the
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