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Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior
Job Seeking: The Process and
Experience of Looking for a Job
Connie R. Wanberg, Abdifatah A. Ali,
and Borbala Csillag
Department of Work and Organizations, Carlson School of Management, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA; email: wanbe001@umn.edu,
alixx463@umn.edu, csill001@umn.edu
Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2020.
7:315–37
First published as a Review in Advance on
November 1, 2019
The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior is online at
orgpsych.annualreviews.org
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-
044939
Copyright © 2020 by Annual Reviews.
All rights reserved
Keywords
job search, job loss, job change, unemployment
Abstract
This review distills available empirical research about the process and expe-
rience of looking for a job. Job search varies according to several dimensions,
including intensity, content, and temporality/persistence. Our review exam-
ines how these dimensions relate to job search success, which involves job
nding as well as job quality. Because social networking and interviewing
behavior have attracted signicant research attention, we describe ndings
with respect to these two job search methods in greater detail. We provide
examples of the relevance of context to job search (i.e., the job seeker’s geo-
graphical region, country, and culture; the economy; the job seeker’s current
or past employment situation; and employer behaviors and preferences) and
review research on bias in the job search. Finally, we survey work on job
search interventions and conclude with an overview of pressing job search
issues in need of future research.
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INTRODUCTION
Millions of individuals engage in job search every year.Employed individuals look for new jobs to
improve their working conditions. Students engage in job search after nishing their education.
Unemployed individuals search for work after being terminated, laid off, or quitting. Caregivers
need jobs after nishing their caregiving roles. Most individuals engage in job search multiple
times in their life span (Direnzo & Greenhaus 2011). Median employee tenure in the United States
is only approximately 4.2 years (US Bur. Labor Stat. 2018a). Separation rates in other countries
are similarly high (Hobijn & Sahin 2009).
This review delineates what we know,from an empirical standpoint, about the process and ex-
perience of looking for a job from the perspective of the job seeker. We describe job search as a
self-regulatory process. We delineate the major dimensions of job search that have been studied
and how these dimensions relate to job search success (i.e., nding employment, nding it within
the time frame desired, salary in the new job, and other indicators of job quality such as person-
job t; Saks 2005). We describe research on two aspects of job search behavior that have received
focused attention, social networking and interviewing. We then delineate contextual factors that
may shape the job search experience or outcomes, including geographical region, country, and
culture; the economy; the job seeker’s current or past employment situation; and employer be-
haviors and preferences. We devote a special section to the role of bias in job search, given the
substantial number of studies in this area. We describe results of interventions to help job seekers
and conclude with suggestions for future research.
JOB SEARCH AS A SELF-REGULATORY PROCESS
Job search involves a series of activities aimed at nding a (new) job. These activities can in-
clude clarifying one’s goals (e.g., what type of job do I want?), preparing/revising a résumé, re-
searching companies and job search engines, networking, identifying and applying to open posi-
tions, and preparing for interviews with interested employers. For most, job search is a highly
autonomous, self-regulated, goal-directed, and proactive process. Especially under conditions
of extended search, looking for work may involve a range of emotions for individuals as they
cope with uncertainty, difculty locating appropriate positions, the pain of rejection, and other
challenges. Job search encompasses strategy and decision making, with substantial implications
for one’s career. Individuals have to develop daily plans for their search activities, self-motivate
and initiate those activities, and modify their behaviors or goals based on feedback from the
environment.
Several theoretical perspectives have been used to study the goal-directed aspects of job search,
including the theory of planned behavior, social cognitive career theory, goal-setting theory, con-
trol theory, self-efcacy theory, self-determination theory, affective events theory, economic job
search theory, and expectancy-value theory. For a review of these theories in relation to job loss
and job search, see Klehe & van Hooft (2018). Most prominently, researchers have studied the
goal-striving aspects of the job search process from self-regulation frameworks (Kanfer & Bufton
2018). From this latter perspective, the differences in how individuals engage in job search activity
have been delineated with three dimensions relevant to self-regulated goal striving: job search
intensity/effort (how much time or effort a job seeker puts into job search), job search content
(the activities and quality of activities the individual engages in), and temporality/persistence
(continuity or change in the job search over time) (Kanfer et al. 2001). These dimensions have
inspired research to clarify how each dimension relates to the search experience and employment
outcomes.
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Job Search Intensity/Effort
Job search intensity refers to how much effort or activity an individual is engaging in with respect
to his or her job search. In order to study job search intensity and the extent to which it matters for
employment outcomes, researchers ask job seekers to indicate how many times they have engaged
in several job search activities (e.g., prepared or revised your résumé, sent out your résumé, lled
out a job application, spoke with previous employers) in a specic period. A modied version of the
job search intensity scale developed by Blau (1994) is frequently used for this purpose. Job search
has changed a great deal since the scale was written, so revised items are typically used to capture
contemporary job search methods such as using online job search engines. Alternative measures
of job search activity include assessments of job search effort, or how much time individuals have
put into their job search in a specied period (Van Hoye 2018).
Meta-analytic data show that higher job search intensity is related to receiving more job offers
(k=18, rc=0.12) and having found a job by the end of a study’s duration (k=67, rc=0.18), but
not new job quality (k=28, rc=0.02) (van Hooft et al. 2015). The small effect sizes between job
search intensity and reemployment outcomes suggest that although the time and effort individu-
als put into job search matter, there are additional considerations that explain job search success.
Additional factors relevant to job search success include other dimensions of job search (such
as those outlined below), job seeker human capital, job seeker social capital, reemployment con-
straints (e.g., lacking transportation or child care, or having to work certain hours or in a certain
location), job seeker economic need to work, and employer discrimination (Wanberg et al. 2002).
Because there is a relationship between the amount of effort individuals put into their job
searches and job search success, a substantial amount of research has examined predictors of job
search intensity.Meta-analytic data show that individuals who put more time and effort into their
job searches tend to have higher levels of openness to experience (k=15, rc=0.13), agreeableness
(k=10, rc=0.09), trait self-regulation (k=22, rc=0.25), employment commitment (k=41, rc=
0.30), better attitudes toward job search (k=23, rc=0.32), higher job search self-efcacy (k=52,
rc=0.29), nancial need (k=46, rc=0.12), social pressure to search from others (k=26, rc=
0.24), and better physical health (k=8, rc=0.18) (van Hooft et al. 2015).
Job Search Content
Job search content refers to the pattern and quality of activities the job seeker engages in during
his or her job search. For example, job search behaviors may be preparatory (e.g., getting oneself
ready to be a strong applicant, such as by revising one’s résumé or reading a book about job search)
or active (e.g., mobilizing the search, such as by submitting an application) (Blau 1994). These
activities were proposed as sequential, with preparatory activities completed before active search
behaviors. Supporting this premise in a sample of student job seekers, individuals showed higher
use of active search behaviors in a later stage of job search than they did in an earlier stage (Saks &
Ashforth 2000). Yet, preparatory activities are still used in later stages of job search—individuals
cycle back to preparatory activities as needed. Active job search has a stronger relationship to job
nding and employment quality than preparatory job search (van Hooft et al. 2015), likely because
this dimension involves actually applying for positions.
The sources that individuals use in their job search can be distinguished as informal (e.g.,
friends, family, acquaintances) versus formal (e.g., online job postings). Although both informal
and formal sources are important for job seekers, informal sources can impart several advantages
to job seekers, including advice about job search and inside information about job opportunities.
Given several studies have focused on the use of informal sources in job search, we describe the
role of social networks in job search in a separate section.
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Individuals engage in different job search strategies, including focused (i.e., targeting one’s
job search around specic goals), exploratory (i.e., conducting a broader job search; being open to
several possibilities), and haphazard (i.e., not having a clear plan; applying to a variety of positions)
(Crossley & Highhouse 2005). In a study examining the use of these methods, individuals who
reported engaging in a focused job search were more satised with the jobs they found, whereas
individuals using exploratory approaches received more offers. Haphazard search is negatively
related to satisfaction with one’s job search and number of offers (Crossley & Highhouse 2005).
More broadly,the quality of the job search process and products are important (van Hooft et al.
2013). According to these authors, in order for a job search process to be of high quality, it should
include four important components. First, the job seeker must have clear goals and be commit-
ted to these goals. Second, the job seeker should adopt a focused or exploratory search strategy,
use a wide range of job search activities including informal sources, and plan how and when to
engage in search activities. Third, the job seeker must exert self-control of his or her attention,
emotions, and motivation. Finally, the job search should involve reection (e.g., regularly assessing
one’s progress, trying to learn from failures, and administering self-rewards at key points of per-
formance). High-quality products refer to the polished nature of the behaviors and materials used
within the job search (e.g., individuals may differ in their ability to conduct informative Internet
searches, identify appropriate job openings, develop a good résumé, and sell themselves in the em-
ployment interview) (van Hooft et al. 2013). The authors propose a self-regulatory, cyclical process
model whereby (a) job seekers cycle through the components described above multiple times as
needed and (b) a higher quality process facilitates higher quality products and subsequently job
search success (including locating more job opportunities, having more interviews, nding a job
faster, and higher job quality).
Due to the difculty of assessing the quality of job seekers’ activities, job search quality is less
frequently studied than the other dimensions of job search. Yet, some empirical work has ventured
in this direction. Consistent with the van Hooft et al. (2013) conceptualization of job search quality
within a self-regulatory framework, scholars have attempted to explore quality job search processes
using self-regulatory constructs. Job seekers exercising motivation control, which refers to “skillful
goal setting, environmental management, and sustaining search efforts over time”(Wanberg et al.
1999, p. 899), engage in higher job search intensity both week to week (Wanberg et al. 2012b)
and during the job search as a whole (Creed et al. 2009, Turban et al. 2013, Wanberg et al. 1999).
Other studies have found that graduating student job seekers who engaged in more metacognitive
strategies such as planning, monitoring their progress, and evaluating their interview performance
also reported higher job search intensity (Chawla et al. 2019, da Motta Veiga & Gabriel 2016) and
submitted more résumés and received more interviews (Turban et al. 2009). Higher levels of career
planning or career goal clarity are furthermore related to higher levels of person-job t in the new
job (Saks & Ashforth 2002, Wanberg et al. 2002).
Job Search Temporality/Persistence
The temporality/persistence dimension of job search refers to the evolution of the job search
over time—what happens over the duration of the job search. A growing number of studies have
examined job search from a dynamic perspective, collecting data from primarily unemployed and
college student job seekers at multiple time periods. Within-person approaches assess changes in
job search, affect, and/or motivational constructs over time (for a recent review of job search from a
dynamic perspective, see Song et al. 2018). Studies have also integrated within-person approaches
with between-person approaches to examine changes in the job search over time as well as how
stable individual differences predict such changes (da Motta Veiga et al. 2018).
Wanberg •Ali •Csillag
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Over the duration of job search, job seekers display vacillations in job search intensity and
affect, as well as declines in autonomous motivation (i.e., looking for a job for intrinsic reasons)
(da Motta Veiga & Gabriel 2016, Sun et al. 2013). For unemployed individuals, job search intensity
may decline over the duration of the unemployment spell (Wanberg et al. 2012b), perhaps because
individuals begin with high hopes but become apathetic, frustrated, or have fewer leads to follow as
time passes (Amundson & Borgen 1982). For unemployed individuals covered by unemployment
insurance, job search intensity tends to increase as they near exhaustion of their benets (Krueger
& Mueller 2010). Job search intensity may also increase for college student job seekers as they
near graduation (Saks & Ashforth 2000).
Individuals with higher levels of approach motivation (a proactive interest in achieving de-
sirable results, personal growth, and mastery, rather than being driven to avoid aversive results)
and core self-evaluations (involving higher self-esteem, generalized self-efcacy, locus of control,
and emotional stability) show higher levels of job search intensity across time (Wanberg et al.
2005, 2012b). Unemployed job seekers with higher levels of approach motivation are also less
likely to show a decline in their mental health over time (Wanberg et al. 2012b). Individuals with
high learning goal orientation (reecting a focus on learning, as opposed to an inclination toward
demonstrating competence) are more likely to sustain higher levels of job search intensity when
they experience stress, in comparison to individuals with lower learning goal orientation (da Motta
Veiga & Turban 2014). Furthermore, job seekers higher (versus lower) in the trait feedback self-
efcacy (ability to accurately interpret and action feedback received) are better able to respond to
ambiguous (i.e., low quality) feedback by keeping momentary negative affect in check, allowing
them to persist in their job search (Chawla et al. 2019).
Studies have also examined affective and behavioral consequences of job seekers perceiving
higher or lower perceived progress in their job search on a daily or weekly basis. A daily within-
person analysis of unemployed job seekers over three weeks showed that on days where job seekers
made less progress in their job search they experienced higher negative affect and lower positive
affect (Wanberg et al.2010).Perceived progress in any given day was negatively related to levels of
job search in the next day.For example,individuals who perceived lower progress in any given day
engaged in higher levels of job search the next day. A study of career starters surveyed every four
days over two weeks revealed job seeker self-compassion as a buffer between a lack of job search
progress and activating (e.g., distressed) as well as deactivating (e.g., feeling down) negative affect
(Kreemers et al. 2018). Lower perceived progress stimulates job search the most when individuals
are nearer to the deadline they had in mind to nd employment (Lopez-Kidwell et al. 2013).
An additional study of the consequences of perceived progress in the job search suggests that
as job seekers perceive higher levels of progress, they experience higher job search self-efcacy
(condence in executing their job search) and employment self-efcacy (condence in getting a
job) (Liu et al. 2014b). Increases in job search self-efcacy are associated with increases in job
search behavior, but increases in employment self-efcacy are associated with decreases in job
search behavior (Liu et al. 2014b). When job seekers made internal attributions about their search
progress (i.e., attributing their progress to their own ability or effort), these relationships were
stronger.
Finally, as job search continues over time without a job being secured, job seekers may begin
to feel envious of, or resentful toward, other job seekers, especially if these other individuals get
interviews or positions before them (Dineen et al. 2017). These authors examined the relationship
between job search envy and résumé fraud across the duration of the search. Although the overall
incidence of reported résumé fraud was low, some job seekers admitted to embellishing or pro-
viding false information on their résumés. Job search envy was more likely to be related to résumé
fraud as the duration of job search or the criticality of the search increased (Dineen et al. 2017).
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THE ROLE OF SOCIAL NETWORKS
Several studies have focused unique attention on social networking during job search, probably
because of the large numbers of job seekers who nd jobs through this method. In an examination
of networking across several countries, job nding via social networks ranged from a high of 83%
in the Philippines to a low of 26% in Finland and Austria (Franzen & Hangartner 2006). Nearly
44% of US respondents in Franzen & Hangartner’s study attributed their job placements to social
contacts. For theoretical grounding, scholarship in this realm has drawn on structural approaches
(i.e., theories of social capital; Lin 2008) as well as behavioral approaches (i.e., networking theory;
Wolff & Moser 2009).
Research on the use of networks during job search suggests that job seekers can benet from
connecting with both strong (i.e., friends and family members) and weak (i.e., acquaintances and
referrals) ties. For example, job seekers benet from the informational value associated with weak
ties for generating job leads and interviews (Barbulescu 2015), but it is strong ties that produce
more job offers (Barbulescu 2015, Obukhova 2012). Garg & Telang (2018) extended these ndings
to online social networks (e.g., LinkedIn) showing that weak ties had a small effect on job leads
whereas strong ties resulted in more job leads, interviews, and offers for unemployed job seekers.
Research, however, is not entirely clear about whether job seekers benet from spending more
time in networking. Some studies show that networking intensity is positively associated with
more job offers (Van Hoye et al. 2009) and employment attainment (Wanberg et al. 2000), whereas
others have reported null and even negative relationships between networking and job search
success (McArdle et al. 2007, Saks 2006).
Research has also examined whether the benets of using social contacts extend beyond nding
a job. There is little consistent evidence that using contacts directly affects wages (Mouw 2003).
Recent research suggests measuring the network resources that are provided by social contacts
may help elucidate this relationship. For example, Bian et al. (2015) examined the effects of two
types of network resources—information and favoritism—on entry-level wages. They found that
the use of weak ties generated job-specic information for job seekers, whereas strong ties mobi-
lized favor exchanges. Both types of network resources increased entry-level wages. Considering
other indicators of job quality, Wanberg et al. (2000) found no difference in job satisfaction and
turnover intentions between people who found their jobs through networking versus those who
did not. Given the information provisions associated with weak ties, however, individuals who nd
jobs through weak ties report better t with their job (Van Hoye et al. 2009).
A nascent but promising area of scholarship considers the process through which networking
enables job search success. Conceptual work in the general networking literature distinguishes
between primary (e.g., work-related support) and secondary (e.g., career success) resources that
may be obtained through networking (Wolff et al. 2008). These authors propose that proximal
networking benets such as emotional and instrumental support can be extracted during dyadic
interactions but outcomes such as career success (or, in the case of job seekers, reemployment)
require broader, and more difcult to capture, engagement of one’s web of relationships. Qual-
itative work based on interview data from a managerial sample (not job seekers) has delineated
ve components of proximal networking benets: solutions provided by others, referrals to other
sources of information, problem reformulation, validation/reassurance, and legitimation (Cross &
Sproull 2004). Drawing on this typology, a study of job search networking found that proximal
networking benets were predictive of reemployment quality,although not when also accounting
for networking self-efcacy (Wanberg et al. 2019b).
Other research has considered the role of individual differences in explaining networking be-
havior.Consistent across these studies is that job seekers who are more extraverted, conscientious,
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and have a proactive personality engage in more networking during the job search (Lambert et al.
2006, Van Hoye et al. 2009, Wanberg et al. 2000). Recent work suggests it is possible to help job
seekers improve their networking intensity,as well as improving dimensions of networking quality,
namely networking self-efcacy and proximal networking benets (solutions, referrals, problem
reformulation, and validation) (Wanberg et al. 2019b).
INTERVIEW BEHAVIORS
Job seeker behavior within the interview has been a prominent area of research. Most of this
research has focused on ways in which candidates employ impression management during the
interview and the effectiveness of these tactics. Additional research has examined the relationships
between interviewee nonverbal and verbal behavior and interview ratings (McCarthy & Cheng
2018).
Impression Management
Job seekers engage in three primary types of impression management techniques in interviews:
self-focused (i.e., self-promotion), other-focused (i.e., ingratiation), and defensive (i.e., using ex-
cuses, justications, or apologies) (Ellis et al. 2002). Candidate use of self-promotion and ingrati-
ation impression management tactics is associated with higher interviewer ratings, although to a
lesser extent when the interviewer uses a structured interview format (Barrick et al. 2009,Ellis et al.
2002). Deceptive forms of self-promotion may also potentially backre for candidates (Swider
et al. 2011).
Deceptive forms of self-promotion include slight image creation (e.g., small distortions of one’s
previous experience), extensive image creation (e.g., lying in order to give a good answer), im-
age protection (e.g., omitting information in order to look good), or ingratiation that is insin-
cere (Levashina & Campion 2007). In their wide-ranging study of job seeker interview behaviors,
Levashina & Campion’s (2007) largest sample of data (Study 3) indicated that 99% of under-
graduates used slight image creation and 92% used extensive image creation during employment
interviews. Individuals who are lower (versus higher) in honesty/humility and conscientiousness,
and higher (versus lower) in narcissism, tend to use image creation to a greater extent when in-
terviewing (Roulin & Bourdage 2017). Whereas extensive image creation is positively related to
receiving a follow-up interview or job offer,the relationship is negative between image protection
and these outcomes (Levashina & Campion 2007).
The use of impression management to overcome stigmas, such as if the job seeker has a crim-
inal record or disability, has also been examined. For example, a three-study investigation found
that individuals with a criminal background received higher hiring evaluations if they used an
apology (took responsibility for their behavior and admitted it was wrong) or justication (took
responsibility for the behavior and provided reasoning for why they did what they did) in com-
parison to using an excuse (admitted the behavior without taking responsibility) (Ali et al. 2017).
Confederates acting as applicants with a disability in video-taped interviews were rated as a more
favorable hire when they disclosed a disability at the beginning of an interview compared to at
the end, or compared to not disclosing at all (Hebl & Skorinko 2005). Perceptions of disability
disclosures may depend on how the disability is perceived with respect to controllability (Lyons
et al. 2017).
Older workers use several techniques to proactively respond to fears about age bias in the job
search process, including skill maintenance, lowering their expectations, modifying their résumé
to conceal their age, improving their appearance so that they seem younger, and using buzz words
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to illustrate they are up-to-date (Berger 2009, Lyons et al. 2014). A hiring simulation with under-
graduate raters suggested that older applicants may benet from building in evidence that they
do not t common stereotypes of older people into their interview responses (Gioaba & Krings
2017).
Nonverbal Behavior
Nonverbal behavior refers to aspects of communication that are not represented by the actual
words the candidate is saying (Nguyen et al. 2014). A variety of aspects of interviewee nonverbal
behavior, including eye contact, smiles, gestures, time talked, extent to which the candidate leans
forward versus reclines back, vocal characteristics, and formality of dress, may be inuential in
how the candidate is perceived (Gifford et al. 1985). For example, handshake scores (including
grip completeness, strength, duration, vigor, and eye contact during the shake) are related to more
positive interviewer assessments (Stewart et al. 2008). Candidates who spend a greater percentage
of their time smiling are perceived as more likeable (Levine & Feldman 2002) and motivated
(Gifford et al. 1985). Verbal errors such as eliminating a word in a response, needing to have a
question restated, having a long delay in responding, bringing up self-depreciating information,
and run-on responses are related to lower ratings of hirability (Riggio & Throckmorton 1988).
Similarly, interviewee vocal components including lower pitch and volume variability, higher
pitch variability and rate of speech, and fewer pauses are related to more positive rater reactions
(DeGroot & Motowidlo 1999).
Methods to study nonverbal behavior in the interview have become more sophisticated. For
example, a computational approach combined with manual coding from video-taped interviews
was used by Nguyen et al. (2014) to code candidate vocal behaviors (pauses, speaking time,speech
uency, pitch, speaking rate, and energy), visual cues (head nods, head and body movement,
smiling, eye contact, and physical attractiveness), and relational cues (nodding while speaking,
nodding while interviewer spoke). Most of these nonverbal behaviors were related to the criterion
variable “hiring decision,” which was based on an evaluation of the candidate’s responses to
questions such as motivation to apply for the job; past experience involving communication,
persuasion, conscientiousness, and stress management; and strong/weak aspects of self. Among
other signicant results, applicants who spoke faster, longer, and with longer speaking turns were
rated as more hirable. Applicants with several short utterances in their replies to the interviewer
were rated lower.The authors explained that candidates who did this tended to ask the interviewer
quick clarications about the questions, such as “In my private life?” (p. 6).
CONTEXT AND JOB SEARCH
Early micro-level research on job search focused on the role of job seeker characteristics in pre-
dicting factors such as job search intensity, with few studies examining broader environmental
factors (situational factors, or factors outside of the job seeker) relevant to the process and experi-
ence of job search (Wanberg et al. 2012a). A growing number of studies, however, have attended
to the role of the contextual environment in which job search takes place, showing the relevance
of the search context to job seeker behavior, emotions, and job search success. For example, the
geographical region, country, or broader culture within which the job search occurs is relevant for
the experience of job search. Job seekers in rural settings may need to rely more on social capital
than job seekers in urban settings (Matthews et al. 2009). Individuals in the United States spend
more time in their job search than in several other countries, including Belgium, Bulgaria, Finland,
France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (Krueger &
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Mueller 2010). The differences in time put into job search may be due, in part, to differences in
unemployment insurance systems between countries. Higher perceived unemployment insurance
generosity is related directly or indirectly to lower job search intensity and slower reemployment
speed, but higher mental health (Wanberg et al. 2019a). As another example of the role of cul-
ture in job search, social pressure to nd work is a stronger predictor of job search intentions in
collectivist cultures than in individualistic cultures (van Hooft et al. 2004).
The health of the economy is another important contextual factor that affects the process and
experience of job search. Job search is especially trying during times of high unemployment, or
when one works in a highly specialized eld. Under these conditions, job seekers take longer to
nd jobs and often accept jobs below their skill or pay level (Manroop & Richardson 2016). When
unemployment rates are low, it is much easier for job seekers to nd positions. In the past few
years, labor market shortages in the United States have led employers to tap into populations of
job seekers that have traditionally had an especially hard time nding positions, such as individuals
with disabilities (Paquette 2018). Interestingly, research suggests that job seekers tend to be most
satised with the jobs they nd during challenging economic times (Bianchi 2013). Job seekers are
more likely to ruminate about how they might have found better jobs when economic conditions
are good (Bianchi 2013).
The employment situation of the job seeker also matters (e.g., if the job seeker is employed,
unemployed, a current or graduating student, returning to the workforce after a career gap or
military service, etc.). Job search has differential challenges across these situations (Boswell et al.
2012). Employed job seekers have to fulll current job responsibilities while conducting a quality
job search and may sometimes need to hide their job search from their employer (Wanberg et al.
2012a). Graduating student job seekers often engage in job search while taking classes, making
their search behavior potentially erratic and based on the timing of their other obligations. Re-
searchers examining job search within graduating student samples should account for individuals
who go into higher education rather than pursuing a job (Boswell et al. 2012). Unemployed job
seekers may be more isolated socially than employed or student job seekers, meaning loneliness
and lack of access to others’ perspectives may present a challenge. Unemployed individuals also
tend to face issues of identity loss and nancial uncertainty, making the job search especially ur-
gent and stressful for this category of job seekers (Wanberg 2012). Less research has focused on
the job search experience for individuals returning to the workforce after a career gap or military
service. Furthermore, little research has examined the experience and employment outcomes of
job seekers who have been red from their previous jobs.
In an interview study of employed and unemployed job seekers during a very high unemploy-
ment rate in the United States (9.9%), Wanberg et al. (2012a) identied four employer-related
contextual factors that affect both employed and unemployed job seekers’ job search experience
and emotions. First, employers may insist on a perfect match between applicant characteristics and
the job posting, meaning individuals may be rejected for issues such as having too much experi-
ence or not having direct industry experience, even if they are otherwise well-qualied. Employers
are more likely to insist on a perfect match between applicant characteristics and the job opening
when the economy is poor.Such insistence makes it difcult for job seekers who wish to change to
a new industry or type of position. Second, employers may at times be rude or unprofessional to
job seekers, with examples being canceling interviews or failing to reply to job seekers. Few studies
have examined incivility experienced by job seekers, but one exception is Ali et al. (2016). Third,
job seekers may encounter inaccurate or misleading job postings (or jobs that are posted but do not
really exist), leading to frustration and wasted time in applying for some jobs. Finally, job seekers
reported their experiences with demographic discrimination, or their feeling that some companies
and recruiters were biased against them for issues such as their gender,age,or ethnic backgrounds.
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Although job seekers were typically able to manage their mood and motivation following such en-
counters, such experiences still led to (eeting or less eeting) feelings of helplessness, frustration,
discouragement, and reduced self-worth. Because a substantial amount of research has examined
the potential role of bias in job search (including considerations of whether employer preferences
constitute discrimination as opposed to being based on job relevant considerations), we review
empirical research on this topic further in the next section.
THE ROLE OF BIAS IN JOB SEARCH
Job seekers may face a disadvantage in job search (e.g., being less likely to be invited for interviews
or have higher levels of unemployment) due to their gender, race/ethnicity, age, religion, sexual
orientation, gender identity, disability, weight, appearance, or being pregnant (for reviews see Baert
2017, Derous & Ryan 2018, McCarthy & Cheng 2018). In addition, individuals with a criminal
record have an exceedingly hard time getting an interview (Pager 2003, Pager et al. 2009), and
unemployed and long-term unemployed job seekers receive fewer responses to applications than
employed job seekers (Eriksson & Lagerström 2006). To advance research on the role of bias in job
search, scholars have applied theoretical lenses spanning social categorization/identity, impression
formation, stereotype, ego-depletion, signaling, and cognitive interference theories (Derous &
Ryan 2018, McCarthy & Cheng 2018).
The most common approach used to examine whether these disadvantages represent employer
discrimination is the résumé correspondence methodology (Baert 2017), although some other ap-
proaches have been used, including eld experiments where matched applicants inquire about a
job in person (King & Ahmad 2010, Pager et al. 2009). The résumé correspondence method in-
volves sending ctitious résumés that are equal with respect to experience and education, but dif-
ferent with respect to one or more conditions that signal a group identity (such as race/ethnicity),
to a large number of real job openings. We highlight ndings in two of the most studied areas
(race/ethnicity and age) below and then discuss research regarding criminal record and unem-
ployment status, given these areas have led to recent legislation for employers.
Race/Ethnicity
Unemployment rates are higher for racial and ethnic minorities in contrast to majority groups
across the globe (Derous & Ryan 2018). For example, in the United States, unemployment rates
in 2017 were the highest for American Indians (7.8%), Blacks (7.5%), and Hispanic/Latinos
(5.1%), contrasting with 3.8% for Whites and 3.4% for Asians (US Bur. Labor Stat. 2018b).
Major explanations for race/ethnic differences in unemployment rates include the human capital
hypothesis (i.e., differences resulting from discrepant education and experience levels), the
hiring discrimination hypothesis (i.e., differences resulting from both taste-based and statistical
discrimination against minority groups), and differences between groups on other factors such
as social networks or transportation (Derous & Ryan 2018, Gobillon et al. 2014). The human
capital hypothesis and nondiscrimination reasons can explain some, but not all, of the differences
in racial/ethnic employment rates (Hiemstra et al. 2013). An extensive number of résumé corre-
spondence studies have been conducted, with a meta-analysis of 28 correspondence studies based
in the United States showing fewer interview requests are received for equally qualied African
Americans and Latinos versus Whites (Quillian et al. 2017). Other European-based samples
indicate lower employer preference for individuals with darker versus lighter skin (Derous et al.
2017) and individuals with Arab names and afliations (Derous et al. 2009). Correspondence
studies in other countries have similarly documented employer preference for race/ethnic
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majority groups (De Beijl 2000). For example, applications with an Arab name received more
rejections than applications with a Dutch name in the Netherlands (Derous et al. 2012) and a
Swedish name in Sweden (Agerström et al. 2012).
Research has begun to examine factors that may reduce or exacerbate employer racial/ethnic
discrimination. For example, individuals with a dark skin tone were especially likely to receive
lower recruiter ratings than individuals with a lighter skin tone when being considered for low
status positions with high client contact in contrast to high status positions with low client con-
tact (Derous et al. 2017). Another correspondence study manipulated only surnames (i.e., using
Jefferson and Anderson to indicate an African American and White applicant, respectively) as op-
posed to manipulating both rst and last name, arguing that more typical African American rst
names might signal lower socioeconomic status (Darolia et al. 2016). Results of this study showed
employer preferences did not vary by race/ethnicity, but it is possible that the names used in the
study were not strong enough signals of race/ethnicity.
Some applicants respond to fear of discrimination in the application process by practicing “ré-
sumé whitening.” One example of this is an applicant changing her Chinese name to an American
sounding name. Another is changing the name of an experience such as “National Society for
Black Engineers” to omit the racial/ethnic identier (Kang et al. 2016, p. 475). In a résumé corre-
spondence study,whitened résumés resulted in higher callback rates than unwhitened résumés for
both Black and Asian applicants (Kang et al. 2016). Some job seekers, however, object to résumé
whitening under moral grounds, feeling it is important to be proud of one’s identity, or want to
leave identity information on their résumé to screen out discriminatory employers (Kang et al.
2016). Some research also challenges the efcacy of strategies to erase racial/ethnic markers from
job applications in reducing discrimination. Such tactics may amplify the role of bias in selection
because they inadvertently invite more unconscious speculation or assumptions than approaches
integrating fuller information (Derous & Ryan 2018, Holzer et al. 2006).
Age
A meta-analysis showed age is negatively associated with job offers (k=5, ρ=−.11) and reem-
ployment speed (k=18, ρ=−.17), and an analysis of the U.S.Displaced Workers Survey showed
individuals over 50 were unemployed 10.6 weeks longer than individuals ages 20–29 (Wanberg
et al. 2016). Several factors that do not involve discrimination affect employment prospects of
older job seekers including age-related changes in abilities, health, motives, and social networks
(Wanberg et al. 2016). A study of 647 unemployed job seekers in Belgium, for example, found
that individuals over 50 searched less intensively for work, had higher reservation wages, and had
lower education, factors that partially explained their slower reemployment rate in comparison to
individuals under 50 (Vansteenkiste et al. 2015).
At the same time, age discrimination is a common concern expressed by job seekers (Wanberg
et al. 2012a), and employers hold stereotypes about older workers that inuence their hiring de-
cisions (Klehe et al. 2012). Employers often state their preference for younger workers (Bendick
et al. 1999), and prior to the passage of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, em-
ployers frequently stated upper age limits for positions. This practice has recurred recently in
the form of an employer advertising for job applicants with less than seven years of work experi-
ence, gaining legal attention and debate (Stempel 2019). All 11 of the age-related correspondence
studies that Baert (2017) identied found that younger applicants have an advantage over older
applicants in the application process. Recent work has aimed to resolve methodological limita-
tions specic to age-related correspondence studies (Baert et al. 2016). Specically, in age-related
correspondence studies it is difcult to hold experience constant for younger and older applicants.
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If older applicants are given the same amount of relevant work experience as younger applicants
in the submitted résumés, it is possible that employer preference for younger applicants is due
to employers disliking employment gaps (or out-of-eld experience) rather than due to age dis-
crimination. When accounting for this methodological issue in a Belgium correspondence study,
older age was a disadvantage when the applicant displayed out-of-eld experience but not when
the applicant displayed additional in-eld experience (Baert et al. 2016).
Criminal Record
Individuals with criminal justice involvement face signicant challenges in nding work. Rep-
resenting a growing population, recent estimates suggest that 8% of the total US adult popula-
tion, and 33% of African American adult males, have been convicted of a felony at some point
in their lives (Shannon et al. 2017). Up to three-fourths of ex-offenders1in the United States do
not nd jobs in the year after release (Pager 2007). Several factors are involved. On the average,
ex-offenders have lower levels of education and work experience, and higher levels of substance
abuse and mental health problems, than the general population (Holzer et al. 2003). In addition,
employers do not want to hire individuals with a criminal record, even those with good qualica-
tions. Field experiments suggest individuals with a criminal record receive fewer interview requests
than those without a criminal record (Pager 2003, Pager et al. 2009). Complicating matters, the
disadvantage of a criminal record is stronger for applicants from racial/ethnic minority groups in
comparison to majority groups (Pager 2003, Pager et al. 2009), and racial/ethnic minority groups
are overrepresented with respect to having a criminal record (Shannon et al. 2017). For those who
have served prison time, the subsequent difculty in nding a job makes it exceedingly hard to
start over. The role of bias may be especially pronounced in the absence of clear and consistent
guidelines for handling applicants’ criminal histories in selection decisions (Lageson et al. 2015).
Ban the Box is a new law, passed by several states to prevent employers from asking appli-
cants about criminal convictions until later in the hiring process. The goal of Ban the Box is to
give individuals a foot in the door, so that individuals with a criminal record have a chance to
be considered by the employer in person. A few studies have examined the consequences of Ban
the Box (Agan & Starr 2018, Doleac & Hansen 2017). The authors of both studies conclude that
minority/majority gaps in interview requests increased after the legislation, presumably because
employers rely more heavily on statistical discrimination to presume Whites do not have a crim-
inal record or that minorities do have a criminal record. Paradoxically, whereas Ban the Box may
buffer against the stigma of a criminal record, it simultaneously seems to disadvantage racial/ethnic
minorities without a criminal record (Agan & Starr 2018).
Unemployment Status
During the past recession, another employer preference became known—that of preferring em-
ployed job applicants over those who are unemployed. Some employers even noted in their
job postings that unemployed individuals should not apply (Nat. Employ. Law Proj. 2011).
1Although an individual can obtain a criminal record due to many different reasons [e.g., from an arrest record
to a felony conviction paired with either nonincarcerated correctional supervision or a prison sentence (e.g.,
Shannon et al. 2017)], the mass incarceration trend in the United States has prompted research interest in
the role of such institutionalization in employment prospects. Following other scholars, we use the term ex-
offender to refer to individuals with a past felony conviction that resulted in a prison sentence. In addition,
although the inuence of criminal record on employment is of international concern, the nascent literature
on this topic has mostly been in the United States.
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Correspondence studies have found that applicants without jobs, in comparison to employed ap-
plicants, are less likely to receive an interview from an employer (Eriksson & Lagerström 2006,
Ghayad 2014), although Farber et al. (2017) and Nunley et al. (2017) did not replicate these results.
Given extensive concern among unemployed job seekers, as well as a concern that this trend
would lead to further adverse impact against minorities and other groups impacted by bias in
job search, some states (i.e., New Jersey and Oregon) and cities (i.e., New York City, New York;
Madison, Wisconsin; Chicago, Illinois; Washington, DC) have passed legislation meant to pro-
tect unemployed job seekers. A correspondence study comparing responses of employers to un-
employed and employed applicants in New York City (a location with unemployment status
discrimination legislation) versus Los Angeles (a location without unemployment status discrim-
ination legislation) contributed initial insight into the effectiveness of this legislation, showing
poorer outcomes for long-term unemployed applicants in Los Angeles but not in New York City
(Trzebiatowski et al. 2019).
INTERVENTIONS
Up to this point, we have described many challenges that job seekers may face when looking
for work. Research has also examined the usefulness of interventions designed to assist job seekers
(especially unemployed job seekers) in gaining employment. The JOBS program, developed at the
University of Michigan, is one especially well-researched example of an intervention focused on
helping job seekers nd their way back to employment. The program targets skills acquisition (e.g.,
how to effectively search for a job) along with building job seeker’s social and emotional resources
(Price & Vinokur 2018). Using a randomized trial design, the JOBS intervention results showed
that those in the treatment group were more likely to be employed, receive higher earnings, and
experience better well-being (Caplan et al. 1989). A second JOBS intervention with a two-year
follow-up solidied the long-term impact of the intervention in that the treatment group had
higher levels of employment, monthly income, and overall well-being (Vinokur et al. 2000). The
efcacy of the JOBS program has been replicated in Finland (Vuori et al. 2002), Ireland (Barry
et al. 2006), and the Netherlands (Brenninkmeijer & Blonk 2011).
Liu et al.’s (2014a) recent meta-analytic summary provides a signicant advancement in our
understanding of the effectiveness of job search interventions. They identied 47 job search inter-
ventions evaluated with either experimental or quasi-experimental research designs. Overall, their
ndings are encouraging in that they found the odds of gaining employment (as indicated by a cal-
culated odds ratio, or OR) were 2.67 times higher for job seekers in treatment groups compared to
control groups. Their ndings also indicated specic features of the intervention that can enhance
overall effectiveness. Specically, job search interventions that included teaching job search skills
(OR =3.32), self-presentation (OR =3.40), self-efcacy (OR =3.25), proactivity (OR =5.88),
goal-setting (OR =4.67), and enlisting social support (OR =4.26) were more effective compared
to interventions without such components. Additional analysis revealed job seekers who either
were young or older (compared to middle-aged), with a disability, or experienced short-term un-
employment (less than six months) greatly benetted from the intervention. Job search skills, job
search self-efcacy, and job search behaviors were identied in this meta-analysis as partially ex-
plaining the relationship between job search intervention and higher likelihood of employment.
PROGRESS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
A tremendous amount of progress has been made in understanding the job search process in the
(more than) two decades following an early review on this topic (Schwab et al. 1987). Theory,
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Table 1 Future directions for job search scholarship
Topic area Potential research questions
Job search behaviors What job search behaviors do job seekers engage in online and what are their outcomes? What
factors could improve online job search for job seekers?
How do different combinations of online and ofine searches inuence job search motivation and
success?
How and to what extent does job search quality make a difference in achieving job search success?
Clarifying predictors of
job search success
How do different aspects of job search (e.g., behaviors, contextual factors, etc.) determine salary
improvement during job search?
How can contextual variables be used to develop a deeper and richer explanation of multiple
dimensions of job search success?
How can theory be used to organize the contextual variables that are relevant to job search?
How can economic and sociological perspectives be used to strengthen the prediction of job
search success criteria?
Networking quality Can individuals be taught to improve their receipt of proximal networking benets (e.g., gaining
support or solutions)?
What characteristics should job seekers prioritize in selecting networking partners?
How can the networking process be elucidated further?
Dark side of job search How might networking backre for job seekers?
Can interventions help job seekers overcome structural social network disadvantages?
What more can we learn about résumé fraud and dishonesty in the interview?
Unique samples of job
seekers
In what ways does our understanding about job search extend to unique samples, such as gig
workers, refugee job seekers, and individuals returning to the workforce after a career gap or
military service?
Are refugee job seekers more or less resilient during job search as compared to native job seekers?
In what ways do employment regulation and policy shape job search success for those with a
criminal record across countries?
How does the social class of the job seeker affect job search and interview processes?
Individual experience of
discrimination and
incivility in job search
How do different forms of discrimination inuence mood, motivation to look for work, and job
search success?
How do job seekers manage their social identities in response to subtle and overt forms of
discrimination?
methodological advancements, and the sheer volume of attention this topic has received have been
valuable in providing insight into questions such as “What are the components of job search,
and what does the job search process involve?”; “What dimensions and methods of job search
predict success in nding a job?”; “How does job search change over time?”; and “What barriers
do individuals face in their job search?” Yet, many research needs remain. In the following, we
describe potential future research directions. We provide a more concise summary of potential
research directions in Table 1.
The use of self-regulatory frameworks, as well as other theories, has facilitated a strong un-
derstanding of job search as a goal-directed process. Within this stream of research, it would
be valuable to develop a stronger understanding of the use and utility of job search behaviors
other than job search intensity, social networks, and interview behaviors. This is not to say that
research on job search intensity, social networks, or interview behaviors should not continue (we
provide some suggestions below). However, job search intensity has been studied quite extensively,
and there is more to be learned about topics such as job search on the Internet, the role of job
search quality,and how the job search unfolds over time. Several interesting directions for research
on job search from a self-regulatory, process perspective are provided by da Motta Veiga et al.
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(2018), and for expanding our understanding of job search quality specically by van Hooft et al.
(2013).
A comprehensive and deeper focus on predictors of the job search success criterion space is
desirable. Researchers have frequently examined reemployment status (e.g., “in a new job” ver-
sus “not in a new job”) as a dichotomous outcome variable, with fewer studies examining other
outcomes such as number of offers, number of interviews, reemployment speed,or quality. In ad-
dition, researchers in this domain have often studied the specic roles of job search dimensions
(or aspects of the search process) rather than trying to fully explain the more distal job search suc-
cess criterion space. The percent variance accounted for in the job search success criterion space
is typically low. A more extensive focus on predictors of salary improvement would be especially
valuable for some job seeker groups, such as those with minimum wage incomes. However, re-
searchers should also consider reemployment quality indices that go beyond salary in the new job.
Comprehensive examinations of predictors of reemployment speed and quality may benet from
drawing on theoretical frameworks beyond self-regulation, given the importance of human capital
and other variables to job search success. Researchers are encouraged to complete broad literature
searches when studying job search, to incorporate not only psychological but also sociological and
economic literature and perspectives.
Although several studies have focused on social networks during job search, there is still more
to learn that can inform the use of networking by job seekers. Research has shown an unclear
relationship between networking intensity and job search success, meaning it may not necessarily
benet all individuals to network, or to network more. Future research should attend to how the
relationship between networking intensity and job search success outcomes depends on charac-
teristics of the social network. Characteristics of the social network can include size, composition
(e.g., gender, prestige), and patterns of social connections (e.g., structural holes); these character-
istics have been studied in the broader networking literature, but have only scarcely been applied
to the examination of job search success (e.g., Belliveau 2005, Van Hoye et al. 2009).
The quality of job seekers’ networking behaviors is also important to consider. It will be use-
ful for future research to study more about how job seekers present themselves to others during
networking and who they choose to network with. Research may attend to how individuals can be
taught to achieve more from networking, including more distal outcomes such as job leads, inter-
views, job offers, and higher reemployment quality. Research has also delineated more proximal
benets of networking, which include gaining solutions, referrals, problem reformation, valida-
tion, and legitimation (Cross & Sproull 2004). Can individuals be taught to improve their receipt
of these proximal benets, and what specic networking behaviors enable job seekers to derive
proximal networking benets? What networking partner characteristics should job seekers prior-
itize in deciding whom to network with? We offer these questions and call for further explication
of the networking process (Marsden & Gorman 2001, Mouw 2003).
Additional research might explore the dark side of networking (Forret 2018, Wolff et al. 2008).
Regarding job search success, how might networking backre for job seekers and their employers
if the use of social networks gave them an advantage over candidates with higher human capital
(Forret 2018)? Finally, because of evidence of the benets of social networks as upward spirals
of privilege (Fernandez & Fernandez-Mateo 2006), we encourage future work on improving net-
working quality and helping to close the gap between those who can and those who cannot benet
from social network use.
Our review highlighted several contextual factors that are relevant to the process and experi-
ence of job search. More research including these factors should be helpful in providing deeper
and richer insight into the predictors and moderators involved in job search success. Theoreti-
cal work to explicate and organize contextual factors involved in job search would be valuable.
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In expanding the examination of contextual variables, researchers should consider the changing
workplace, and how type of work or worker may moderate the job search process.
As one example, given the now substantial presence of gig work (i.e., working sequential and/or
simultaneous short-term projects or jobs; Ashford et al. 2018) in the world economy, it would be
useful to examine job search within this context. Evidence suggests that most people engaged in
gig work are doing so as a supplement to more stable work (Katz & Krueger 2019). Research
is needed to investigate the similarities and differences between the job search process for gig
work and the process of searching for traditional employment when already employed. Qual-
itative work on securing gigs among contingent workers suggests the prominence of informal
methods (O’Mahony & Bechky 2006, Reilly 2017). Do individuals who engage in gig work under-
take haphazard searches and potentially sacrice a more focused or (systematically) exploratory
search, and how does this inuence employment quality for the new job? Might a haphazard
strategy—typically seen as limiting for traditional job seekers—facilitate job search success in the
gig economy? Because some workers are making careers out of gig work (Ashford et al. 2018, Caza
et al. 2018), research should explore the intensity and content of behaviors entailed in continu-
ally replenishing expiring projects with new ones, as well as examine the nature and predictors of
emotional trajectories during such a process.
An additional unique contextual condition to consider is the job search experiences of refugee
job seekers. Refugees or displaced persons face numerous hardships starting with being forced
out of their country to barriers around integrating into the host country (Wehrle et al. 2018).
When considering integrating refugees into the labor market, in what ways does our understand-
ing about predictors of job search success translate to this population? For instance, the benets
associated with networking and the use of social contacts may depend on whether a refugee is
resettled into an environment rich in socioeconomic resources such as an ethnic enclave. The
job search goals between native and refugee job seekers may be different and result in varying job
search outcomes. Typically,native job seekers actively search for jobs that t with their knowledge,
skills, and abilities. Refugee job seekers may not have access to such jobs (due to host country not
accepting professional credentials from home country), which could shift their priority to pursue
jobs that increase contact with similar others to facilitate social integration. Key determinants of
successful career transition for refugees include the generation and use of social networks along
with education and relevant work experience (Campion 2018). Finally, due to the general hard-
ships experienced by refugees, one question to explore is whether refugee job seekers are more
(or less) resilient (e.g., temporal persistence, lower vacillation in well-being) during the job search
as compared to native job seekers.
Socioeconomic status, or level of job, is another important contextual factor in job search that
has rarely been studied. Given the increasing wage gaps present in society, it is valuable to un-
derstand the job search process for the working poor. Although little work has examined the role
of social class in job search, Elliott (1999) theorized and found that individuals of higher social
class engaged in slightly different job search strategies (i.e., more informal search) and were able
to realize greater job search success from the same job search strategies (i.e., combined formal
and informal) as compared to individuals of lower social class. Drawing on self-regulatory frame-
works, it would be valuable to document how social class affects goal choice and aspirations, such
as the jobs one applies for.Research might also explore whether and how social class signals,which
are subtle and ubiquitous (Kraus et al. 2017), inuence how interaction partners respond to job
seekers during job search.
Much of the studies reviewed on bias during the job search emphasized the presence of em-
ployer discrimination across numerous demographic categories. Future research on bias would
benet from considering the individual experience of discrimination and its proximal and distal
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consequences. To this end, studies might consider how different forms of discrimination (e.g.,
overt versus subtle forms such as selective incivility or microaggressions) differentially inuence
mood, motivation to look for work, and job search success. Research can examine job seekers’
coping strategies by considering how the experience is appraised (e.g., challenge versus hindrance)
and how it is managed (e.g., withdrawal behavior, increased persistence). A social identity lens can
be incorporated into our understanding of how job seekers manage their social identities in re-
sponse to subtle and overt forms of discrimination. Given the self-regulatory nature of job search,
questions around the benets and costs of devoting cognitive and emotional resources to manage
one’s social identity (e.g., afrm identity versus distance from identity) offer interesting lines of
inquiry.
As a nal note, as with most other areas of organizational behavior scholarship, we encourage
authors to value the richness that theory can bring to the study of job search. It is especially bene-
cial when authors provide a deep application of theory to the study focus prior to study design, so
that they can develop arguments, measures, and design based on the theory. Such applications can
lead to deeper and richer insights to the literature. Strong applications of self-regulation frame-
works and other theories have guided important distinctions between job search dimensions and
mediators and moderators involved in the search process. At the same time, researchers should
concurrently aim to answer questions that have practical importance. Job search is a highly preva-
lent career behavior, and one that is especially stressful in weak economies. Research that can in-
form job seekers, counselors, and interventions is of major value. A good starting point for job
search research, as has been recommended for impactful research in general, is to consider if the
study contributes to a question that is useful to understand from both the perspective of the phe-
nomenon and practice of job search. Although this seems obvious, signicance, novelty, curios-
ity, scope, and actionability are key issues that distinguish excellent from less impactful research
(Colquitt & George 2011).
Although it is difcult to condense the topics discussed in this article, we have provided a few
major takeaways in the Summary Points, below.Overall, there is a substantial amount that we know
from an empirical standpoint about job search. Our review only covers samples of the wealth of
work that has been done in this area. At the same time, there are still many questions to explore
in this literature. We encourage researchers to forge on in developing a deeper understanding of
the job search process, experience, and outcomes.
SUMMARY POINTS
1. Many recent advances in the understanding of job search have drawn on self-regulation
theories that view the job search as a highly autonomous, goal-directed process.
2. Three dimensions of job search are job search intensity/effort (how much time or effort a
job seeker puts into job search), job search content (the activities and quality of activities
the individual engages in), and temporality/persistence (continuity or change in the job
search over time).
3. Individuals who engage in higher job search intensity tend to have higher job search self-
efcacy, nancial need, employment commitment, positive attitudes toward job search,
and social pressure from others. Job search intensity is related to receiving more job
offers and nding jobs faster.
4. Mobilizing social networks can play an important role in job search success (nding
employment, nding it within the time frame desired, and employment quality).
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5. Job seeker self-promotion and ingratiation are associated with higher interviewer ratings,
although less so when interviewers use structured interviews.
6. Geographical region, economic conditions, job seekers’ employment situation, and em-
ployer behaviors and preferences inuence the individual experience of job search, and
we need further insight into these factors.
7. Experimental methods have elucidated bias faced by job seekers based on gender,gender
identity, race/ethnicity, age, religion, sexual orientation, disability, weight, appearance,
being pregnant, having a criminal background, and unemployment status.
8. Interventions that include components focused on job search skills, self-presentation,
self-efcacy, proactivity, goal-setting, and enlisting social support are most effective in
facilitating reemployment.
9. Job search scholarship will benet from interdisciplinary investigations that integrate
psychological, sociological, and economic theoretical perspectives.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any afliations, memberships, funding, or nancial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
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Annual Review
of Organizational
Psychology and
Organizational
Behavior
Volume 7, 2020
Contents
Becoming an Organizational Scholar
Denise M. Rousseau pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp1
Regulatory Focus and Fit Effects in Organizations
E. Tory Higgins and Federica Pinelli pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp25
Implicit Leadership Theories, Implicit Followership Theories,
and Dynamic Processing of Leadership Information
Robert G. Lord, Olga Epitropaki, Roseanne J. Foti, and Tiffany Keller Hansbrough ppppp49
The Psychology of Workplace Mentoring Relationships
Lillian T. Eby and Melissa M. Robertson pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp75
Perceived Organizational Support: Why Caring About
Employees Counts
Robert Eisenberger, Linda Rhoades Shanock, and Xueqi Wen pppppppppppppppppppppppppppp101
Beyond Meta-Analysis: Secondary Uses of Meta-Analytic Data
In-Sue Oh pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp125
The Integration of People and Networks
Martin Kilduff and Jung Won Lee ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp155
Discharges, Poor-Performer Quits, and Layoffs as Valued Exits:
Is It Really Addition by Subtraction?
Charlie O. Trevor and Rakoon Piyanontalee pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp181
Measurement Development and Evaluation
Michael J. Zickar pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp213
Asian Conceptualizations of Leadership: Progresses and Challenges
R. Takeuchi, A.C. Wang, and J.L. Farh pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp233
Modern Discrimination in Organizations
Mikki Hebl, Shannon K. Cheng, and Linnea C. Ng pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp257
Can Teamwork Promote Safety in Organizations?
Eduardo Salas, Tiffany M. Bisbey, Allison M. Traylor, and Michael A. Rosen pppppppppp283
Job Seeking: The Process and Experience of Looking for a Job
Connie R. Wanberg, Abdifatah A. Ali, and Borbala Csillag pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp315
Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2020.7:315-337. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
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OP07_TOC ARI 29 November 2019 9:33
Assessing the Control Literature: Looking Back and Looking Forward
Sim B. Sitkin, Chris P. Long, and Laura B. Cardinal pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp339
Toward a Better Understanding of Behavioral Ethics in the Workplace
David De Cremer and Celia Moore pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp369
Posttraumatic Growth at Work
Sally Maitlis ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp395
Within-Person Job Performance Variability Over Short Timeframes:
Theory, Empirical Research, and Practice
Reeshad S. Dalal, Balca Alaybek, and Filip Lievens ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp421
Positive Emotions at Work
Ed Diener, Stuti Thapa, and Louis Tay ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp451
Multiteam Systems: An Integrated Review and Comparison
of Different Forms
Stephen J. Zaccaro, Samantha Dubrow, Elisa M. Torres,
and Lauren N.P. Campbell pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp479
Big Data in Industrial-Organizational Psychology and Human
Resource Management: Forward Progress for Organizational
Research and Practice
Frederick L. Oswald, Tara S. Behrend, Dan J. Putka, and Evan Sinar pppppppppppppppp505
Errata
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior articles may be found at http://www.annualreviews.org/errata/
orgpsych
Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2020.7:315-337. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
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