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Dynamic Spectrum Access via Smart Contracts on Blockchain

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... Other research initiatives are investigating spectrum sharing using various technologies [6,4,7,8]. For example: the usage of cloud computing to provide spectrum sharing as-a-service [9]; smart contracts [10,11]; mobile edge computing [12]; blockchain [13,14] and other distributed ledger technologies (DLTs) [15,16,17]. Spectrum sharing for the coexistence of mobile networks and Internet of things (IoT) is explored in [18,19,20,21,22]. ...
... Spectrum sharing through blockchain is also explored in [15], where it is proposed a new digital token called spectral token employed to validate and track licensed frequency band usage. The token avoids usage collisions, because secondary users access the spectrum sequentially, and guarantee that primary users will receive a payment for the leased spectrum. ...
... Self-Sustainable Auditable Win-Win Market Oriented [15] No No No Yes [9] No Yes No No [16] No No Yes No [12] No No No No [17] No No Yes No [14] No Yes No No [10] and [11] No No No No [3] and [5] No ...
... Leveraging SCs addresses these concerns and ensures the protection of PUs rights. For instance, a smart contract-based DSA scheme proposed by [115] prioritizes the organized execution of DSA, safeguarding PUs' rights and ensuring interference prevention. ...
... Spectrum trading, a complex task, benefits significantly from SCs. [15] proposes a decentralized blockchain-based dynamic spectrum acquisition scheme that automates spectrum trading processes, making real-time DSA feasible. SCs, such as those introduced by [115], facilitate advertising and sensing-based spectrum sharing for various leasing scenarios, enhancing the efficiency of spectrum leasing agreements. ...
... Compensating PUs fairly for sharing their licensed spectrum is essential for conflict-free DSA operations. A blockchain-based platform, incorporating a token named Spectrum token [115], has been proposed. This token validates and tracks licensed bands, enforcing sequential access by SUs without interference through SCs. ...
Article
Full-text available
The rapid increase in mobile users, the IoT, and data-hungry applications have brought forth unprecedented demand on the spectrum, which is scarce; on top of that, the existing static spectrum allocation schemes have resulted in a heavily underutilized spectrum which can be mitigated with a Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) scheme with unlicensed users gaining access to the idle spectrum bands of licensed spectrum users opportunistically. Such a DSA and Dynamic Spectrum Management (DSM) scheme would significantly increase spectral efficiency while facilitating new services and applications beyond 5G (B5G) networks. Even with access to new spectrum bands like terahertz (THz) and Visible light communication and enabling technologies such as Software Defined Networks (SDN) and Cognitive Radio (CR), implementing a fully realized DSM requires rapid sensing, coordination, and management, and sharing of idle spectrum bands in a fair manner while preserving the security and privacy aspects, limiting interferences. With their decentralized, immutable nature, blockchains promise the execution of spectrum access and sharing in a fully transparent, fair manner while preserving privacy and security. Furthermore, blockchain-based Smart Contracts (SCs) allow automation of DSM, cryptocurrencies, and tokens to facilitate the trading of spectrum and related resources. In addition to that, blockchains act as an interface for integrating AI and Machine Learning (ML) techniques into DSM, which provides a certain level of intelligence to the underlying architecture. Although several attempts have been carried out to analyze the research gaps in DSM, a comprehensive analysis addressing the blockchains as the primary solution to address DSM has not been carried out. In this survey, we address the potential of a blockchain-based approach toward realizing a decentralized DSM while presenting future directives to improve the use of blockchains for DSM.
... A smart contract (SC) is a decentralized application that executes business logic in response to events in the BC platform. In Ethereum SCs solidity programming language is used [4]. As mentioned, spectrum misuse is a crucial issue that should be addressed when developing future wireless communication systems. ...
... III. RELATED WORKS In [4], a BC-based digital token-based approach was introduced to track and validate the use of licensed frequency bands in DSA. This work has used ERC721 standard (non-fungible token standard) and developed a proof of concept (POC) solution using Ethereum BC. ...
... The works proposed in [4] and [5] employed generic consensus algorithms for the proposed DSA solutions. As work done in [4] used PoW consensus mechanism its DSA solution is less energy efficient and expensive. ...
Conference Paper
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The future communication technology is moving from 5G to 6G with the innovation of new technologies. Blockchain (BC) is such kind of immersive technology which gives a huge impact on the betterment of communication technology. To fulfill the need for secure and efficient communication, BC-based spectrum-sharing solutions can be used in dynamic spectrum access(DSA) systems. With the invention of cognitive radio networks, dynamic spectrum access(DSA) became a popular topic for the scientific community. As the system is open to malicious attacks, licensed spectrum owners need to be identified and verified. Spectrum misuse(spectrum violations) can be happened due to rapid growth in spectrum sharing depending on intermediate illegitimate users. However, existing BC-based DSA solutions are more expensive,non-optimized, and lack of spectrum misuse detection. This paper proposes a novel consensus algorithm for spectrum misuse detection. The core of the proposed "Proof of Equation" consensus algorithm is a consensus score calculation based on a numerical equation with three main parameters rather than using cryptographic calculations. Therefore the proposed consensus is energy efficient by comparing the existing PoW consensus mechanism. Finally, to analyze the performance of the proposed consensus mechanism was simulated using python scripts.
... However, license holder MNOs barely use some frequency bands or use them sporadically, resulting in spectrum holes [1] [3]. These spectrum holes appear and disappear across a vast time scale, ranging from a few milliseconds to several weeks [4]. Since the static model is unable to address these flaws, demand for spectrum continues to climb, despite the fact that the radio spectrum is already overburdened [5]. ...
... Several DSA systems powered by blockchain have been developed in [4], [7], [8], [9], and [10]. Weiss et al. in [7] broadly explained the utilization of blockchain for spectrum sharing and discussed its benefits and limitations under four categories. ...
... Thirasara Ariyarathna et al. in [4] proposed a digital token-based DSA system using blockchain and SCs. The authors evaluate the proposed system under two circumstances: advertising-based DSA and sensing-based DSA. ...
Article
Full-text available
The exponential growth in connected devices with Internet-of-Things (IoT) and next-generation wireless networks requires more advanced and dynamic spectrum access mechanisms. Blockchain-based approaches to Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) seem efficient and robust due to their inherited characteristics such as decentralization, immutability and transparency. However, conventional consensus mechanisms used in blockchain networks are expensive to be used due to the cost, processing and energy constraints. Moreover, addressing spectrum violations (i.e., unauthorized access to the spectrum) is not well-discussed in most blockchain-based DSA systems in the literature. In this work, we propose a newly tailored energy-efficient consensus mechanism called "Distributed-Proof-of-Sense (DPoS)" that is specially designed to enable DSA and detect spectrum violations. The proposed consensus algorithm motivates blockchain miners to perform spectrum sensing, which leads to the collection of a full spectrum of sensing data. An elliptic curve cryptography-based zero-knowledge proof is used as the core of the proposed mechanism. We use MATLAB simulations to analyze the performance of the consensus mechanism and implement several consensus algorithms in a microprocessor to highlight the benefits of adopting the proposed system.
... In [5], a BC-based digital token-based approach is introduced to track and validate the use of licensed frequency bands in DSA. This work utilizes the ERC721 standard (non-fungible token standard) and develops a proof of concept (PoC) solution using Ethereum BC. ...
... The works propose in [5] and [6] employ generic consensus algorithms for DSA solutions. In [5], the PoW consensus algorithm for DSA solutions is less energy efficient and expensive. ...
... The works propose in [5] and [6] employ generic consensus algorithms for DSA solutions. In [5], the PoW consensus algorithm for DSA solutions is less energy efficient and expensive. Furthermore, the above solutions lack application-specific consensus in their implementation and lack spectrum misuse detection capability. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The future of communication technology is moving from 5G to 6G with new innovations. Blockchain (BC) is a such immersive technology that significantly impacts the betterment of communication technology. BC-based spectrum-sharing solutions can be used in Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) systems to fulfill the need for secure and efficient communication. With the invention of cognitive radio networks, DSA became a popular topic for the scientific community. Spectrum misuse/violations can occur due to the rapid growth of spectrum sharing. As the system is open to malicious attacks, licensed spectrum owners must be identified and verified. However, the existing BC-based DSA solutions are more expensive, non-optimized, and lack spectrum misuse detection. This paper proposes a novel consensus algorithm called "Proof of Equation" for spectrum misuse detection. The core of the proposed algorithm is a consensus score calculation based on a numerical equation with three parameters rather than using cryptographic calculations. The performance of the proposed algorithm is studied using Python simulations, and simulation results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus algorithms in terms of block production time.
... In particular, Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has already identified the potential of blockchain for efficient management of spectrum [120]. Specifically, blockchain has immense potential to improve the localized visibility in spectrum usage and ease of auditability of overall activities for effective implementation of spectrum sharing rules [125]. ...
... Such sources can be used to design consensus algorithms. Moreover, 6G specific consensus algorithms can be designed in a way that miners have to focus on useful tasks such as spectrum sensing, abnormality detection, and traffic pattern analysis than meaningless cryptography operations such as hash value calculations [125]. That will also eliminate the extra energy use and wastage to run consensus algorithms. ...
... Thanks to decentralized decision making and disintermediation of centralized entities, its use can eliminate dependency on trusted third parties such as spectrum licensees, band managers, and spectrum access system administrators [25]. Also, to ensure that the primary users are compensated for sharing their licensed bands with secondary users, the sharing and leasing policies can be coded into smart contracts to enforce the contractual agreements between parties digitally [125]. ...
Article
Full-text available
While 5G is at the early deployment state around the globe, the research and industrial communities have already started concentrating their efforts on formulating the overall 6G vision comprising requirements, key enabling technologies, performance indicators, and applications. Following the trend, it is evident that 6G will emerge as highly softwarized and open networks allowing the participation of multiple stakeholders. This undoubtedly will make 6G more flexible, agile, autonomous, intelligent, and cost-efficient networks. However, the programmability and openness will make 6G networks more prone to issues like security, privacy, traceability, interoperability, auditability, resource manageability, spectrum efficiency, and 3D mobility. To address these issues, a deep integration of blockchain technology with 6G networks is foreseen. Thus, we aim to put together blockchain and 6G under a magnifying lens to gain a comprehensive understanding of the role of blockchain in the 6G ecosystem. We begin by providing an overview of the envisioned 6G networks and blockchain technology. Next, we present a high-level view of the role of blockchain for 6G trends and requirements. Following that, we conduct an in-depth study on how the blockchain can provide a secure, transparent, and decentralized underpinning to various technical aspects and use cases of 6G. Thereafter, we discuss the deployment challenges to be faced while integrating blockchain in 6G and the possible solutions. Finally, future research directions are expounded to set the floor for further advancements in the blockchainized 6G.
... This enhances the security of the wireless network infrastructure against attacks In the next section, we will explore the use of blockchain technology as a platform for realizing a secure database scheme and implementing other aspect of spectrum sharing and dynamic spectrum management . [16] Spectrum trading based on spectrum sensing and advertisement in ISM band ...
... Using spectrum sensing allows MNOs to aggregate usable vacant frequencies with their licensed frequencies to achieve increased network capacity. The work in [16] leverages blockchain to implement a smart contract for spectrum sensing and spectrum trading. A SU first carries out spectrum sensing to identify a vacant channel. ...
... The use of multiple helpers also improves the accuracy of the distributed cooperative spectrum sensing scheme enabled by blockchain. The work in [16] places the responsibility of coordinating spectrum access on the PU, while the works in [17], [18] and [19] allows SU to coordinate spectrum using cooperative spectrum sensing schemes implemented on blockchain. Distributed cooperative sensing implemented on blockchain can also be used by spectrum regulators to realize distributed enforcement of spectrum polices. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Regulatory radio spectrum management is evolving from traditional static frequency allocation and assignment schemes towards dynamic spectrum management and access schemes. This evolution is necessitated by a number of factors including underutilization of licensed spectrum bands, changing market and technological developments and increased demand for spectrum for emerging applications in multimedia communications, internet-of-things and fifth generation (5G) wireless networks. In simple terms dynamic spectrum management involves allowing unlicensed users known as secondary users (SUs) to access the licensed spectrum of a licensed user also known as primary user (PU). This is primarily achieved using spectrum sharing schemes that leverage spectrum database and cognitive radio techniques. However, the use of spectrum database and cognitive radio techniques faces reliability, security and privacy concerns for spectrum sharing. There is also a need to support other requirements of dynamic spectrum management such as secondary spectrum trading market and dynamic spectrum access coordination. In this work, we review the use of blockchains for enabling spectrum sharing and other aspects of dynamic spectrum management. The review covers the use of blockchain to record spectrum management information such as spectrum sensing results and spectrum auction transactions in a secure manner. The article also covers the use of smart contracts to support complex service-levelagreements (SLAs) between network operators which is key to supporting a self-organized secondary spectrum sharing market and enforcement of regulatory policies. A taxonomy of the intersection between blockchain and various concepts of dynamic spectrum management is also provided
... In [14,[46][47][48], the blockchain technology has been applied to the context of DSA, where its main roles are: (i) to provide a decentralized environment for information exchange and processing, as a database, or (ii) to enable contract-based computing, storing and processing of spectrum sensing information and DSA transactions registry in a permanent and violation-proof way. ...
... In [14], a dynamic spectrum sharing solution via smart contracts over the Ethereum Blockchain is presented. A novel spectrum market digital asset called Spectral Token has been developed. ...
... After defined the initiator, location, time frame, and an access fee, a certain frequency band can be negotiated through the platform. The authors of [14] also developed a proof of concept solution in the 2.4 and 5 GHz ISM bands. The performance analysis showed that the system has throughput and latency characteristics suitable to implement CBRS, IEEE 802.22 WRAN, or Small-Cell-as-a-Service use cases. ...
Article
Full-text available
The radio-frequency spectrum shortage, which is primarily caused by the fixed allocation policy, is one of the main bottlenecks to the deployment of existing wireless communication networks, and to the development of new ones. The dynamic spectrum access policy is foreseen as the solution to this problem, since it allows shared spectrum usage by primary licensed and secondary unlicensed networks. In order to turn this policy into reality, the secondary network must be capable of acquiring reliable, real-time information on available bands within the service area, which can be achieved by means of spectrum sensing, spectrum occupancy databases, or a combination of them. This Review presents guidelines related to the design of a framework that can be adopted to foster dynamic spectrum access policies. The framework applies special-purpose Internet of Things (IoT) devices that perform spectrum sensing, subsequently feeding a spectrum occupancy database, which in turn will be used by the secondary network to gather information on location-dependent spectrum availability. The guidelines address technological enablers capable of making the framework feasible, reliable and secure.
... In order to verify the performance difference between our proposed scheme and the existing blockchain-based electromagnetic-spectrum-sharing trading system, we designed a comparative experiment to measure the latency by changing the number of miners [40]. ...
... Transaction delays under different numbers of miners[40]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The electromagnetic spectrum is a limited resource. With the widespread application of the electromagnetic spectrum in various fields, the contradiction between the demand for the electromagnetic spectrum and electromagnetic spectrum resources has become increasingly prominent. Spectrum sharing is an effective way to improve the utilization of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, there are many challenges in existing distributed electromagnetic spectrum trading based on blockchain technology. Since a blockchain does not provide privacy protection, the risk of privacy leakage during the trading process makes electromagnetic spectrum owners unwilling to share. In addition, a blockchain only guarantees integrity, and the imperfect trading dispute resolution mechanism causes electromagnetic spectrum owners to be afraid to share. Therefore, we propose a privacy-preserving electromagnetic-spectrum-sharing trading scheme based on blockchain and ABE. The scheme not only designs an ABE fine-grained access control model in ciphertext form but also constructs a re-encryption algorithm that supports trading arbitration to achieve privacy protection for electromagnetic spectrum trading. Finally, we experimentally evaluated the efficiency of the proposed electromagnetic spectrum trading scheme. The experimental results show that the electromagnetic spectrum trading scheme we propose was highly efficient.
... Second, this command-and-control spectrum management regime is slow to respond to market and technology changes [16]. Spectrum sensing [17], supporting secondary spectrum trading marketplaces [18], spectrum sharing [19], and policy enforcement [20] are all possible uses for the blockchain technology in spectrum management [21]. ...
... Limitations and Risks Wireless Networks [12,13,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] 1. Increasing spectrum access and utilization efficiency 2. Creating a secure spectrum sensing system 3. Improving the accuracy of spectrum sensing data 4. Storing unoccupied spectrum bands and users geolocations 5. Providing dynamic spectrum access 6. Enabling collaborative sensing. ...
Conference Paper
Blockchain is a modern technology that has revolutionized how society interacts and trades. It can be defined as a chain of blocks that store information with digital signatures in a distributed and decentralized peer-to-peer (P2P) network. This technique was first adopted to create digital cryptocurrencies like bitcoin and Ethereum. However, several research and industrial studies have recently focused on the opportunities that blockchain provides in various other application domains to take advantage of the main features of this technology, such as decentralization , persistency, anonymity, and audibility. In this paper, we present a systematic review of the use of blockchain in Wireless Networks, the Internet of Things (IoT), and Smart Grids (SGs). We also provide the main challenges of Blockchain to open the door for researchers to overcome them and ensure better utilization of this technology.
... Outras linhas de pesquisa investigam o compartilhamento de espectro através de outros tipos de tecnologia. Por exemplo: implantação de arquiteturas que utilizam computação em nuvem para prover compartilhamento as-a-service [Chen et al. 2019]; Contratos Inteligentes [Bayhan et al. 2018], [Bayhan et al. 2019]; Blockchain [Weiss et al. 2019] e outras Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) [Ariyarathna et al. 2019], [T. Maksymyuk and Jo 2019]. ...
... O compartilhamento de espectro por meio de Blockchain tambémé explorado em [Ariyarathna et al. 2019]. Este trabalho introduz um novo token digital chamado Spectral Token. ...
Conference Paper
Este artigo introduz uma nova arquitetura de Mercado de Espectro Eletromagnético com o criptoativo IOTA, visando compartilhamento de espectro licenciado e não licenciado. Por meio de vendas temporárias de direito de transmissão de espectro licenciado, usuários primários são remunerados com IOTAs pelo aluguel de seus direitos de transmissão à usuários secundários. Dispositivos IoT dotados com capacidade de sensoriamento varrem um determinado espaço geográfico, para alimentar o banco de dados do mercado com oportunidades de transmissão de espectro não licenciado, remunerando seus proprietários pelas verificações. Resultados experimentais mostram que a arquitetura é factível, dado que o tempo de negociação de espectro foi em média igual a 181 milissegundos, e o tempo de verificação de ocupação do espectro, feito pelos dispositivos IoT, ficou entre 5 e 34 segundos, dependendo da quantidade de sensores envolvidos na operação.
... Second, this command-and-control spectrum management regime is slow to respond to market and technology changes [103]. Spectrum sensing [104], supporting secondary spectrum trading marketplaces [105], spectrum sharing [106], and policy enforcement [107] are all possible uses for the blockchain technology in spectrum management [108]. ...
... Wireless networks [99,100,[102][103][104][105][106][107][108]110] (1) Increasing spectrum access and utilization efficiency; (2) creating a secure spectrum sensing system; (3) improving the accuracy of spectra sensing data; (4) storing unoccupied spectrum bands and user geolocations; (5) providing dynamic spectrum access; (6) enabling collaborative sensing. ...
Article
Full-text available
Blockchain is a modern technology that has revolutionized the way society interacts and trades. It could be defined as a chain of blocks that stores information with digital signatures in a distributed and decentralized network. This technique was first adopted for the creation of digital cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum. However, research and industrial studies have recently focused on the opportunities that blockchain provides in various other application domains to take advantage of the main features of this technology, such as: decentralization, persistency, anonymity, and auditability. This paper reviews the use of blockchain in several interesting fields, namely: finance, healthcare, information systems, wireless networks, Internet of Things, smart grids, governmental services, and military/defense. In addition, our paper identifies the challenges to overcome, to guarantee better use of this technology.
... Prior work has explored building a blockchain-based SAS. A digital-token-based spectrum access platform is proposed in [10] wherein a smart contract system is used by primary spectrum users as a trusted third-party service for advertising and leasing spectral tokens to secondary users. In [11], a hierarchical blockchain framework called TrustSAS is formulated to enable efficient and privacy-preserving spectrum sharing among secondary users. ...
... The PAL users are responsible for establishing local blockchain networks which help a central regulator reduce its workload in spectrum sharing coordination. In contrast to the decentralized SAS objective, these proposals generally assume absolute trust on either a third-party contract platform [10] or an authoritative SAS server [11], [12] and do not consider the security impact of malfunctioning or malicious SAS servers. ...
Article
Spectrum access system (SAS) is widely considered the de facto solution to coordinating dynamic spectrum sharing (DSS) and protecting incumbent users. The current SAS paradigm prescribed by the FCC for the CBRS band and standardized by the WInnForum follows a centralized service model in that a spectrum user subscribes to a SAS server for spectrum allocation service. This model, however, neither tolerates SAS server failures (crash or Byzantine) nor resists dishonest SAS administrators, leading to serious concerns about SAS system reliability and trustworthiness. This is especially concerning for the evolving DSS landscape where an increasing number of SAS service providers and heterogeneous user requirements are coming up. To address these challenges, we propose a novel blockchain-based decentralized SAS architecture called BD-SAS that provides SAS services securely and efficiently, without relying on the trust of each individual SAS server for the overall system trustworthiness. In BD-SAS, a global blockchain (G-Chain) is used for spectrum regulatory compliance while smart contract-enabled local blockchains (L-Chains) are instantiated in individual spectrum zones for automating spectrum access assignment per user request. We hope our vision of a decentralized SAS, the BD-SAS architecture, and discussion on future challenges can open up a new direction toward reliable spectrum management in a decentralized manner.
... Prior work has explored building a blockchain-based SAS. A digital-token-based spectrum access platform is proposed in [10] wherein a smart contract system is used by primary spectrum users as a trusted third-party service for advertising and leasing spectral tokens to secondary users. In [11], a hierarchical blockchain framework called TrustSAS is formulated to enable efficient and privacy-preserving spectrum sharing among secondary users. ...
... The PAL users are responsible for establishing local blockchain networks which help a central regulator reduce its workload in spectrum sharing coordination. In contrast to the decentralized SAS objective, these proposals generally assume absolute trust on either a third-party contract platform [10] or an authoritative SAS server [11], [12] and do not consider the security impact of malfunctioning or malicious SAS servers. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Spectrum access system (SAS) is widely considered the de facto solution to coordinating dynamic spectrum sharing (DSS) and protecting incumbent users. The current SAS paradigm prescribed by the FCC for the CBRS band and standardized by the WInnForum follows a centralized service model in that a spectrum user subscribes to a SAS server for spectrum allocation service. This model, however, neither tolerates SAS server failures (crash or Byzantine) nor resists dishonest SAS administrators, leading to serious concerns on SAS system reliability and trustworthiness. This is especially concerning for the evolving DSS landscape where an increasing number of SAS service providers and heterogeneous user requirements are coming up. To address these challenges, we propose a novel blockchain-based decentralized SAS architecture called BD-SAS that provides SAS services securely and efficiently, without relying on the trust of each individual SAS server for the overall system trustworthiness. In BD-SAS, a global blockchain (G-Chain) is used for spectrum regulatory compliance while smart contract-enabled local blockchains (L-Chains) are instantiated in individual spectrum zones for automating spectrum access assignment per user request. We hope our vision of a decentralized SAS, the BD-SAS architecture, and discussion on future challenges can open up a new direction towards reliable spectrum management in a decentralized manner.
... A consultant will function as a representative for both parties to the transaction, and this consultant will need to be familiar with smart contract technology. Finally, the lawyer must check that the provisions of the contract are fixed in computer code and will remain secure and unchanged for the duration of the agreement (Ariyarathna et al., 2019;Kongmanee et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
The rise of digital currency and the public ledger Block Chain has led to the development of a new type of electronic contract known as "smart contracts." For these contracts to be considered valid, they must adhere to traditional contract rules and be concluded without any impediments. Once written, encrypted, and signed, smart contracts are recorded in the Block Chain Ledger, providing transparent and secure record-keeping. Smart contracts offer several benefits, including their ability to execute automatically without requiring human intervention, their provision of public visibility of contract provisions on the Block Chain, their avoidance of financial crimes like Money Laundering, and their prevention of contract abuses. However, disputes arising from smart contracts still require human intervention, presenting unique challenges in enforcing these contracts, such as evidentiary issues, enforceability of waivers of defenses, and jurisdictional and choice-of-law considerations. Due to the novel nature of smart contracts, there are currently no standardized regulations that apply to them. Countries that have approved them have turned to customary law to legitimize their use. The Delphi method was used to identify critical success factors for applying blockchain transactions in a manufacturing company. Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) was then utilized to determine the most influential factors. The proposed methodology was implemented, and results show that the most influential factors for the successful application of blockchain transactions as smart contracts in a manufacturing company are: turnover, the counter argument, vision, components for building, and system outcome quality. Conversely, connections with government entities and subcontractors, and the guarantee of quality have the least influence on successful implementation. These findings can contribute to the development of a legal framework for smart contracts in a manufacturing company.
... A consultant will function as a representative for both parties to the transaction, and this consultant will need to be familiar with smart contract technology. Finally, the lawyer must check that the provisions of the contract are fixed in computer code and will remain secure and unchanged for the duration of the agreement (Ariyarathna et al., 2019;Kongmanee et al., 2019). ...
Research
The rise of digital currency and the public ledger Block Chain has led to the development of a new type of electronic contract known as "smart contracts." For these contracts to be considered valid, they must adhere to traditional contract rules and be concluded without any impediments. Once written, encrypted, and signed, smart contracts are recorded in the Block Chain Ledger, providing transparent and secure record-keeping. Smart contracts offer several benefits, including their ability to execute automatically without requiring human intervention, their provision of public visibility of contract provisions on the Block Chain, their avoidance of financial crimes like Money Laundering, and their prevention of contract abuses. However, disputes arising from smart contracts still require human intervention, presenting unique challenges in enforcing these contracts, such as evidentiary issues, enforceability of waivers of defenses, and jurisdictional and choice-of-law considerations. Due to the novel nature of smart contracts, there are currently no standardized regulations that apply to them. Countries that have approved them have turned to customary law to legitimize their use. The Delphi method was used to identify critical success factors for applying blockchain transactions in a manufacturing company. Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) was then utilized to determine the most influential factors. The proposed methodology was implemented, and results show that the most influential factors for the successful application of blockchain transactions as smart contracts in a manufacturing company are: turnover, the counter argument, vision, components for building, and system outcome quality. Conversely, connections with government entities and subcontractors, and the guarantee of quality have the least influence on successful implementation. These findings can contribute to the development of a legal framework for smart contracts in a manufacturing company.
... Tokens serve as incentives for participation and can also function as spectrum access licenses [7], enhancing participation in spectrum sensing and improving access strategies. Digital tokens validate and track the use of licensed frequency bands, ensuring sequential access by SUs and preventing interference, with Smart Contracts (SCs) facilitating the transfer of spectral tokens between PUs and SUs, as suggested by [8], [9]. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The rise of mobile users, IoT devices, and data-intensive applications has led to an unprecedented surge in spectrum demand. However, current Spectrum Sharing (SS) methods, characterized by centralized control and inflexible architectures, fall short of meeting this escalating challenge. The solutions of Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) and Dynamic Spectrum Management (DSM) have emerged to enhance spectral efficiency and facilitate novel services in the realm of 5G networks. The successful implementation of DSM requires rapid sensing, coordination, and management, all the while upholding stringent standards for security and privacy. Unfortunately, existing DSM approaches relying on spectrum databases and Cognitive Radio (CR) techniques face issues related to reliability, security, and privacy. Blockchain (BC) emerges as a promising solution for decentralized DSM, offering superior security and privacy capabilities. Distinct features of BC, such as Smart Contracts (SCs), empower the establishment of complex Service Level Agreements (SLA) among operators. Additionally, the utilization of tokens within BC ensures a reliable and trustworthy environment for spectrum trading. Furthermore, BC's seamless integration with artificial intelligence (AI) and related Machine Learning (ML) techniques presents an opportunity to automate and enhance the adaptability of DSM frameworks. Despite the potential, there exist research gaps that warrant attention. This paper aims to comprehensively analyze BC-based DSM as the primary solution to DSM challenges and offers clear future directions for addressing BC deployment challenges.
... The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) acknowledges the promising nature of blockchain for spectrum management [191]. In comparison to the conventional method of exclusive frequency allocations, blockchain can increase audibility and localized visibility for the effective execution of spectrum-sharing regulations [192]. Spectrum sharing, which includes several entities with shared access rights, allows users to exchange spectrum usage rights [193]. ...
Article
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To address the limitations of 5G, 6G wireless networks are envisaged to provide sub-millisecond latency, ultra-high connection density, extremely high data rates, better coverage, reliability, availability, etc., for cloud computing, the Internet-of-Everything, and cyber-physical systems. However, avoiding several trust-related issues in the design of the wireless networks may delay the goal. In recent years, Blockchain has become a promising technology that can transform various fields by providing innovative and profitable solutions. Blockchain’s intrinsic features, such as immutability, decentralization, anonymity, and transparency, can corroborate trust among isolated networks to secure access control, authentication, better integrity, secrecy, and effectual resource sharing. This paper paints a holistic picture of 6G wireless networks and Blockchain, including architecture, Blockchain-assisted 6G services, deployment, 6G-assisted Blockchain service models, consensus mechanisms for Blockchain-as-a-Service, 6G-assisted mining and consensus, and others. It also sheds light on the integration possibilities of Blockchain and 6G, its potential benefits, and the effects of consensus mechanisms on 6G concerning security, scalability, and energy consumption, to name a few. The existing 6G projects and applications have also been summarized, along with the discussion on research and projects to standardize 6G. Various research directions for blockchain, 6G, and their integration have also been explored and reported.
... A consultant will function as a representative for both parties to the transaction, and this consultant will need to be familiar with smart contract technology. Finally, the lawyer must check that the provisions of the contract are fixed in computer code and will remain secure and unchanged for the duration of the agreement (Ariyarathna et al., 2019;Kongmanee et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
The rise of digital currency and the public ledger Block Chain has led to the development of a new type of electronic contract known as "smart contracts." For these contracts to be considered valid, they must adhere to traditional contract rules and be concluded without any impediments. Once written, encrypted, and signed, smart contracts are recorded in the Block Chain Ledger, providing transparent and secure record-keeping. Smart contracts offer several benefits, including their ability to execute automatically without requiring human intervention, their provision of public visibility of contract provisions on the Block Chain, their avoidance of financial crimes like Money Laundering, and their prevention of contract abuses. However, disputes arising from smart contracts still require human intervention, presenting unique challenges in enforcing these contracts, such as evidentiary issues, enforceability of waivers of defenses, and jurisdictional and choice-of-law considerations. Due to the novel nature of smart contracts, there are currently no standardized regulations that apply to them. Countries that have approved them have turned to customary law to legitimize their use. The Delphi method was used to identify critical success factors for applying blockchain transactions in a manufacturing company. Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) was then utilized to determine the most influential factors. The proposed methodology was implemented, and results show that the most influential factors for the successful application of blockchain transactions as smart contracts in a manufacturing company are: turnover, the counter argument, vision, components for building, and system outcome quality. Conversely, connections with government entities and subcontractors, and the guarantee of quality have the least influence on successful implementation. These findings can contribute to the development of a legal framework for smart contracts in a manufacturing company.
... Such delays have a negative impact on the performance of the wireless network. Authors in [30] proposed a token-based dynamic spectrum-sharing platform with blockchains and smart contracts. Their proposed platform improves efficient spectrum usage while enabling advertisement-and sensing-based dynamic spectrum sharing by primary users (PUs) and secondary users (SUs). ...
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The highly dynamic nature of cognitive radio systems (CR) and their stringent latency requirements pose a major challenge in the realization of efficient intelligent transportation systems. In this paper, we investigate relay selection and opportunistic spectrum access in conjunction with blockchain technology. In particular, we propose a cross-layer method for secure relay selection, where secondary relays (SRs) are granted access to available spectrum bands based on the balance of their respective virtual wallets. These virtual wallets, which are built based on the SRs' secrecy capacity and their behavior in the network, are the predominant factors that allow SRs to participate in an auction model. To quantify the trustworthiness of SRs, we formulate a mathematical framework to evaluate the trust value of each SR, which is then leveraged for rewarding or penalizing the SR. We develop an offline module blockchain framework to store the real-time information of participating relays and make it available for future operations. The information is checked and verified by miners. Our system is able to detect reputable and non-reputable relays in the presence of multiple eavesdroppers. We present a thorough numerical analysis to demonstrate the superiority of the proposed scheme in terms of security, credibility, and integrity. On average, the secrecy capacity rate of the overall system increased by 70% compared to the traditional systems. Further, the propsed model perform better in low SNR compared to traditional one.
... Second, this command-and-control spectrum management regime is slow to respond to market changes [15]. Spectrum sensing [16], supporting secondary spectrum trading marketplaces [17], spectrum sharing [18], and policy enforcement [19] are all possible uses for the blockchain technology in spectrum management [20]. ...
Chapter
Blockchain is a cutting-edge technology that has changed the way people communicate and trade. It’s a chain of blocks in a distributed and decentralized peer-to-peer (P2P) network that stores information with digital signatures. This method was first used to develop digital currencies such as bitcoin and Ethereum. However, some recent research and industrial studies have focused on the prospects that blockchain presents in a variety of other application fields in order to take advantage of the technology’s fundamental qualities, such as decentralization, persistency, anonymity, and audibility. In this study, We give a thorough evaluation of blockchain’s use in Wireless Networks, the Internet of Things (IoT), and Smart Grids (SGs). We also present the main obstacles of Blockchain in order to allow researchers to solve them and improve the technology’s use.KeywordsBlockchainWireless Networks (WNs)Internet of Things (IoT)Smart Grids (SGs)
... In [43], multioperators spectrum trade contracts are built and implemented using a permissioned blockchain network. In order to prevent interference from disordered spectrum access, Ariyarathna et al. [44] suggested using smart contracts to safely record along with automatically applying the spectrum lease agreements. These efforts, however, did not enhance the current blockchain in any way. ...
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In this article, the authors proposed a novel blockchain‐oriented location privacy‐preserving (BoLPP) for the Cooperative Spectrum Sensing (CSS) in 6G networks. In order to attain the sustainability of privacy and security for 6G wireless networks, it is a great challenge in this sensing as it faces various malicious attacks while the secondary user (SU) is active. To tackle these issues, the authors proposed a novel framework for blockchain‐oriented Cognitive Radio Networks (CRNs) for CSS using an energy detection technique. Moreover, the authors implemented another novel paradigm BoLPP, to attain the privacy of SUs location for CSS in 6G networks. This approach preserves the SUs’ location and makes the BoLPP framework immune to all malicious attackers. The simulation results have been undergone based on the performance metrics such as response time, consistency, probability of false alarm, frame loss (%), average network throughput, energy efficiency, and security. The outcomes reveal that the proposed scheme achieves high security, privacy, energy efficiency, average network throughput, and low probability of false alarm and frame loss (%) when compared with the existing frameworks such as Friend or Foe (FoF) and Tidal Trust Algorithm (TTA) mechanisms. It is observed that the proposed BoLPP mechanism provides better security and privacy in 6G wireless networks.
... A cooperation-based contract needs to be devised in such scenarios. The authors in [121], propose another blockchain-based spectrum sharing mechanism. They implement auction and spectrum sensing based sharing techniques for opportunistic use by the secondary user. ...
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... When the conditions defined in an SC are met, the code inside the contract will be executed automatically. The introduction of a marketplace to exchange the spectrum is the most intended use case of blockchain in the DSA domain [8] [9].SCs can automate the auctioning functions and establish fair and dynamic agreements between stakeholders in such spectrum exchange marketplaces. Stakeholders can directly use the blockchain because of its inherent properties that make the need for trust obsolete. ...
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... 6G networks consist of various random data sources such as channel information, traffic patterns, and noise level, which can potentially be used to design consensus algorithms. Moreover, it is possible to design 6G specific consensus algorithms where miners have to focus on useful tasks such as spectrum sensing, abnormality detection, and traffic pattern analysis rather than meaningless hash value calculations [13]. ...
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The next generation of mobile networks, i.e., sixth-generation (6G), is expected by 2030, with already burgeoning research efforts towards this goal. Along with other various candidate technologies, blockchain is envisioned to enable and enhance various key functionalities of 6G networks. Accordingly, the main objective of this paper is threefold: 1) to categorize the different aspects of 6G into four emerging directions that anticipate significant advancements leveraging blockchain, 2) to discuss the potential role of blockchainized 6G under each key emerging direction, 3) to expound on the technical challenges in blockchaining 6G along with possible solutions.
... In [20], spectrum sharing contracts deployed on a permissioned blockchain platform are constructed for multioperators spectrum trading. In [14], the authors proposeds to use the smart contract to securely store and then autonomously implement the spectrum leasing agreements, thus to avoid the interference from the disordered spectrum access. ...
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In this paper, we propose a trust-centric privacy-preserving blockchain for dynamic spectrum access in IoT networks. To be specific, we propose a trust evaluation mechanism to evaluate the trustworthiness of sensing nodes and design a Proof-of-Trust (PoT) consensus mechanism to build a scalable blockchain with high transaction-per-second (TPS). Moreover, a privacy protection scheme is proposed to protect sensors' real-time geolocatioin information when they upload sensing data to the blockchain. Two smart contracts are designed to make the whole procedure (spectrum sensing, spectrum auction, and spectrum allocation) run automatically. Simulation results demonstrate the expected computation cost of the PoT consensus algorithm for reliable sensing nodes is low, and the cooperative sensing performance is improved with the help of trust value evaluation mechanism.In addition, incentivization and security are also analyzed, which show that our design not only can encourage nodes' participation, but also resist to many kinds of attacks which are frequently encountered in trust-based blockchain systems.
... Both requesters and participants of spectrum sensing can undertake strategies to maximize their own interests [33]. In [34], the operation of a smart contract can avoid the interference and capacity loss caused by chaotic spectrum sharing. In [35,36], a node access competition protocol for blockchain verification was proposed to build a secure decentralized database, which also introduced a virtual currency named Specoins for spectrum access cost. ...
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Abstract: In this work, we propose a blockchain verification protocol as a method for enabling and securing spectrum sharing in cognitive radio networks. The spectrum-sharing mechanism is used as a medium access protocol for accessing wireless bandwidth among competing cognitive radios. We introduce a virtual currency, called “Specoins”, for payment to access spectrum. An auction mechanism based on a first-come-first-served queue is used, with the price for the spectrum advertised by each primary user in a decentralized fashion. The blockchain protocol facilitates the transactions between primary and secondary users, and is used to validate and save each user's virtual wallet. The blockchain also serves as a distributed database that is visible by all participating parties and any node can volunteer to update the blockchain. The volunteer nodes are called miners and they are awarded with Specoins. We propose diverse methods to exchange the Specoins in order to make leasing possible even by cognitive radios that are not miners. We show the improvement of the proposed algorithm compared to the conventional Aloha medium access protocol in terms of spectrum usage.
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In order to fully utilize the scarce spectrum resources, with the development of cognitive radio technologies, dynamic spectrum sharing becomes a promising approach to increase the efficiency of spectrum usage. Game theoretical dynamic spectrum sharing has been extensively studied for more flexible, efficient, and fair spectrum usage through analyzing the intelligent behaviors of network users equipped with cognitive radio devices. This article provides a game theoretical overview of dynamic spectrum sharing from several aspects: analysis of network users' behaviors, efficient dynamic distributed design, and optimality analysis
Blockchain technology: Beyond bitcoin
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