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Content may be subject to copyright.
256
Selcuk Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences
http://sjafs.selcuk.edu.tr/sjafs/index
….Review Article….
SJAFS
(2019) 33 (3), 256-263
e-ISSN: 2458-8377
DOI:
The Important of Beta Carotene on Poultry Nutrition
Süleyman ÇALIŞLAR1*
1Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam, Kahramanmaraş,
Turkey
1. Intrоduсtiоn
It has been observed that the nutrient profile (fatty
acids, minerals, vitamins, etc.) of the egg, which is
considered to be a highly nutritious food among nutri-
tional sources, can be significantly improved by diet
manipulation. For this reason, intensive research is
carried out on the passage of some nutrients that can
affect human health positively to eggs (Bean and
Leeson, 2003; Khan et al., 2012).
It is stated that the enrichment of egg in terms of
carotenoids will be beneficial for human health
(Skřivan et al., 2015). One of the carotenoids suitable
for this purpose is BC (Stahl and Sies, 2005), a provit-
amin A (Olson, 1996). In recent years, due to the in-
crease in demand for safe animal products, it has be-
come more important to prefer natural resources for
*Corresponding author email: scalislar@hotmail.com
coloring the egg yolk (Calislar and Uygur, 2010). The
nutrient profile of the eggs can be improved by diet
manipulation. In the researches, it has been seen that
some nutrient components that have important benefits
for health can be transferred to the egg yolks via feed
(Bean and Leeson, 2003; Khan et al., 2012).
Since poultry are exposed to stress conditions in a
significant proportion of their lives, it is extremely
important that their immune system is strong. One of
the most suitable sources for this is the BC, which has
a high antioxidant content. In the researches, it has
been emphasized that BC enhances the survival of
poultry by strengthening the immune system and posi-
tively affects the efficiency parameters.
BC is the primary source of vitamin A. Vitamin A
is necessary for healthy development of bone, skin and
mucosa, especially in eyesight (Thomas, 2006). There-
fore, it is seen that BC has a combined effect in poul-
try. Particularly due to its antioxidant properties, it is
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received date: 27.05.2019
Accepted date: 08.08.2019
Beta carotene, the primary source of vitamin A in poultry rations, is one of the
most important carotenoids. Under the influence of enzymes, Beta carotene
(BC) is converted to vitamin A. The BC molecule is a double retinal structure
and theoretically gives 2 molecules retinal. Its biological activity is only half of
retinal. Conversion of carotenoids to retinol is rarely 100%. Thus the vitamins
of various foods are expressed in terms of the potential retinol equivalence
(RE).
BC is absorbed from the duodenum and if there is oil in the intestinal tract, it is
absorbed faster. Oxidatively converting BC into vitamin A is mainly carried
out in the intestinal brush border membrane, organs such as the liver, kidney
and lungs. BC egg yolk is transported to and stored in immune organs and
similar tissues. The BC content of the egg of the poultry varies. BC contents of
hen eggs are low, while BC contents of eggs of wild birds are between 25-
30%. Despite depletion of BC in the liver it's transfer to the egg continues.
Since poultry can not synthesize BC, it must be taken from outside. Products
such as yellow corn, marigold and alfalfa are very rich sources of beta-
carotene. BC is abundant in egg yolks.
BC is effective in the pigmentation of skin and egg yolks of hens. Due to BC's
antioxidant properties prevents deterioration of egg and meat. It has also been
shown that BC has important effects on the immunity and endocrine system.
BC, strengthens see function, reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, pre-
vents inflammation and some types of cancer. Studies have shown that BC
enhances the immune system by raising antibody response in poultries and
prevents acute respiratory tract infections.
In this review article, the introduction of BC, its functions, effects on poultry
nutrition were investigated.
Edited by:
İbrahim AYTEKİN; Selçuk University,
Turkey
Reviewed by:
Yusuf CUFADAR; Selçuk University,
Turkey
Ahmet Engin TÜZÜN; Adnan Menderes
University, Turkey
Keywords:
Beta carotene
Carotenoid
Poultry
Pigmentation
Antioxidant
Immunity
257
Çalışlar / Selcuk J Agr Food Sci, (2019) 33 (3), 256-263
thought that BC will contribute positively to the gen-
eral immune system and performance of poultry which
are exposed to diseases and effects of mycotoxins. It is
also clear that as an egg component, it will have a posi-
tive impact on human health.
BC is used as a colorant and antioxidant agent in
the food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, animal feed indus-
try (Martelli, et al., 1990; Astorg, 1997). BC gives
color to products such as eggs and meat. However, it is
known that most of the BC, which is used as colorant
in various production industries, is synthetic. Recently,
the use of natural BC has started to become widespread
in line with consumer demands. By-products obtained
from fruit juice production (carrot, grapefruit, apricot
pulp, etc.) have low prices. Therefore, these products
are used as natural BC source in chicken feeds (Sikder
et. al., 1998; Mascarell et al., 2012). It has been report-
ed that the recommended amount of BC in the feed of
laying hens should be at the maximum feed rate of 30
mg / kg feed (EFSA, 2012).
It is considered that there is a small number of stud-
ies on poultry feed in relation to BC, which has im-
portant contributions to both poultry and human health,
and it will be useful to focus on new research in this
area.
2. Beta Carotene Resources
BC is a yellow-orange pigment. BC is found in the
structure of fruits, grains, vegetables (carrots, green
plants, pumpkin, spinach) and oils (Liu, 2013) with
maize, green fodder, moss, marigold, stinging nettle
and similar products (Table 1) (Kljak et al., 2012).
Plants such as sweet potatoes, carrots, cabbage,
spinach, lettuce, fresh thyme, gourd, turnip, melon,
green cabbage and broccoli are rich in BC (Groff et al.,
1995). BC is more common in the leaves of plants and
the amount decreases as the plant ages (Ballet et al.,
2000). Egg yolks, milk, butter and liver are also animal
sources containing BC. Because of its low amount and
unstable structure, BC deficiency is sometimes ob-
served in animals.
BC is also produced by algae (Dunaliella bardawil
and Murielopsis sp) (Goodwin, 1992), fungi (Blakeslea
trispora) (Mantzouridou and Tsimidou, 2008) and
yeasts (Rhodotorula glutinis; Park et al., 2005). Among
microbial sources, Rhodotorula glutinis, which is rich
in protein, lipid and vitamins, has been reported to be
suitable for producing BC (Bhosale and Gadre, 2001).
In order to meet the BC needs of poultry, non-toxic
Rhodotorula cells are used in rations (Kushwaha et al.,
2014). The major carotenoid in the Western diet is BC
(Stahl and Sies, 2005).
Table 1
Some sources of beta carotene and beta carotene con-
tents
Source of
BC
BC
content
Literatur
Corn, yellow (mg/100g)
0.051
Yılmaz, 2010
Corn, sweet, yellow
(mg/100g)
0.033
Lee et al., 1981
Daucus carrota (mg/100 g
fresh weight)
3.2-6.1
Yılmaz, 2010
Carrots, raw (mg/100g)
4.65
Bushway, 1986
Red pepper, dry
(mg/100g)
2.20
Yılmaz, 2010
Peppers, sweet, red, raw
(mg/100g)
0.059
Philip and Chen,
1988
Alfa alfa, green (mg/kg
crude matter)
97.5
Descalzo et al., 2012
Alfa alfa, dry (mg/kg
crude matter)
5.5
Descalzo et al., 2012
Soybean meal, expeller
(mg/kg crude matter)
0.30
Descalzo et al., 2012
Sunflower, expeller
(mg/kg crude matter)
nd
Descalzo et al., 2012
Naturel meadow grass,
green (mg/kg crude mat-
ter)
63.8
Kalac, 2012
Blakeslea trispora (mg/L)
173
Wang, et al., 2014
Rhodotorula glutinis
(mg/L)
6.54
Kushwaha et al.,
2014
Since vitamin A cannot be synthesized by poultry,
it should be taken as BC or vitamin A with feeds (The-
odosiou et al., 2010). Besides carotenoids from plants,
some carotenoid derivatives in the European Union
have also been approved for use as an additive. These;
capsantin (C40 carotenoid), P-cryptoxanthine (C40),
lutein (C40), zeaxanthin (C40), P-apo-8-carotenal
(C30), P-apo-8'-carotenoic acid ethyl ester (C30), xan-
thaxanthin (C40) and sitranaxanthin (C33) (Nimalarat-
ne et al., 2013). The bioavailability of BC (crystal
form) found in carrot juice in the feeding of wild pop-
pies was about 30% (White et al., 1993).
Carotenoids are tetraterpenoid (C40) pigments syn-
thesized from eight isoprene units found only in plants
(Wagner and Elmadfa, 2003). They are divided into
two groups according to their chemical structure: caro-
tenes (hydrocarbon class) and xanthophylls (oxygen
class) (Shete and Quadro, 2013; Von Lintig, 2012).
Carotenes consist of alpha, beta and gamma carotene.
The most important of carotene is the BC, which is the
source of vitamin A (Taylor, 1996). BC is a fat-soluble
provitamin A (Valko et al., 2007).
The BC was first isolated by Wachenroder in 1831
(Davies, 1976). The name BC was taken from carrot
(Daucus carota) (Deming and Erdman, 1999). BC is
almost always associated with chlorophyll in plants
(Merck Index, 2006). The 1-carotene absorption spec-
trum is between 400-500 nm and is green-blue (Isler
and Solms, 1971). Therefore, the BC molecule absorbs
green-blue light and gives red-yellow colors.
BC is insoluble in water, acids, alkalis, but soluble
in carbon disulfide and chloroform. Insoluble in meth-
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Çalışlar / Selcuk J Agr Food Sci, (2019) 33 (3), 256-263
anol and ethanol BC, ether, hexane and oils (FCC,
2011) slightly soluble. The diluted solution was yellow.
Absorbs oxygen, which leads to inactive, colorless
oxidation products (Merck Index, 2006). Pure BC is a
rather dark reddish-orange color, while oxidized or
melted BC is slightly yellowish orange and gray. BC,
like vitamin A does not dissolve in water, it is only
soluble in fat (Tek et al., 2002).
BC melts between 176-182 °C. BC, which is in the
cis- and trans-isomeric forms, has a melting point of
184.50 ⁰C (Olson, 1996). The molecular weight is
536.87 g/mol (Merck Index, 2006; FCC, 2011).
Although many carotenoids commonly have
asymmetric carbon atoms, BC does not contain asym-
metric carbon atoms (Woollard, 2012). The BC in the
non-polar hydro-carbon group has two ion rings and
theoretically this retinal structure is converted into two
molecules of retinol. The conversion of carotenoids to
retinole is rarely 100%. Therefore, vitamin A power of
various foods is expressed as retinol equivalence (RE).
Accordingly, 1 RE; 1 mg of retinol is equal to 6 mg of
BC and 12 mg with other provitamin A carotenoids
(Maynard et al., 1979). Vitamin A requirement of poul-
try is expressed as international unit (IU). It has been
reported that 1 IU vitamin A activity is equivalent to
0.6 microgram BC activity or 1 mg BC is equivalent to
1.667 IU vitamin A (Blair, 2018). 1 mg of BC is equiv-
alent to 400 IU of retinole in broiler chicks (Johannsen
et al., 1998), 1200 IU in old geese and only 60 IU in
young geese (Jamroz et al., 2002).
There is no proven information that the carotenoids
have been transformed into another carotenoid. How-
ever, β-apo-8'-carotenal and β-apo-8' carotenoic acid
ethyl esters of the BC degradation products have been
shown to have coloring potential in poultry (El-Boushy
and Raterink, 1992; Erdman et al., 1993). BC gives
yellow-orange color to egg yolk (Dufossé, 2009).
Feed carotenoids are present in the natural com-
pounds in about 60 to 90% trans and 10 to 30% cis
form. Trans form is a more effective pigment due to its
red color tone and greater stability. Chickens have the
ability to convert some of the trans form of BC into the
cis form and this transformation takes place in egg yolk
(Hencken, 1992).
Most commercialized beta carotenes are the chemi-
cal synthesis of β-ionone (Raja et al., 2007; Ribeiro et
al., 2011). The β-ionone is originally synthesized from
natural sources, such as lemon grass oil or pine turpen-
tine. However, in recent years it has been produced
from β-ionone, acetone or butadiene. BC is synthesized
by saponification of vitamin A acetate. Fungal and
microalgae are very promising sources for the industri-
al production of carotenoids (Echavarri-Erasun and
Johnson, 2002). Some strains of Blakeslea trispora
fungus, a host of tropical plants, are high BC producing
sources (Dufossé, 2006).
3. Functions of Beta Carotene
Provitamin A and thus BC are required to perform
visual functions (Von Lintig, 2012). BC has been
shown to inhibit certain types of cancer with arthro-
sclerosis, cataract, and multiple sclerosis due to the
antioxidant properties and provitaminase activity
(Terao, 1989).
BC prevents oxidative damage to cellular lipids,
proteins and DNA. BC, which shows anti-
inflammatory properties, protects the skin against
premature aging, photodermatitis and cancers against
the harmful effects of UV light (Stahl and Sies, 2007;
Cazzonelli, 2011). It has been reported that carotenoids
have a significant effect on skin, egg and meat quality
(Liufa et al., 1997). Carotenoids have a great effect on
the color of the hens' skin and egg yolk, egg and meat
quality (Sirri et al., 2007; Hien et al., 2013).
The annual total carotenoid production in nature is
estimated to be around 100 thousand tons. Carotenoids
play an important antioxidant function by activating
singlet oxygen, an oxidant formed during photosynthe-
sis in plants (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 1999). BC is an
active molecule that has properties that inactivate some
reactive oxygen species in relation to its antioxidant
potency. Epidemiological findings have shown that BC
can prevent cancers of various organs such as lung,
stomach, cervix, pancreas, colon, rectum, breast, pros-
tate and ovary due to its antioxidant activity (Jayappri-
yan et al., 2013).
Carotenoids with provitamin A and antioxidant ef-
fect have cellular differentiation, growth, reproduction,
gene expression, immune function, and adipocyte func-
tions (Tourniaire et al., 2009).
According to the BC free group, cock fed with BC
containing rations, has been reported to produce higher
antibody titer against newcastle disease (McWhinney
et al., 1989). They reported that BC used in combina-
tion with vitamin E provided more protection against
the infection of Escherichia coli in chickens (Tengerdy
et al., 1990).
According to other organs, the concentration of BC
in the corpus luteum was highest but no effect on re-
production was determined (Thomas, 2006).
4. Metabolism of Beta Carotene
Vitamin A is required for the survival of all verte-
brate animals. BC is one of the important sources of
vitamin A requirement. Absorption of BC from intes-
tines, transformation into vitamin A, transport, accu-
mulation and metabolism of tissues vary according to
animal species.
The conversion of BC to vitamin A generally oc-
curs in intestinal mucosa cells and liver (Coultate,
1996). Since the BC molecule consists of a pair of
retinas, two molecules of retinal formation occur when
this structure is separated from the middle. However,
the biological activity of BC is only about half of the
retinal. The enzyme responsible for the conversion of
BC to retinale is known as BC-15, 15 monooxygenase
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Çalışlar / Selcuk J Agr Food Sci, (2019) 33 (3), 256-263
or 15.15 si dioxigenase (Wyss et al., 2000; Dela Seña
et al., 2014). Retinol and retinoic acid are also pro-
duced from the retinal (Taylor, 1996; Arikan and
Muğlalı, 1999).
Absorption of BC occurs in the duodenum of the
small intestine. The absorption of BC can last for sev-
eral days. Absorption is faster and more effective if
there is an oil in the environment. Sometimes the BC is
absorbed into the intestinal wall and is quickly con-
verted to vitamin A in there. The rest of BC is trans-
ported in the blood as very low density lipoprotein
cholesterol (Nnaji et al., 2013).
Approximately 40%-45% of total carotene content
is found in egg yolk (Surai and Speake 1998; Surai et
al., 1999). However, compared to other carotenoids,
the amount of BC stored in the egg yolk is very low.
Because BC is used as a provitamin A by poultry, it is
very poor to accumulate in egg yolks or other tissues
(Hammershoj et al., 2010).
Poultry predominantly accumulate oxycarotenoids
in their body tissues or eggs (Goodwin 1986; Hencken
1992). The deposition rate of lutein and zeaxanthin in
the egg yolk was 25%, while the accumulated amount
of BC was only 0.5% (Jiang et al., 1994; Hammershoj
et al., 2010).
The main storage site of BC in poultry is liver. On-
ly 0.16% to 0.66% of the total carotenoids stored in the
egg yolk of poultry cultivated under intense and semi-
intensive conditions were reported as BC. It was found
that the amount of BC accumulated in the duck egg
yolk was 1.62% (Khan et al., 2017).
The total amount of carotenoid in the egg yolk of
poultry has been reported to vary between 17.33% and
37.90%, while the amount of BC varies between 1.07%
and 2.12% (Kotrbáček et al., 2013). Astaxanthin in egg
yolk is stored at 14%, zeaxanthin 25% and canthaxan-
thin at 30-40% (Hencken, 1992).
The transfer of BC to egg yolk is 0.6% while the
rate of conversion to vitamin A (5-6%) is relatively
high. In a study in which chickens were given sweet
potato and silage, the absorption rate of xanthophylline
was 93-94% and the carotene was absorbed between
55-63% (Yamada et al., 1958). Poultry animals absorb
carotenes less than xanthophylls (Surai et al., 2001).
BC increase in egg yolk is only 2.1% of total carote-
noids (Török et al., 2007).
The number of studies on the effects of egg yolk
changes in BC content is insufficient. In previous some
studies, it has been reported that the amount of BC in
the egg yolk decreases due to increased storage time
regardless of source (Rock et al., 1996; Thomas, 2006).
The amount of BC in the eggs of different poultry
breeds varies. The amount of BC on the first day of
storage white leghorn hens egg yolk has found to be
0.060 mg / g, in the first week 0.047 mg / g, in the
second week 0.027 mg / g and in the third week 0.004
mg / g (Okonkwo, 2009).
5. Accumulation of Beta Carotene
Feed carotenoids can undergo numerous transfor-
mations in the metabolism of animals. Some of these
compounds have vitamin A activity. Usually only
monohydroxy and mono-cetocarotenoids are converted
into vitamin A. Carotenoids, which have high vitamin
A activity, generally have very low coloring properties
(Hencken, 1992).
In a feeding study with a weight of 8000 IU vitamin
A in laying hens, 80% of vitamin A was transferred to
egg yolk (Squires et al., 1993). In another study, it was
reported that only 85.11 micrograms of vitamin A in
dietary 120 micrograms could be transferred to egg
yolk (Surai et al., 1998).
The amount of BC stored in egg yolk was reported
to be very low (1%) (Hammershoj et al., 2010; Xue et
al., 2013). In a recent study, it was determined that
8.85% of the BC in different hybrid maize was depos-
ited in the egg yolk of laying hens (Kristina et al.,
2018).
Laying hens store vitamin A in egg yolks for incu-
bation and embryo development during the first stages
of life (Bardos, 1989). Most of the vitamin A stored in
the egg yolk is retinol and a small portion is retinyl
esters (Joshi et al., 1973).
Adding up to 70 g of carrots per day to the rations
during the feeding of laying hens has been shown to
increase the egg yolk color value, especially lutein,
alpha carotene and BC content effectively (Hammer-
shoj et al., 2010). Xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin)
have been found to be better absorbed than hydrocar-
bons carotenoids (alpha-carotene, BC) (Dumbrava et
al., 2006).
The addition of lutein to the ration (100 mg / kg)
increased the yolk color and redness value. Compared
with the control group, lutein containing diets in-
creased the amount of BC in egg yolks by 66%, lutein
97% and zeaxanthin by 94%. However, because it is
expensive, lutein is not routinely added to rations
(Englmaierová and Skininivan, 2013).
BC has an accumulation rate of less than 1% in egg
yolk. It has been reported that there is a linear increase
in the amount of egg yolk retinol due to the increase in
the amount of BC in the diet (Jiang et al., 1994). In
some previous studies, it has been reported that the
amount of BC in egg yolk is 1.07-2.12 (μg / kg; Ko-
trbáček et al., 2013) and 0.16-1.62 (mg / kg-1; Khan et
al., 2017).
Very few of the BC given with the ration passes to
the yolk and the rest is converted to retinol and stored
in the egg. Egg yolk color is mainly affected by fat-
soluble carotenes, xanthophylls and BC. A decrease in
the color of the egg yolk in line with the increase in
vitamin A of the rations occurred. It has been stated
that high vitamin A can cause absorption of fat-soluble
pigments (Mendonça et al., 2002).
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Çalışlar / Selcuk J Agr Food Sci, (2019) 33 (3), 256-263
In bird species, carotenoids tend to accumulate in
their immune organs. When carotenoids were included
in the breeding diet, it was shown that there was a
significant accumulation in the thymus and bursa fabri-
cus of chickens. Furthermore, carotenoids from the
chicken diet were still detected 4 weeks after hatching
in carotenoid consuming diets fed from chickens
(Koutsos et al., 2003).
Carotenoids can be exposed to oxidative effects due
to storage time, room temperature and illumination
(photochemical) due to the large number of double
bonds in their structure. The enzymatic degradation of
BC requires oxygen and the destruction at high tem-
peratures is highest. Destruction stops after complete
dehydration. Therefore, both enzymatic and photo-
chemical effects which cause the destruction of BC
during storage must be controlled (Geoffrey, 1998).
Losses occur during storage of BC. It was reported that
the loss in the waiting period of 25 ⁰C for one month
was 10% and the loss after three months was 29% of
the initial value (EFSA, 2012).
6. Conclusion and Suggestion
Some nutrients in feeds can be transferred to eggs
and functional eggs can be produced. It is thought that
one of the nutrients that may contribute to functional
production due to increasing the amount of egg that is
passed to the egg and which is stored here may be BC.
However, more information is needed about the transi-
tion of BC into eggs. It is thought that it is necessary to
focus more intensely on BC, which is thought to have
an important contribution to the realization of an or-
ganic and sustainable animal production suitable for
human health in a century when organic egg and meat
production is gaining momentum.
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