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Benefits of Animal Assisted Therapy in Mental Health

Authors:
  • Alexandrio Technologcal Institute of Thessaloniki
International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1898
www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org
Review Article
Benefits of Animal Assisted Therapy in Mental Health
Konstantinos Koukourikos, MSc, PhD (c)
Lecturer in Nursing, Nursing Department, International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, Greece
Athanasia Georgopoulou, RN
International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, Greece
Lambrini Kourkouta, PhD
Professor, Nursing Department, International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, Greece
Areti Tsaloglidou, MSc, PhD
Assistant Professor, Nursing Department, International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
Background: Animal-assisted therapy is defined as the aimed interaction between trained animals and patients,
which is considered complementary to conventional therapies. It is designed and implemented by a team of
experts including the therapist, the animal handler, and some health professionals.
Aim: The aim of this study is to present and highlight the role of animals and their advantages in the treatment
of mental illness
Methodology: Extensive review of the recent literature was conducted in electronic databases (Pubmed, Google
scholar) and scientific journals (Greek and international) using the appropriate key words: animal assisted
therapy, mental illness, aging, animal assisted activity, animal companionship, health, pet ownership and a
combination of them.
Results: Treatment animals are more often dogs, horses, dolphins, birds, and generally animals having gentle
nature. The treatment's benefits to the health of mentally ill are related to reducing the expression of the negative
symptoms of the disease, developing skills in various areas of patients’ personality and moreover improving
their quality of life. A prerequisite for the proper implementation of treatment programs is compliance with
basic terms and principles for the protection of health, security and well-being of the participants.
Conclusion: Prerequisites for the development of this particular therapeutic effort are the definition of treatment
parameters, the proper education of health professionals, the coordinated action of a multidisciplinary team
trained specifically for its design and implementation and the expansion of the research area.
Key words : Animal assisted therapy, mental illness, aging, animal assisted activity, animal companionship,
health, pet ownership
Introduction
From ancient times, human existence is closely
related to the presence of animals. The animals
followed a parallel course with human either
initially as livelihood (food) or later
domestication of some of them as a means of
livelihood (eg plowing fields) and later as
domestic animals for purely personal pleasure
and well-being.
The presence of animals relieves, relaxes and
discharges people from tension and stress of
everyday life. The use of animals for therapeutic
purposes, although has a long history, has been
expanded just in the 20th century. The interest of
many researchers and health professionals had
been developed with regard to the positive
consequences of the interaction of animals with
humans and its potential health benefits (Hughes
et al, 2019).
The studies referring to the above mentioned
interaction have been multiplied and the interest
has mainly focused on the help that animal
contact can provide for the treatment of multiple
diseases, particularly those related to mental
health. The results of these studies have led to
the consolidation of a complementary or
alternative form of treatment for various types of
mental illness, known as "Animal-Assisted
Therapy" (Mandrá et al, 2019).
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The presence of animals as a treatment
The use of interaction with animals specially
trained for this purpose is applied to improve
patient's mental, social, emotional and physical
functions. The treatment sessions can take place
at various facilities and involve activities such as
game, sports and animal care. They are done
individually or in groups, and like any other form
of treatment, they are tailored to suit each
patient's needs (Jackson, 2012).
The animals involved in the treatment are mainly
dogs, cats and dolphins. However, if appropriate
and possible, farm animals such as horses,
rabbits and various birds are also included in the
programs. It is well documented in the literature
that the presence of animals in treatment can
cause feelings of calm and optimism both in
adults and children. At the same time, it helps to
establish trust between the patient and the
therapist, encouraging the achievement of
therapeutic goals. Animal-assisted therapy does
not constitute an individual psychotherapy school
nor is likely to have positive results for all people
with all sorts of disorders (Ogilvie, 2016).
Wide benefits of animal assisted therapy in
mental health
Animal contact has an important place in the
lives of many people, as their presence alone can
contribute to their peace and well-being.
However, it seems that animals offer much more
than just companionship. Their involvement to
the treatment of mental illness is a fact for
several decades, and the benefits obtained are
significant. The multiplicity of terminology
existed until a few years ago on the therapeutic
use of the animals and its implications, caused
confusion to the experts and made it imperative
to define fixed concepts, common and widely
accepted. Undoubtedly, any patient's approach
from an animal to a hospital or clinic is not
included in the treatment if certain basic
conditions are not met (Kruger and Serpell,
2010). The "Delta Society", one of the largest
organizations in the United States, which is
responsible for the organization and provision of
animal assisted programs, has adopted the
following definitions regarding the inclusion of
animals in the therapeutic context (Delta Society,
2008) :
A. Animal - Assisted Therapy:
It is a targeted and structured therapeutic
program that involves animals meeting specific
criteria in the therapeutic process as an integral
and vital part of it, aiming at improving the
cognitive, emotional, social and physical
functions of the patient. It is designed and
implemented by healthcare specialists who have
been further trained for these programs and can
take place in a variety of facilities such as
hospitals, clinics and other rehabilitation areas,
nursing homes, prisons, private homes and
animal farms. In this form of treatment, as well
as in the rest, the progress of its course and the
evaluation of achievement of the initial
objectives for each patient, are recorded. It is
addressed to individual patients or groups of
patients according to the design and objective
criteria that have been set. Animal assisted
therapy does not depend on any particular
psychological theory, but can be incorporated
into various types of them (Delta Society, 2008,
Friedmann and Son, 2009).
B. Animal-assisted activities:
These are opportunities for contacting patients
with specially trained animals, coordinated by
expert professionals or volunteers, in the absence
of treatment program and specific treatment
goals. Visits of animals to patients'
accommodation are spontaneous, without
presupposing the recording and evaluation of
their progress. In the animal assisted activity
context, participants were able to develop interest
in themselves, other residents, and their
environment, due to feelings of ease and the
development of one-on-one relationships with
the AAA animals. (Kawamura, Niiyama,
Niiyama, 2009, Kruger and Serpell, 2010, Crippa
and Feijó, 2014).
C. Animal assisted intervention:
This concept refers to the broader field of
integration of animal assisted therapy into
educational programs aimed at training health
professionals to organize and implement such
treatment programs (Crippa and Feijó, 2014).
Animal assisted programs are being implemented
to support children, adolescents, adults and
elderly patients suffering from mental disorders.
The benefits are achieved through interaction
with the trained animals, whether it is related to
touching and treating them, or simply by
observing the animal and its relationship with its
trainer-carer. These potential benefits stem from
the fact that contact with animals is a potent
supportive source for the patient due to the
International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1900
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acceptance and positive response of the animals
to him (Yap, Scheinberg, Williams, 2017,
AVMA, 2018).
The benefits of animal assisted therapy extend to
various areas of patient personality, namely
emotional, cognitive, social, and physical
functions (Amerine and Hubbard, 2016):
A. emotional support and stress relief:
It has been observed that interaction with animals
positively affects patients during stressful
situations within the therapeutic process. The
whole environment of the treatment becomes
more friendly and less threatening, and patients
seem to feel more calm and relaxed when an
animal participates even as a mere presence in
treatment sessions. Animals are a tangible source
of pleasure and consolation. Experts suggest that
when contacted with animals, neurotransmitters
such as serotonin and endorphins are released,
causing a feeling of happiness and calm while
reducing the secretion of stress hormones such as
cortisol and adrenaline, a fact that further
contributes to lowering blood pressure and heart
rate. In addition, patients, as they treat animals,
have the potential to develop care and empathic
skills. At the same time, the interaction with
them has a catalytic effect on the patient's
relationship with the therapist, contributing to the
acquisition of trust between them. On the one
hand, therefore, the normalization of aggravating
emotions is achieved and, on the other hand, the
element of laughter and joy is introduced into the
therapeutic process, the value of which should
not be underestimated, as it improves, the
emotional status and quality of life of people in
general (Bachi and Parish-Plass, 2017, Fine,
2018).
B. learning cognitive self-care skills and
improving self-image:
Patients suffering from mental illness often feel
powerless, vulnerable and dependent on other
people. With the presence of animals, they
become potential caregivers of another entity -
the animal - for which they often feel responsible
by undertaking activities related to its survival.
This contributes to strengthening self-confidence
and trust. Moreover, many benefits appear for the
elderly patients in whom a progressive decline of
cognitive skills is observed, such as those
associated with memory, self-care, hygiene and
cleanliness. Undertaking practices related to
animal care by elderly patients, raises motivation
and stimulates memory, while the discussion on
self-care issues takes place with less discomfort
during the treatment sessions under the presence
of an animal. (Bachi and Parish-Plass, 2017,
Bachi, Terkel, Teichman, 2012).
C. cultivating social skills:
Mental illness largely cuts the patient out of his
social environment not only because of his
stigma but also because of the reduction of skills
necessary for the social interaction of humans
and the establishment of normal social relations.
Moreover, if the disease leads to the patient
entering a clinic, he automatically cuts off his
social environment and his quality of life is
degraded. The inclusion of animals in the
treatment of these patients contributes to the
partial extension of a normal lifestyle - animals
are an excellent companion for many people -
and the cultivation of lost social skills. Even by
simple observation of the therapist's relationship
with the animal and their interaction, the patient
gains information about accepted and non-social
behaviors. As a result, patient learns how his
actions affect those who receive them and he also
practices self-control and self-restraint. Another
key point is that animals respond in a direct way
to the movements and attitudes of people towards
them. This positive or negative response helps
the patient to adopt appropriate behaviors
(Chitic, Rusu, Szamoskozi, 2012, Bachi and
Parish-Plass, 2017).
D. Providing opportunities for activity and
training:
Animal assisted therapy provides incentives and
opportunities for participation in physical
exercise activities that physically enhance the
patient and offer fun and enjoyment at the same
time. Walking and jogging, gymnastics and
animal play contribute to the production of
endorphins and improved mood. They also
contribute to the practice of coarse and fine
mobility, which is significantly affected in some
patients with mental disorders (Velde, Cipriani,
Fisher, 2005).
Benefits of incorporating animals into modern
methods of treating mental illness for
children, adults and elderly patients
Study results on patients suffering from mental
disorders have confirmed that participation in
animal assisted treatment programs, coupled with
other more traditional therapeutic interventions,
results in reducing anxiety and depression
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symptoms, reducing behaviors associated the
disease and improving their social interactions.
Experts argue that each patient has undoubtedly
his own independent course with regard to the
process of rehabilitation, in which traditional
treatments have steadily for years positive
results. However, searching for new methods and
techniques for those who do not respond to basic
intervention patterns or who are positively
involved in new forms of treatment becomes
vital. It is well documented in the literature that
animal assisted therapy is a feasible and dynamic
alternative for children, adolescents, adults and
elderly patients with various forms of mental
disorders (Mangalavite, 2014).
Depression
Studies have shown that interaction with animals
causes biochemical changes in the patient's brain
and release neurotransmitters that improve mood
and cause relaxation and suppression of anxiety.
These changes has proved to be effective in
reducing symptoms of depression in
institutionalized elderly and increasing verbal
interaction, act as a facilitator of social
interaction and eliciting positive emotional
responses (Moretti et al. 2011, Ambrosi et al,
2019). At the same time, other benefits to the
patient's body functions such as lowering blood
pressure and pulse and increasing activity and
mobility are achieved, contributing to better and
faster recovery of patient health. Potential
psychological benefits are emotional support,
reduction in feelings of isolation and loneliness,
cultivation of empathic skills, rehabilitation of
self-image and self-confidence and improvement
of orientation towards reality in general (Souter
and Miller, 2007). Dealing with animals may
also contribute to the mental deprivation of the
illness and its symptoms and improve patient’ s
quality of life. The undertaken activities in
connection with the treatment animals urge
patient to be active and also to perform regular
self-care actions. A tight link between the patient
and the animals is often created, and it is a source
of support and motivation for commitment to the
therapeutic procedure. At the same time, contact
with animals improves the social skills of
patients with depression, breaking the limits of
his potential marginalization and providing
opportunities for interaction with other people,
which is essential for the course of treatment
(Horowitz, 2010, Cheung and Kam, 2017). In
conclusion, the treatment of depression with
animal assistance may present positive and
encouraging results as data from various surveys
and studies show. The need for further study in
this field becomes imperative for the general
acceptance and establishment of the method.
Autism
Animal assisted therapy could have positive
effects on children with autism. Animals have
features that are not available to humans, which
work positively to the symptoms of autism.
Opposite to low sensory response induced by
autism, animals provide powerful multi-sensory
stimuli - strong and clear repetitive sounds,
vibrant visual images, distinct and special smell
and pleasant touch. This contributes to the ability
of animals to have a particular non-verbal
communication with them. The involvement of
an animal in autistic children's treatment
positively affects their reactions and their
behavior in general. The children seem more
cheerful and concentrated, while their fixed
motifs of kinesiology and their tendency to
isolate, as well as other characteristics of autistic
behavior are diminished. The release of
hormones due to contact with animals also leads
to the improvement and increase of social
interactions of children, even those who develop
intense withdrawal from the environment and the
people around them ( Hanson et al, 2007,
Foden and Anderson, 2011, Siewertsen, French,
Teramoto, 2015, Borgi et al, 2016).
In animal assisted therapy, many different
symptoms of autism are set as treatment targets.
The most important benefits of the treatment
include improving child communication and
social skills as well as controlling and limiting
stereotypical behaviors. Animals not only are the
same efficient companion, but also provide
opportunities motivating them - to further
social interaction and communication. At the
same time they help the child to work within the
social environment and reduce his anxiety. They
are also a focal point of concentration for the
child when he has to cope with over-stimulating
sensory states and stimuli, helping him remain
more calm and relaxed (Siewertsen, French,
Teramoto, 2015). Furthermore, through the care
and treatment of the animal, the child acquires
daily self-care skills and promotes self-image
and confidence. Dealing with animals can also
increase the strength of the child and improve the
areas of fine and coarse mobility. Animals are
not only an incentive to engage in important
activities for children, but also a model for their
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own learning. Through the observation of their
personal interaction with them, but also of other
people with animals, children are taught social
behaviors, develop ideas, patterns, internal
expectations and standards related to normal
behaviors and human relationships (Wang, 2013,
Anderson and Meints, 2016).
The therapeutic involvement of dogs, horses and
dolphins, animals, has been found to be the most
effective in the field of developmental disorders
of children and adults. Therapeutic riding also
presents - due to horse physiology and
kinesiology - additional benefits in terms of
improving the motor functions of autistic patients
(Bass, Duchowny, Llabre, 2009, Wang, 2013,).
Dementia
Animals, and especially dogs, have been
participating for many years in visiting programs
in elderly patients with dementia, offering the
opportunity to create bonds of affection and fun.
However, experts on the disease claim that the
benefits for patients can be much more by
implementing targeted therapeutic interventions
with the assistance of animals. People with
dementia may experience various symptoms and
behaviors during the course of the disease
progression. As the disease progresses, the
patient usually cuts off links and contact with the
environment and social environment, is isolated
and greatly restricts his movement and activities.
The presence of a treatment animal has been
observed to be the only remaining functional
patient communication bridge with the reality
around him. Research results show that animal
assisted treatment can improve the social and
communication behaviors and skills of patients
with dementia. Many times patients can
communicate more effectively with animals than
with people of their environment. This contact
with the animals provides the trigger and the
motivating power of their disengagement from
the margin and loneliness that has been caused
by the disease (Baun and Mccabe, 2003, Cevizci
et al,. 2013).
It is shown in the literature that animal assisted
treatment can act preventively and
therapeutically on the effects of dementia and on
the emotional health of patients, significantly
reducing its negative symptoms, such as
aggression and psychotic behavior, confusion,
irritability and depressive tendencies. These are
common benchmarks among dementia patients
(Nordgren and Engström, 2012, Bono et al,
2015). Contact and interaction with animals may
also reduce the symptoms of another common
disorder in patients with dementia, known as the
"West syndrome", in which patients have intense
signs of anxiety, confusion and aggression during
the early evening hours. The presence of
treatment animal has a complacent action in the
mental state of patient, providing security and
companionship (Perkins et al, 2009).
AAT had a positive effect in dementia patients
for several neuropsychiatric symptoms like
delusion, depression, disinhibition, euphoria, and
aberrant motor activity. Moreover, the ratings of
the various behaviors during each session
suggest that the beneficial effects of AAT appear
during the first few sessions (Tournier, Vives,
Postal, 2017).
In addition, activities with treatment animals,
such as grooming, gymnastics, walking and
playing, give patients a pleasant incentive to get
out of their stillness and improve their physical
condition and body functions. This reduces the
sense of muscle pain, increases motor skills and
muscle strength, limits patients' falls and
enhances their nutritional and self-care skills
(Richeson, 2003, Moretti et al, 2011).
Schizophrenia
The interaction of schizophrenic patients with
treatment animals leads to positive effects on the
symptom of anhedonia, a disease-induced
symptom associated with a lack of capacity for
experiencing pleasure with situations and
activities that normally cause it. It has been
observed that the implementation of animal
treatment programs in patients with
schizophrenia living in psychiatric institutions
has gained the preference of patients compared to
other treatment models, as participation in them
showed a decrease in the sense of apathy and the
manifestation of adverse symptoms of the
disease. In addition, patients' cortisol levels seem
to be reduced at the end of the reported
programs, indicating the reduction of anxiety and
stress in people with schizophrenia (Chu et al,
2009, Rossetti and King, 2010).
The therapeutic use of interaction with animals
provides patients with the incentive and
opportunity for the general improvement of their
quality of life. Research has shown not only the
reduction of the negative symptoms of the
disease but also the onset of positive behaviors
related to everyday activities and care of patients.
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Patients showed significant improvements in the
Living skills profile (withdrawal, anti-social
behavior and compliance) and in quality of life
related with social relationships. Through regular
contact with animals and the performance of
activities such as self-care, patients improve their
self-esteem and become more active and
responsible in their personal lives (ViIIaIta-Gil et
al, 2009, Davidson, 2014). Another study
reporting improvements in emotional symptoms
and in various measures of self-view and self-
image (Virués-Ortega et al, 2012).
The most important element is that it can
produce practical benefits, especially in areas
where traditional treatments seem inadequate,
such as the symptom of patient anhedonia, which
greatly affects the quality of their everyday lives
(Davidson, 2014).
Conclusions
Animal assisted therapy, as a complementary
approach to traditional therapies, leads to several
important benefits for patients suffering from
mental illnesses. Its implementation in patients
with diagnoses such as depression, autism,
dementia, schizophrenia can achieve changes in
their personality, behavior and physical health.
These changes mainly affect the social
interactions of patients, as well as the cognitive,
psychological and emotional field, which seems
to improve the abilities and skills that have been
limited due to the underlying disease. New skills
are also being cultivated. This improves patients’
self-image and their overall quality of life. The
positive benefits of animal involvement in the
treatment process lead to the reduction of the
onset of negative symptoms caused by mental
disorders and the emergence of positive
behaviors, mainly concerning the responsibilities
and activities of everyday life on behalf of
patients.
However, research into the involvement of
animals in the treatment of mental illness needs
to be broadened and enriched but also to
overcome obvious weaknesses and constraints.
In this way its potential strengths can be taken
into account and the therapy itself can be
established as appropriate and important method
of intervention.
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... The psychological and physical health benefits of pets for older adults include decreased depression and loneliness, improved cardiovascular health, and increased physical activity. Indeed, their involvement in the treatment of mental illness has been demonstrated for several decades, and the resulting benefits are significant (Koukourikos et al., 2019). This may be particularly relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic. ...
... Existing studies have shown that interaction with animals causes biochemical changes in the patient's brain and the release of neurotransmitters that improve mood and cause relaxation and suppression of anxiety (Koukourikos et al., 2019). These findings suggest that interaction with companion animals may decrease anxiety, sympathetic nervous system arousal, and stress response, providing a feeling of well-being and pleasure (Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003;Peluso et al., 2018). ...
... Moreover, research indicates that pets can provide comfort and safety through companionship, which may contribute positively to older adults' mental health and older adults' aging-in-place experiences (McConnell et al., 2011;. Moreover, owning a pet can provide a sense of purpose to daily routines and a valuable social role in life (Koukourikos et al., 2019). ...
... These modifications are successful in lowering depressive symptoms in older institutionalized patients, enhancing verbal contact, promoting social connection, and evoking pleasant emotional reactions. [38,39] Also, apart from psychological benefits, intense stroking of a cat, whose normal body temperature is about 38°C, can have a warming effect on cold hands. This mutually beneficial interaction pleasures the animal and relief to the caregiver, especially those suffering from conditions like rheumatoid arthritis (RA), as it offers plenty of manual exercise for their hands. ...
... Nonetheless, the overall potential of AAT and AAA remains promising for enhancing well-being and care across various domains of human life. [8,9,14,26,39] All authors have read and agreed with the published version of the manuscript. ...
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This literature review examines the therapeutic role of Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) in promoting physical and mental well-being for diverse populations. AAIs have shown positive impacts on children and adults, benefiting individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders as well as ex-military personnel. The review emphasizes the growing support for AAIs, extending beyond traditional therapy and reaching diverse groups. Numerous studies back up the favorable effects of animal-assisted treatments on children's social connections, academic progress, and emotional and physical health.
... According to data from statista.com, in 2022, the number of pet mammals significantly increased in the EU by more than 50%: cats, 127.1 M; dogs, 104.3 M; and small mammals, 29.3 M [22]. Nowadays, dogs are the most popular therapy animal species [23]. In the last three decades, several other species have also participated, such as guinea pigs [24,25], birds [23,26], rabbits [10,15,[27][28][29], reptiles [30], donkeys [31], farm animals like dairy cows, sheep, horses, pigs, and poultry [31][32][33][34], aquarium fish [26], alpacas [35], and dolphins [36]. ...
... Nowadays, dogs are the most popular therapy animal species [23]. In the last three decades, several other species have also participated, such as guinea pigs [24,25], birds [23,26], rabbits [10,15,[27][28][29], reptiles [30], donkeys [31], farm animals like dairy cows, sheep, horses, pigs, and poultry [31][32][33][34], aquarium fish [26], alpacas [35], and dolphins [36]. The participation of unconventional animals in AAS is not advised by Menna et al. [37] as these species are not closely related to humans based on the ethological level. ...
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The participation of animals during complementary therapy for humans is a developing area. Dogs and horses are the most frequent partner species in animal-assisted services, but several unconventional species have also been involved, although there is a lack of information about the stress they experience caused by AAS. We conducted a comprehensive literature search, analyzing 135 articles with the purpose of investigating the effects of AAS on unconventional species such as guinea pigs, rabbits, farm animals, alpacas, donkeys, reptiles, aquarium fishes, and dolphins. We found that the relevant articles emphasize investigating the impact of animal-assisted interventions on humans, and they generally report positive outcomes. Limited data is available concerning the potential consequences the interventions may have on the animals. Therefore, it is our conclusion that more extensive studies should be conducted to get adequate information on stress experienced by animals during AAS, such as the measurement of biochemical parameters such as cortisol. Hence, meeting animal welfare considerations in addition to human interests could serve as a basis for the recommended methodology for therapies.
... Owning a pet offers various advantages, such as improved quality of life [10]. Mellor et al. [26] emphasize that pets enhance psychological safety perceptions [27], act as natural therapists [28], and boost mood [29]. Dogs and cats, in particular, help reduce anxiety and depression, mitigate loneliness, promote physical activity and playfulness, and enhance cardiovascular health [29,30]. ...
... Mellor et al. [26] emphasize that pets enhance psychological safety perceptions [27], act as natural therapists [28], and boost mood [29]. Dogs and cats, in particular, help reduce anxiety and depression, mitigate loneliness, promote physical activity and playfulness, and enhance cardiovascular health [29,30]. The presence of a dog or cat is associated with reduced stress and anxiety due to increased production of dopamine and serotonin-neurotransmitters known for inducing pleasure and having calming effects [27]. ...
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Aims The representation of companion animals, or pets, has been changing recently. Research concerning how pets influence employees’ work-related well-being has also started to take its first steps. This research aimed to analyze (1) how managers perceive pet-friendly practices and their main effects at work, and (2) the impact of such practices on employees’ well-being and work engagement. Relying on the social exchange perspective and the self-determination theory it was hypothesized that pet-friendly practices would positively influence employees’ well-being and work engagement by satisfying their three basic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). Methodology Two studies with mixed methods were conducted. The first and exploratory study resorted to semi-structured interviews with six managers. The second was a two-wave study conducted with a large sample of workers (N = 379). Results The first study highlighted the primary advantages and disadvantages of pet-friendly practices, along with the various obstacles and limitations, and proposed managerial strategies to overcome them. Managers generally expressed interest and enthusiasm about the topic but also pointed out challenges in implementing a pet-friendly strategy due to the limited number of empirical studies demonstrating its benefits. The second study’s findings indicated that pet-friendly practices positively impacted employees' work engagement and well-being by fulfilling their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Originality Overall, Portugal is seen as having a conservative culture, which slows the dissemination and implementation of these measures. To overcome these challenges, several managerial recommendations have been proposed. Raising awareness and fostering discussion on the topic are crucial steps toward integrating pet-friendly policies into human resources management.
... To improve the health of people in general, farm animals were used in the earliest decades, while nowadays the most popular therapy animals are dogs [16]. In the last 30 years, other species have also been reported, such as companion horses [17,18], rabbits [19][20][21], cats [22], birds [18], guinea pigs [23] and reptiles [24]. ...
... To improve the health of people in general, farm animals were used in the earliest decades, while nowadays the most popular therapy animals are dogs [16]. In the last 30 years, other species have also been reported, such as companion horses [17,18], rabbits [19][20][21], cats [22], birds [18], guinea pigs [23] and reptiles [24]. ...
Article
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(1) Background: the popularity of rabbits has increased during the last decade and become the third most common companion animal in the EU. Rabbits’ participation in Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) is growing. It is highly important to ensure the well-being of the animals in AAIs. Whereas the needs and the advantages of people involved in AAI are becoming more and more evident, the needs of animals are not clearly defined, therefore, it is a great field of inquiry. Animals who are used for AAI need to be transported regularly, which itself might be a source of stress. (2) Methods: the stress of rabbits—caused by transportation—was measured in a non-invasive way: cortisol levels were determined from feces, based on their breakdown products. Eighteen animals were involved in the study. Rabbits experienced a 30 min transportation every second day for two weeks (altogether six times) while 126 samples were collected. (3) Results: rabbits could handle the transportation procedure the first time but subsequently the stress hormone metabolites in feces samples increased regardless of the offered treatments (hay, carrot and apple) during the carriage. (4) Conclusions: those owners who use rabbits for Animal-Assisted Interventions need to take into account that transportation itself is a stressful experience for the animals.
... The progress and evaluation of the therapy are recorded, and it can be tailored to individual patients or groups based on specific criteria. Interacting with animals has been observed to positively affect patients during stressful situations, creating a more friendly and relaxed treatment environment [1]. ...
Article
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Adolescents and others with mental health issues have a new and exciting option in animal- assisted therapy. It offers numerous benefits, such as reduced stress, more social support, better mood, increased physical activity, and a sense of purpose. In addition, animal therapy has been proven to help decrease depression symptoms in patients living in institutions. It boosts mood, relieves feelings of isolation and loneliness, develops empathic abilities, and boosts self-esteem and self-confidence. At the same time, engaging in tasks with animals encourages patients to be active and undertake routine self-care practices, fostering a therapeutic environment that is supportive and motivating. We want to learn how animal-assisted therapy helps de-stressed teenagers in this research. Anxieties, autism, and depression are some of the conditions that animal-assisted therapy may help alleviate. We are hoping that it may help with research in this area and provide some references for further study.
... A preliminary search of MEDLINE, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and JBI Evidence Synthesis found no current or underway systematic reviews or scoping reviews on this topic. The search found reviews on AASs in health settings (Jones et al., 2019;Beck et al., 2022;Pandey et al., 2024) and reviews on the role of AASs and the HAB for mental health support (Downes et al., 2013;Hoagwood et al., 2017;Brooks et al., 2018;Koukourikos et al., 2019;Ward et al., 2022;Barr et al., 2024). Published in 2021, a systematic review of the role of canines in PTSD treatment indicated promising results, although the authors indicated a risk of bias which limited reliability (Vitte et al., 2021). ...
Article
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Recovery from substance use disorder (SUD) is a personal journey that includes connection with self and others, including animals – known as the human-animal bond (HAB). Research shows that canines are the most common type of animal integrated into animal-assisted interventions to support people with SUD. Yet, to our knowledge, there has been no review of the evidence on the role of canines in SUD recovery. The scoping review’s objective was to examine the literature on the human-canine bond’s role in recovery from SUD among adolescents and adults, including how the bond may help or hinder recovery. The review considered records that described the human-canine bond with respect to recovery in any recovery- or therapy-related setting globally. Eleven databases were searched, and 32 sources met inclusion criteria that involved companion dogs, therapy dogs, service/assistance, dogs and others. The thematic analysis across records identified three key benefits of the human-canine bond in SUD recovery: (1) a source of social connection and a conduit for human-to-human social connection, (2) a calming and comforting effect on individuals with SUD that can reduce stress and anxiety, and (3) the human-canine bond as a motivating factor for positive change. Through these themes, the bond may help divert substance use-related thoughts and reduce cravings, bolster engagement in treatment and recovery, and help to decrease and prevent substance use. However, a few articles found no role or a limited role of the human-canine bond in recovery, and challenges and considerations were reported, particularly for marginalized populations (e.g., related to obtaining and maintaining housing, employment, and SUD treatment). Most of the records discussed canine welfare in some capacity. Calls were also made for improved policy, public awareness, and animal welfare.
... Potential benefits of AAT have also been studied in a wide variety of patient populations. Patients with depression who have had animal-assisted therapy have shown a reduction in feelings of isolation and loneliness, cultivation of empathic skills, rehabilitation of self-image and self-confidence, with improvement in orientation towards reality in general [6]. Utilising AAT in patients with schizophrenia has also shown a decrease in negative symptoms, particularly anhedonia. ...
Article
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A meta-analysis was conducted to determine the efectiveness of Animal Assisted Therapy procedures (AAT) on the communication and social skills of several categories of individuals. The inclusion criteria for the articles were: (1) to be published in English, (2) to cover the AAT domain, (3) to utilize a control group, and (4) to offer enough data to allow the calculation of the effect size (d Cohen's) of the AAT interventions on the social and communication skills. Four studies met the selection criteria. A large effect size was found for the effects of AAT programs on improving the communication and social skills of individuals participating to the studies. Also, several variables moderating the effects of AAT were identified, such as: the type of animal used and its level of training, the method of therapy administration (i.e., individual, group or mixed), the type of measurement and the number and duration of the sessions. Further research is needed to clarify the functional mechanisms of AAT. However, the current meta-analysis indicates that AAT might function as a complementary therapy in the treatment of communication and social skills defficits.
Article
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The present work assesses the efficacy of an animal-assisted therapy (AAT) program in the reduction of neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with medium to severe dementia. Performed in an Alzheimer’s disease/dementia care unit, the intervention included 11 elderly residents aged 71 to 93 years (mean age = 82.91 years; mean Mini-Mental State Examination score = 7.8/30). Behaviors during the AAT sessions as well as pre/post intervention neuropsychiatric symptoms were examined during this 5-month weekly intervention conducted by an AAT-certified psychologist along with her dog. AAT had a positive effect on total score and caregiver distress score for several neuropsychiatric symptoms (i.e., delusion, depression, disinhibition, euphoria, and aberrant motor activity). Moreover, the ratings of the various behaviors during each session suggest that the beneficial effects of AAT appear during the first few sessions. These results support the notion that regular and long-term AAT sessions are an effective alternative to pharmacological interventions for the reduction of neuropsychiatric symptoms.
Article
Objectives. The aim of this systematic literature review (SLR) was to investigate the effect of companion animals (whether simply as pets or used in more formal intervention approaches) on the physical and mental health of older adults (aged 60+). Methods. The reviewers identified key search terms and conducted a systematic search of the PsycINFO and PubMed databases. The 70 articles reviewed were evaluated through tabular and thematic analysis. Results. In 52 of the studies examined, companion animals positively contributed to the mental and/or physical health of older adults. With respect to mental health, involvement with a companion animal improved participant quality of life and effectively attenuated symptoms of depression, anxiety, cognitive impairment, and the behavioral and psychiatric symptoms of dementia (BPSD). In relation to physical health, marked increases in physical activity and improvements in blood pressure and heart rate variability were the only consistent physical health improvements observed from companion animal interactions. Conclusions. Animal companionship can benefit the mental and physical health of older adults, although more and better controlled research on this topic is required. Clinical Implications. Use of companion animals has the potential to be an effective treatment or adjunct therapy to improve the health status and quality of life of older individuals.
Article
Aim The aim of this study was to verify dog‐assisted therapy's effectiveness on depression and anxiety in institutionalized elderly. Patients’ illness perception was examined to identify core beliefs regarding mood, personal control, and illness coherence because they can affect treatment compliance. Subjective perception of pain, social interaction, and setting‐bound observable variables were also studied. Methods This study involved a randomized sample of institutionalized patients 65 years of age and older; the treatment group had 17 subjects and the control group had 14 subjects. All patients were administered the Mini‐Mental State Examination, 15‐item Geriatric Depression Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7, Illness Perception Questionnaire, and Numeric Pain Rating Scale. Intra‐ and inter‐group data analysis was performed before and after treatment. Over the course of 10 weeks, patients participated in individual 30‐min sessions. An observational methodology was developed to record verbal and non‐verbal interactions between the elderly, the dog, and the dog handler. Results A large effect size and a statistically significant decrease in 15‐item Geriatric Depression Scale scores were identified in the treatment group. No significant differences were detected in the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and Numeric Pain Rating Scale. However, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and the Numeric Pain Rating Scale showed a moderate decrease. The Illness Perception Questionnaire's timeline (acute/chronic) and treatment control subscales showed a clinically relevant, large effect size. Conclusions Dog‐assisted therapy has proved to be effective in reducing symptoms of depression in institutionalized elderly. The increase in verbal interactions with the handlers throughout the study suggests the dog acts as a facilitator of social interaction, eliciting positive emotional responses. Dog‐assisted therapy shows promising results in the perception of illness timeline and treatment control, indicating potential enhancement of the sense of treatment‐related empowerment. However, further study is required.
Article
Over the past 20 years, a great deal of attention has been paid to the psychological and physiological impact that animals have on the lives of people with disabilities. The focus of this paper is to demystify the mechanisms that are affected as a consequence of these interactions as well as to describe the value of various types of therapeutic working animals. For human-animal interactions to become more legitimised, more rigorous empirical research needs to be undertaken to demonstrate the value of such interactions as well as the need for changes in the public policy impacting them.
Article
Objective: The study aims to determine if and how pet availability and engagement predicted depression in older adults. The prediction can be unconditional or independent of the sociodemographic characteristics of the older adult and/or conditional or dependent on the characteristics. These predictions rest on the contribution of resources pooled from older adults, their spouses, and pets, according to ecological theory. Method: The present study analyzed the effects of pet availability and engagement based on a survey of 340 older adults in Hong Kong, China. Results: Pet engagement but not pet availability manifested a significant negative effect on depression unconditionally. In addition, pet availability and engagement indicated some significant negative effects conditionally, including living with the spouse as a condition. Conclusion: For preventing depression in older adults, promoting their pet availability and engagement is promising. Particularly, the promotion would be more effective for older adults living with their spouses and being more resourceful than for others.
Article
Nowadays being healthy is understood as a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing over the absence of conditions and diseases. Animal-assisted activity (AAA) meets the actual concept of being healthy and it has been used for several years as a complementary measure to the pharmacological treatment, aiming at patient's recovery and well-being. The AAA's efficacy has been reported worldwide in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics, psychiatry, among others, proved beneficial both at physical and psychic levels of institutionalized individuals. This study aimed to identify studies published until 2013 about AAA, in 5 important databases (Bireme, Cochrane, Embase Pubmed and Scielo), using the term "Animal-assisted activity" Duplicate articles in the same database, one article written in Japanese, one in German and the articles focused on therapy assisted by animals were excluded. A total of 55 articles were found from five databases: Bireme (28), Embase (13), Cochrane (1), Pubmed (11) e Scielo (2). Only 17 articles fulfilled the pre established criteria. All displayed positive results in applying Animal-assisted activity to sick or socially isolated individuals. It was concluded that this practice, despite it's importance supporting the patient's well-being and being recognized in several countries, it is still not widely widespread scientifically.
Article
Objectives: This study assessed the attitudes and beliefs surrounding animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for the rehabilitation of children with disabilities at the Royal Children's Hospital (RCH), focusing specifically on cerebral palsy (CP), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and acquired brain injury (ABI). This was an initial step to inform future AAT research and to understand the feasibility of interventions. Design/setting/outcome measures: An online survey asking participants their opinions about the inclusion of AAT, and potential barriers to its introduction in a tertiary hospital setting was advertised on the RCH Intranet from 3 March 2015 to 3 April 2015. Results: A total of 128 participants responded to the survey request, from a range of specialties and departments. Almost all survey respondents reported that animal-assisted therapy would be helpful in the physical or behavioral management of children affected by CP (98%), ASD (99%) and ABI (96%), and 98% of survey respondents supported the inclusion of AAT in the RCH. Ninety-two percent recommended AAT in the inpatient setting and 52% of the respondents suggest that it should be administered as a pre-determined program with set activities. Additionally, qualitative responses provided suggestions that AAT should be used to provide comfort in high stress environments such as prior to medical and surgical procedures. Conclusions: The majority of staff are supportive of the inclusion of AAT in the RCH, indicating more research is needed to establish whether AAT is acceptable to children and families as part of their care.