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packaging and Handling Methods as Sources of Mechanical Damage in Tomatoes in Transit
... Due to lacking adequate storage facilities at the farm [106], farmers need to move tomatoes quickly after harvest; therefore, all kinds of vehicles are used for transporting tomatoes to markets, many of them old and unfit [101]. Ropes used to secure baskets to such vehicles result in excessive local pressure and damage to tomatoes [109]. During transportation when baskets are overfilled or transporters use only leaves to separate the baskets [101], tomatoes are crushed [109]. ...
... Ropes used to secure baskets to such vehicles result in excessive local pressure and damage to tomatoes [109]. During transportation when baskets are overfilled or transporters use only leaves to separate the baskets [101], tomatoes are crushed [109]. In addition, flexible baskets forced into inadequate spaces in a vehicle, in conjunction with vibrations and impacts due to bad road surfaces, result in the compression and damage of the tomatoes [98,109]. ...
... During transportation when baskets are overfilled or transporters use only leaves to separate the baskets [101], tomatoes are crushed [109]. In addition, flexible baskets forced into inadequate spaces in a vehicle, in conjunction with vibrations and impacts due to bad road surfaces, result in the compression and damage of the tomatoes [98,109]. ...
Reasons behind food loss can be very specific for each product and supply chain stage but
it is also affected by factors independent of the product and stage. This work focuses on such generic
factors and develops a framework to analyze food loss as a systemic outcome. The framework
highlights the interconnected nature of problem across supply chain stages and therefore
emphasizes the need to look at the whole system instead of specific stages, when proposing
solutions. Practices and underlying causes contributing to food loss are identified for each stage of
the supply chain using a literature search. Deductive logic is used to fill the gaps where literature
was found to be scarce, and to derive socio-economic indicators that signal the presence of identified
causes. Using this framework, we propose a non-exhaustive list of 30 socio-economic indicators,
which can signal the presence of the 22 practices and 60 causes associated with food loss in supply
chains. This list can serve as a starting list for practitioners and policymakers to build on when
analyzing food losses in supply chains in their region. We evaluate the framework using a fieldstudy
of a tomato supply chain in Nigeria, and conclude that it can be a useful tool to identify
practices, causes, and indicators of food loss.
... Bulk Density g/cm 3 [9] ...
... True density g/cm 3 [10] ...
... The bulk density of corchorus olitorious seeds decreases with increase in moisture content (Table 2). A decrease from 0.6965 g/cm 3 to 0.6146 g/cm 3 was observed in the moisture content range of 9.86 to 17.69% db. The decrease in bulk density at high moisture content could be explained in terms of an increase in mass due to moisture gain in the sample lower than the accompanying volumetric expansion of the seeds [14]. ...
... Idah et al. (2009) specifically studied the resonance frequency as related to prevention of damage during transportation. These workers (Raji and Oriola, 2007;Idah et al., 2007) have identified that most of the large losses encountered during distribution from farm to consumer are due to poor postharvest handling. In particular, the fruit is highly susceptible to transportation spoilage due to poor packaging ( Idah et al., 2007a). ...
... Considerable mechanical damage is inflicted, due to compression, on the packaged fruits in the distribution system ( Babarinsa and Nwangwa, 1987;Chepngeno et al., 2015). This in-transit damage (such as bruising, collision and impact) results in produce loss and low quality products at the destinations (Shirmohammadi, et al., 2011, Raji andOriola, 2007;Idah et al., 2007) with consequent financial losses. Losses occur at handling stages emphasizes the need to focus on packaging solutions required at these stages of the tomato value chain. ...
... In the 25-tonne truck, damage value in basket was 36.72 to 49.78% (Figure 3). Poor packaging methods are a common sources of mechanical damage in tomatoes during transportation (Raji and Oriola, 2007). Simulated transit studies of Olorunda and Tung (1985) on tomatoes have shown that compressive load, poor container and vibration contribute considerably to mechanical damage in the fruit. ...
In-transit damage of tomatoes packaged in plastic crate and raffia basket was evaluated in cross- regional transportation trials undertaken from Kwana
Garfan (in Kano State) to Mile 12 market (in Lagos), Nigeria. Roma tomatoes were purchased from farmers and aggregated at a collection centre
located at Kwana Garfan. There, two 25-tonne trucks were loaded with wholesome tomatoes differently packaged in plastic crate and raffia basket.
Before departure to Lagos, samples of each filled container type were strategically positioned on the respective trucks. The commercial trips (from
Kwana Garfan to Mile 12) covered a distance of 998 km, taking two (2) days. At Mile 12 market (Lagos destination), in-transit damage in delivered
tomatoes was evaluated by sorting and separating damaged fruit within sample lots of each container type. Weights of damaged fruit in each sample
container were determined for each truck. Baskets incurred high in-transit damage of 34.72% to 49.78% (with 41.12% average). The use of plastic
crate reduced this damage to a level of 4.69 to 5.24% (with 4.92% average), thereby reducing damage in crates by 88%. In trucks, loaded in 5 basket
layers, high levels, 49.78% and 45.70%, of the total damage occurred at the bottom and topmost layers (first and fifth layers respectively) of tomato
baskets while lower damage levels of 37.4%, 36.72% and 37.9% occurred at the three middle layers (second, third and fourth layers) respectively. A
follow-up trial with a 20-tonne truck carrying baskets of tomatoes from Kaduna showed the same trend of fruit damage.
Keywords: Plastic crate, raffia basket, packaging, Roma tomatoes, in-transit damage, transportation
... Abbreviations: F*CW, Four-locular tomatoes at cross wall tissue; F*L, four-locular tomatoes at locular tissue; T*CW, three-locular tomatoes being loaded at the cross wall tissue; T*L, three-locular tomatoes at locular tissue; GLM, generalized linear modeling; ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; RGB, red, green, blue; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance. always cause different degrees of bruising to tomatoes (Aworh and Olorunda, 1981; Olorunda and Tung, 1985; Mohsenin, 1986; Shanfeng, 2001; Lixin and Zhiwei, 2004; Xiaojun et al., 2007; Raji and Oriola, 2007) and the affected tissue, including cell walls, undergoes enzymatic degradation. This can result in a rapid enzymatic breakdown of the cell wall polysaccharides, observed as soft spots (bruises) on the fruit (Hetong et al., 2002; Yun et al., 2005; Linden and Baerdemaeker, 2005, Linden et al., 2008; Xiubing et al., 2009). ...
... The influencing factors mainly consist of the external factors and the internal factor. The former includes impact energy, packaging materials, method of handling and drop height, etc. (Linden et al., 2006a, 2006b; Idah et al., 2007; Raji and Oriola, 2007). ...
... always cause different degrees of bruising to tomatoes (Aworh and Olorunda, 1981; Olorunda and Tung, 1985; Mohsenin, 1986; Shanfeng, 2001; Lixin and Zhiwei, 2004; Xiaojun et al., 2007; Raji and Oriola, 2007) and the affected tissue, including cell walls, undergoes enzymatic degradation. This can result in a rapid enzymatic breakdown of the cell wall polysaccharides, observed as soft spots (bruises) on the fruit (Hetong et al., 2002; Yun et al., 2005; Baerdemaeker, 2005, Linden et al., 2008; Xiubing et al., 2009). ...
As different tomatoes have different locular cavities and a particular tomato material is inhomogeneous, the effect of tomato internal structure on its mechanical properties and degree of mechanical damage may be significant during the gripping process with robot fingers. This was studied using the loading-unloading experiment as well as the observation of shelf life. The results showed that the plastic strain energy, E p , peak force, F max and degree of elasticity, r c , were not significantly affected by the internal structure of three-locular tomato before its failure, but loading slope, r k , was. The degree of elasticity, r c and loading slope, r k , were significantly affected by the internal structure of four-locular tomato before its failure, but the plastic strain energy, E p , and peak force, F max , were not. The compressibility ε ε ε ε was the most important explanatory variable in the model of the degree of mechanical damage to tomato. The internal structure of four-locular tomato had a significant effect on its degree of mechanical damage, but the internal structure of three-locular tomato does not. Excluding the covariates, at the same compressibility, the degree of mechanical damage was greatest under the condition of F*CW and lowest for F*L their difference was 21.3%. The discrepancy of the medium degree of mechanical damage was slight under the condition of T*CW and T*L, respectively.
... From literature (Raji and Oriola, 2007;Rolle et al., 2011;Jayathunge et al., 2011;Esguerra et al., 2018) the commonly used packaging types and materials for tomato handling and transportation all over the world were identified as nestable plastic crate, plastic baskets, polyethylene sacs, cardboard box, wooden crate, steel collapsible crate and traditional woven palm basket. ...
This work evaluated plastic, wooden and carton crates and compared the best of them to traditional basket for possible adoption in safe handling and transportation of fresh tomato fruits in Nigeria. This was achieved through laboratory experiments and analysis involving static tests, simulating storage conditions (at average temperature and humidity of 28.920C and 62.08% respectively) and dynamic tests, simulating handling and transportation conditions involving dropping from different heights and vibration at different amplitudes and frequency. Based on experimental results and economic considerations, carton crate was adjudged the best and a new modified design of it was developed. The performance of the designed crate and the traditional basket presently in use in Nigeria was compared. Results of comparative predictive analysis between the carton and the traditional basket revealed that losses that can be incurred using traditional basket while on transit is about 6.25-7.08%; which can be reduced to an average of 5.71% when carton crates are used. In case of accident, the traditional method can incur an average loss of 51.59%, which can be reduced to an average of 37.88% when carton crates are used. In case of delay in travel (2-3weeks), the traditional method may lose an average of 23.81-88.10%, but this can be reduced to 14-67% when carton crates are used.
... The influencing factors mainly consist of the external factors and the internal factor. The former includes impact energy, packaging materials, method of handling and drop height, etc. ( Linden et al., 2006aLinden et al., , 2006bIdah et al., 2007;Raji and Oriola, 2007). The other is the relationship between mechanical properties and injury of tomato (Desmet et al., 2002;Devaux et al., 2005;Linden et al., 2006;Li et al., 2010). ...
... The influencing factors mainly consist of the external factors and the internal factor. The former includes impact energy, packaging materials, method of handling and drop height, etc. (Linden et al., 2006a(Linden et al., , 2006bIdah et al., 2007;Raji and Oriola, 2007). The other is the relationship between mechanical properties and injury of tomato (Desmet et al., 2002;Devaux et al., 2005;Linden et al., 2006;Li et al., 2010). ...
In order to better design, fabricate and control pear handling machine, selected physical and mechanical properties of pear fruits as related to storage. The changes in rheological properties of pears stored at 5, 15, 25 0 C and variable (fluctuating) temperature for 1 or 4 weeks were evaluated in terms of elasticity and viscosity parameters using creep tests. Whereas a four-element (Burgers) mechanical model adequately described the creep response of pears. The elasticity and viscosity parameters in creep tests in general decreased with increase in storage time both under constant and variable storage conditions. The result indicated that except the viscosity parameter of the Maxwell component of the four-element model, it was possible to describe the changes in rheological properties as a function of storage time, are better physical parameters to estimate the quality of pears.
... All sorts of variation of mechanical forces are persistently imparted to and absorbed by the packaged fruit. The resulting mechanical stresses encountered in the bulk of commodity eventually lead to spoilage [1], which directly lowers the fruit quality. An understanding of the mode of mechanical damage to the plant tissues in packaging is, therefore, a prerequisite to the establishment of any promising packaging system for them. ...
Packaged tomatoes are highly perishable and tender, and are highly susceptible to mechanical damage during road transportation due to their low resistance to externally applied forces. This contributes greatly to the transit deformation leading to the breaking point under compression force. The study related mode of mechanical damage in the fruit to the strength parameters measured at break point, using compression tests. Experimental measurements of strength parameters of packaged Roma tomatoes were made to study the effects of ripeness stage, level of vibration and container type on load, deformation and stress at break of the fruit. Tomatoes harvested at three stages of ripeness: unripe (5.6 Brix %),), half-ripe (3.9 Brix %) and full-ripe (3.2 Brix %), were packed in plastic crate and raffia basket. The packaged tomatoes were subjected to three levels of vibration: non-vibrated, low-vibration (frequency 3.7 Hz) and high-vibration (frequency 6.7 Hz). These were compressed at a loading rate of 2.50 mm/min -1 in a Universal Testing Machine. Data obtained were statistically analyzed using the SPSS 110 software package. Load and stress at break decreased significantly (P=0.05) with advancing ripeness stage of the fruit. Vibration level significantly (P=0.001) lowered deformation at break. The two-factor interactions vibration*container and vibration*ripeness were significant (P=0.001 and P=0.005, respectively) on stress at break. The results obtained increase substantially our knowledge about the properties of tomato affecting mechanical damage in the tomatoes. This enables designers of tomato packaging to control mechanical damage in packaged tomatoes with due consideration for the breaking strength of the fruit.
... The influencing factors mainly consist of the external factors and the internal factor. The former includes impact energy, packaging materials, method of handling and drop height, etc. ( Linden et al., 2006aLinden et al., , 2006bIdah et al., 2007;Raji and Oriola, 2007). The other is the relationship between mechanical properties and injury of tomato (Desmet et al., 2002;Devaux et al., 2005;Linden et al., 2006;Li et al., 2010). ...
In this paper, the mechanical properties such as dynamic coefficient of friction and mechanical properties namely firmness, hardness, resilience, fracturability, impact, bruising damage and total positive area in puncture test were determined for tomato of the commercial variety. These properties are necessary in the design of the equipment for harvesting, processing and transportation, separating and packing. The results showed that on five different surfaces, namely plywood, stainless steel, rubber, iron and carton, Coefficient of dynamic friction was increased with the increasing in tomato storage time. The largest coefficient of dynamic friction was the coefficient galvanized iron surface. The average firmness of tomato was 0.2 N/mm 2 to 3.30 N/mm 2 . Differences for effect of ripening stage sample were found: green tomatoes were stiffer than yellow tomatoes than red tomatoes. It is known that tissue failure under compression loading generally occurs due to cell wall rupture because of extreme stresses during test performance.
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