Health benefits of black rice – A review

Abstract

Rice has been a staple food across the globe since time immemorial. Generally, different types of rice, such as white, purple, red, brown, and black rice, are named following the physical appearance of the rice bran. The color of the rice bran differs due to the presence of pigments in the rice varieties. Apart from general uses like cooking and fodder for cattle, rice has also been extensively involved in the field of medicine, some of which have been scientifically addressed. Although pigmented rice varieties have a history of heritage and are admired all over the world, awareness concerning the benefits of consuming these types of rice is limited. The main theme of this research article is to define the scientifically proven medicinal properties of black rice. The health properties of black rice are experimentally renowned, and gathered empirical data regarding the physiological and pharmacological activity of black rice remarkably supports the use of black rice in nutritional therapy. Keywords: Black rice, Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, Diabetes, Dragon eyeball 100, Insulin resistance, Oryza sativa

Full text

Health benefits of black rice –Areview
Balasubramaniam Jaya Prasad
a,
⁎, Pazhaniyandi Subramania Sharavanan
b
, Rengaraj Sivaraj
c
a
Department of Botany, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar 608002, India
b
Department of Botany, Govt Arts College, Mannargudi 614001, India
c
Department of Pharmacology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar 608002, India
ABSTRACTARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received 12 May 2019
Received in revised form 21 September 2019
Accepted 29 September 2019
Rice has been a staple food across the globe since time immemorial. Generally, different types of rice, such as white,
purple, red, brown, and black rice, are named following the physical appearance of the rice bran. The color of the
rice bran differs due to the presence of pigments in the rice varieties. Apart from general uses like cooking and fodder
for cattle, rice has also been extensively involved in the field of medicine, some of which have been scientifically ad-
dressed. Although pigmented rice varieties have a history of heritage and are admired all over the world, awareness
concerning the benefits of consuming these types of rice is limited. The main theme of this research article is to define
the scientifically proven medicinal properties of black rice. The health properties of black rice are experimentally re-
nowned, and gathered empirical data regarding the physiological and pharmacological activity of black rice remark-
ably supports the use of black rice in nutritional therapy.
Keywords:
Black rice
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
Diabetes
Dragon eyeball 100
Insulin resistance
Oryza sativa
1. Introduction
Before the green revolution, pigmented rice varieties were in use as a
potential food source by the common people of India and in almost all
rice eating parts of the world. These rice varieties contain more amounts
of micro-, macro- nutrients and secondary metabolites. They are named
after the pigments present in the rice bran. Many pigmented gluey rice va-
rieties were used in the manufacture of commercial healthy food supple-
ments, due to its high secondary metabolite contents and high
antioxidant activity [1]. Owing to h igher nutritive con tent and metabolite s,
dieticians strongly advise pigmented rice for peoples with metabolic disor-
ders including diabetics [2]. Black rice comprises numerous rice varieties
with an extensive historical background on cultivation in Southeast Asian
countries such as China, India, and Thailand [3]. China and India are the
major producers of black rice, followed by Thailand, Bangladesh, Vietnam,
and Indonesia (Table 1). Anthocyanin (cyanidin-3-glucoside) turns the
color of the rice to black color and, hence it is called black rice [4,5]. The
rice kernel bran layer has a towering intensity of pharmacological com-
pounds such as γ-oryzanol, anthocyanins, phenolic, and flavonoid com-
pounds. Many studies have shown that these compounds are able to
improve the lipid profiles, are anti-inflammatory, anticancerous [6]andre-
duce oxidative stress [7], may help to fight heart disease, and prevent dia-
betes [8]. Black rice is used as a dietary supplement for the treatment of
various diseases such as diabetes, cancer, lipid disorders, and gastrointesti-
nal diseases according to the folklore medicine of India.
2. Amino acids in black rice and their role in physiological action
Nitrogen contributes the necessary safeguards for life and this is
donated by amino acids [9]. A deficiency of amino acids in the diet
Grain & Oil Science and Technology 2 (2019) 109–113
⁎Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jaya.prasad46@yahoo.in. (B.J. Prasad).
Table 1
Top ten rice producing countries in the world according to the Economic Research
Service, United States Department of Agriculture 2017/2018.
S. No. Country Rice production (in million metric tons)
1 China 148.87
2 India 112.91
3 Indonesia 37.01
4 Bangladesh 32.65
5 Vietnam 28.47
6 Thailand 20.37
7 Burma 13.21
8 Philippines 12.24
9 Brazil 8.21
10 Japan 7.79
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2019.09.005
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results in decreased production of protein and then leads to nutritional
imbalance. It is necessary to find the amino acids content of food for bet-
ter health [10]. Moreover, rapamycin complex 1 pathway is directly re-
lated to the growth of bone, muscles, internal organs, immune factors,
and the energy balance of a person and it is gracefully responsive to
amino acid accessibility. An imbalance of amino acid results in stunted
growth [11]. Amino acids have a chief responsibility of adapting numer-
ous functions connected to gene expression, which includes modulation
of the physiology of the proteins that intervene and messenger RNA
(mRNA) conversion [12].
Black rice contains superior protein and essential amino acids com-
pared with ordinary rice [13]. Amino acid and the mineral content of
black rice (Dragon eyeball 100, Heukjinjubyeo, Heukgwangbyeo,
Heuknambyeo, and Josaengheukchal) and white rice (Hwayoungbyeo).
Comparatively, high amino acid contents (ng /mg of rice) were
found in Heuknambyeo (black rice variety), in which alanine (53.45
± 0.34), arginine (55.76 ± 0.30), asparagine (242.89 ± 0.16),
aspartic acid (107.53 ± 0.14), glutamine (14.90 ± 0.09), glutamic
acid (193.81 ± 0.09), glycine (21.72 ± 0.03), histidine (16.29 ±
0.01), isoleucine (5.27 ± 0.01), leucine (5.72 ± 0.01), lysine (10.39
± 0.03), methionine (6.70 ± 0.00), phenylalanine (6.97 ± 0.00),
proline (28.57 ± 0.07), serine (29.27 ± 0.07), threonine (11.61 ±
0.07), tyrosine (11.72 ± 0.01), and valine content was found to
be (15.79 ± 0.02), whereas cysteine and tryptophan were found
to be absent. Among these asparagines, aspartic acid and glutamic
acid were found to be high when compared with other amino
acids [14].
Amino acids play a vital role in body development via protein
metabolism. Excess amino acids are converted into ammonia by the re-
movaloftheaminegroupintheliver.Theyplayakeyroleinanindivid-
ual's diet in modifying risk to pre-diabetes [15]. The organic acids are
changed to glucose (gluconeogenesis) or are used directly in metabolism.
However, glutamate is deaminated in the kidneys [16]. Asparagine syn-
thetase makes the amino acid asparagine, which is needed to make pro-
teins in the cells. Drugs that alter the availability of asparagine in the
body might also be useful to treat sarcomas with mutant forms of Ras
[17]. By silencing the activity of asparagine synthetase, amidotransferase
suppress the tumor growth in a molecular genomic sequencing screen of
rat tumor cells generated by oncogenic Kras and interruption of Cdkn2a
[18]. Asparagine-linked glycosylation has appeared to be indispensable in
controlling the enzymatic modification of protein to the channels con-
nected to the plasma membrane functioning properties [19]. Aspartic
acid stimulates the production of Streptomyces platensis, which in turn pro-
duces antibiotics [20].
3. Phyto-chemical profiles of black rice
Phytochemical profiling of methanolic crude extract of black rice
bran powder consists of glycoside, steroid, phenol, protein, carbohy-
drate, tannin, phlobatannin, terpenoid, alkaloid, and flavonoid [21].
Anthocyanin pigment is the major content of black rice [22]. Previ-
ously,manyresearchershavefoundthefreeradicalquenchingability
of black rice using in vitro and in vivo models [23,24]. Fig. 1 illustrates
that phenolic and flavonoid compounds such as cyanidin-3-glucoside,
which is responsible for the black color of the rice, malvidin 3 gluco-
side, cyanidin-3-rutinoside, γ-aminobutyric acid, peonidin 3 gluco-
side, cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, and petunidin-3-glucoside were
found to be higher in black rice than in the normal rice varieties
[25–28]. Moreover, cyanidin-3-glucoside constitutes 80% of the
total anthocyanin content of black rice [29].
4. Scientifically proven health benefits of black rice
There are many other terrestrial and marine medicinal plants
pharmacological activities are also reported previously by many re-
searchers [30–34]. But this article is in the review of black rice, we
havefocusedonlyonthescientifically proven pharmacological activ-
ities of black rice. Black rice has been proven scientifically for its var-
ious pharmacological activities. Research has also confirmed the
antioxidant activity [35–41], antitumor [42], anti-inflammatory
[43], antiproliferative [44], anticancer [44,45], anti-diabetes and
hyperlipidemia [46–48], and anti-atherosclerosis activity [49,50]
of black rice, the cholesterol and lipid metabolism [51], and the ty-
rosinase inhibitor activity [52]. All this may be due to the presence
of the secondary metabolites present in it. α-Glucosidase and α-amy-
lase are the key enzymes directly linked to the postprandial glucose
level and the anthocynanin isolated from the black rice inhibits the
aforesaid enzyme levels; thus, it could be used in the management
of diabetes [53,54]. Germinated black rice possesses stronger antidi-
abetic and antioxidant activity than the normal black rice extract
[55].
Black rice extract reduces the glycemic index more than wheat
flour, and reduces the level of α-glucosidase more than the standard
drug acarbase [56]. Cyanidin-3-glucoside content present in the
Stevia rebaudiana leaf extract also possessed strong antioxidant and
antidiabetic activity [57]. Fig. 2 represents mechanism of action of
cyanidin-3-O-glucoside ameliorates palmitate-induced insulin resis-
tance. Cyanidin-3-glucoside proficiently ameliorates oxidative dam-
age, inflammation, metabolic dysfunctions, apoptosis pathways,
and controls diabetic cardiomyopathy. From these, it can be con-
cluded that cyanidin-3-glucoside, an anthocyanin compound, is ca-
pable of controlling diabetes [58]. Intestinal epithelium actively
contributes to the mucosal immune system. TNF-αand interferon
are the inflammatory causing agents in the intestine [59]. The
movement of leukocytes in the inflamed region of the intestine cre-
ates an unbalanced response to the microorganisms and causes
chronic inflammatory bowel disease [60]. Anthocyanins present in
the natural form can reach the colon of the intestine and it could
be the appropriate candidates for nutritional therapy for the gastro-
intestinal tract disorders [61]. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside modulates
the inflammation that appears in the intestinal cell lines and, thus,
itcouldbeeffectiveinthemanagement of chronic gut inflammatory
diseases [62].
Skin cancer is found to be more common in the developed coun-
tries; ultraviolet radiation (UV) disrupts the immune mechanism and
promotes skin carcinogenesis. UV radiation causes inflammation to
the surface, which in turn mediates the phosphorylation of protein ki-
nases [63] and damages the DNA level [64] by the increased produc-
tion of reactive oxygen species in the form of cyclobutane
pyrimidine dimmers [65]. External application of cyanidin-3-O-glu-
coside inhibits the UV-caused epidermal thickening and decreases
the mRNA and protein expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen
andcyclinbyregulatingUV-inducedinflammation-mediated signal-
ing pathways such as phosphorylation of extracellular-signal-related
protein kinases, stress-activated protein kinases [66]. Anthocyanins
immersed in the intestine might be distorted as phenolic acids via
gut microbial ring cleavage, dehydroxylation, and methylation reac-
tions [67]. These phenolic acids have been proven to motivate the
growth of beneficiary bacteria and restrain the production of harmful
bacteria [68]. Bifidobacteria and lactobacilli are the intestinal bacte-
ria that are beneficiary to humans and animals; they are proven
probiotics [69].Anthocyaninisolatedfrompurplesweetpotatoin-
duces the growth of the beneficiary bacteria present in the human in-
testine [70]. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside connects with β-glucoside and
provides energy to the bacteria and results in the enhanced growth-
like prebiotic activity [71]. Anthocyanins are the chemical com-
pounds that can reach the brain [72] within 10 min as soon as it
reaches the stomach [73] and gets accumulated in the cerebellum,
cortex, hippocampus, and striatum [74]andintheratbrain[75].
Cyanidin-3-glucoside enhances exercise performance by up-regulat-
ing the skeletal muscle peroxisome proliferators activated receptor-
gamma co-activator [76].
B.J. Prasad et al. Grain & Oil Science and Technology 2 (2019) 109–113
110

5. Conclusion
Black rice is one of the traditional rice varieties which have been used in
most of the Southeast Asian countries. It consists of a variety of micro and
macro nutrients, amino acids, phytochemicals, and secondary metabolites.
A number of scientific studies have discussed about the anthocyanin con-
tent and its derivatives cyanidin-3-O-glucoside. Black rice possesses various
pharmacological properties and, moreover, the amino acid in it gives com-
plete nourishment. Awareness among the public toward consuming black
rice will give way for a healthier life.
Declaration of competing interest
Authors declare that they do not have any conflict of interest.
Acknowledgement
Author Balasubramaniam Jaya Prasad would like to thank Department
of Science and Technology, Government of India, for providing INSPIRE
Fellowship and authorities of Annamalai University for providing necessary
support.
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside Malvidin-3-glucoside
Cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside Peonidin-3-glucoside
Cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside Petunidin-3-glucoside
-Amino butyric acid
Fig. 1. Major bioactive compounds in black rich which are have number of health benefits to humans.
B.J. Prasad et al. Grain & Oil Science and Technology 2 (2019) 109–113
111

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