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The Albanian scientific diaspora: can the brain drain be reversed?
Abstract
Albania has one of the highest rates of emigration in recent decades in the world, part of which includes a substantial scientific diaspora, defined here as PhD-holders and PhD students currently living and working abroad. This article seeks answers to two sets of questions. First, what are the characteristics of this diaspora in terms of size, location, education, employment, and social capital? Second, what are the prospects for this brain drain to be reversed? What conditions would need to be in place for more scientists and professionals to return? Insights into these questions are gained via three methods: an online survey of 725 Albanian PhDs working and studying abroad; follow-up interviews with some of them, including representatives of diaspora organisations; and a small survey of human resource managers in Albanian universities. The Albanian scientific diaspora is relatively young, mainly located in OECD countries yet highly mobile between them, diverse in terms of field of study, and mainly employed in universities and research institutes. Members of the diaspora maintain close links to Albania, yet only a small minority realistically foresee return, due to a combination of economic and political obstacles.
... We deploy two main research instruments: an online survey, answered by 651 Albanian students studying abroad, and follow-up interviews with 21 such students. Given our key finding that large numbers of students do not intend to return to Albania, we suggest that this loss of highly educated young people constitutes a putative brain drain to be added to the already-studied brain drain of PhD-holders (Gëdeshi and King 2021). ...
... We do so for two reasons. First, the notion of brain drain is often used in Albania when referring to the widespread desire of highly educated young people, including students, to leave the country (Gëdeshi and King 2021;Trimçev 2005). Second, we qualify the term by adding 'potential': if the students who are studying abroad do not (intend to) eventually return, then their emigration indeed turns into a brain drain. ...
... According to Eurostat data, in 2014 Albania spent 3.3 per cent of its GDP on education (all levels), whereas the average for the EU countries was 5.3 per cent; this difference is all the more significant when we realise that Albania has a much lower GDP. In the meantime, the emigration of many of the younger, more energetic and talented university staff has further diminished the capacity of Albanian universities to deliver a high-quality product (Gëdeshi and King 2021). ...
... The second dimension is the positive role that academic and scientific diasporas can play in the development of their home countries -e.g. through short research and training visits and the formation of scientific research networks -without an actual return taking place (Gëdeshi and King 2021;Newland and Plaza 2013). The third scenario is a bit more tricky to explain but one version of the so-called "beneficial brain drain hypothesis" involves the spillover effects of training for brain emigration whereby an extra supply of trained scientists, academics and specialized professionals (e.g. ...
... Often the outcomes are limited in practice and the alternative, oncetraditional but now-reaffirmed interpretation holds firm, namely that, in the contemporary globalized and mobilized labor market for high-level skills, brain drain is one of the mechanisms through which poorer countries aid the further development of rich countries (King 2018). Moreover, as the evidence from Albania confirms, the conventional pay-back from migration to the home country via remittances is likely to be extremely limited in the case of brain drain, because most of these highly educated migrants come from middleclass, urban families who have no need of remittances (Gëdeshi and King 2021). ...
... The drivers of this potential brain drain are clear from the survey responses and they broadly confirm the findings of similar surveys in adjacent countries such as Albania (Gëdeshi and King 2021;King and Gëdeshi 2020) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Begović et al. 2020). Key push factors are low wages and standards of living, lack of promotion possibilities based on merit, and political corruption. ...
... This should target particularly students of disciplines, which are in high demand on the labor market, such as in the STEM fields or medicine. Research studies about international student migration therefore focus often on the motives of students for studying abroad (King & Raghuram 2013, Thieme et al., 2014, Gëdeshi & King, 2019 and their choice for a specific country of study and field of study (Raghuram, 2013, Bijwaard & Wang, 2013. However, it can be assumed that international students are also essential contributors to the development of their countries of origin after they finished their studies abroad. ...
... Some theoretical papers and empirical studies already indicated -yet only based on smaller case studies -that international student migration can have these positive impacts on the home countries in the long run if students take over leading positions in the economy, politics, or academia in their home countries after their return from studying abroad (cf. King & Raghuram, 2013, Thieme et al., 2014, Gëdeshi & King, 2019. For instance, a survey of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) revealed that over two-thirds of scholarship holders returned to their country of origin after graduation, and almost 90 percent of them perform a developmental relevant activity (DAAD, 2011). ...
... Guissé & Bolzman, 2015, Lin & Kingminghae, 2017, as we also learned from our study. In order to create attractive job perspectives after studying, either in academia or in private enterprise, which are the most important drivers for decision making of international students (Raghuram, 2013, Gëdeshi & King, 2019, the scholarship programs should be accompanied by financial support for the country of origin. In this sense, a university place abroad could be, for instance, co-funded by a company subsidiary in the country of origin with the perspective or guarantee of a job at this company directly after graduation. ...
International students are conceived as essential contributors to the development of their countries of origin after they finished their studies abroad. Political decision-makers of the countries of origin therefore take measures that students will eventually return to their home countries and bring back their gained knowledge and consequently contribute to development back home. However, is a return always the best way to contribute to development in the country of origin or can international graduates contribute equally from abroad or through their high mobility between different countries? This article aims to address this question on the basis of an intensive three years mixed-methods-based investigation in six countries – Germany as country of study and Colombia, Georgia, Ghana, Indonesia and Israel/Palestinian territories as countries of origin. We investigated a specific German scholarship program, which gives scholarships to international students from the Global South to study in Germany. Although a return to the country of origin is a precondition for the scholarship, our study indicates that not only return migration, but also remains and circular migration can create beneficial circumstances that former students practice diverse development-related functions and therefore contribute to the development in their country of origin in a specific way. Here, it is important to recognize that scholarship programs do not only offer the opportunity to fund studying abroad, but they can be also designed for the needs of scholars during, before and after their studies, which would also benefit their developmental contributions.
... Regarding other demographic characteristics of the survey respondents, there are roughly equal numbers of men (46.2%) and women (53.8%), and 63.7% of them are married, some of them to a non-Albanian spouse (which decreases the propensity to return to Albania in the future). These overall features -a young and dynamic medical diaspora, gender-balanced -reflects the broader picture of the Albanian scientific diaspora (defined as PhD-holders) revealed in an earlier survey (King and Gëdeshi 2021). ...
... Low salaries in Albania are an issue, but more important, according to our survey respondents and interviewees, are working conditions, prospects for career development, the overall social and political environment in Albania, characterised by widespread nepotism and corruption, and the general feeling that 'there is no future in Albania'. These factors are not unique to doctors but have been found to be equally relevant to the Albanian population as a whole in its views and experiences of migration King and Gëdeshi 2021). ...
Taking the case of Albania, in this paper we present data on the brain drain of medical doctors and what can be done to prevent it. Globally, the demand for doctors and other healthcare professionals is rising fast due to ageing populations and also, in Europe especially, the ageing of the population of doctors. Like other Western Balkan countries, but to a greater extent, Albania ‘loses’ a large share of its medical students and young doctors to more advanced EU and OECD countries, especially Germany and Italy. We present survey (N=301) and interview (N=25) data on Albanian doctors living and working abroad in order to profile their socio-demographic characteristics, reasons for emigrating, professional and social experiences abroad, and prospects for returning to Albania. Crucially, more than a half of survey respondents do not wish to return to Albania, and a further one third are undecided. They are, however, keener to share their expertise with their home country in other forms of cooperation and mobility which do not involve a long-term return. The obstacles to return are seen not so much as economic as relating to the poor quality of the working environment and uncertain opportunities for professional development in Albania. Also highlighted as a barrier to return is Albania’s social and political system and endemic corruption. Policies are suggested to both stem the outflow of doctors and promote the return of those abroad – but these are much easier said than done.
... Regarding other demographic characteristics of the survey respondents, there are roughly equal numbers of men (46.2%) and women (53.8%), and 63.7% of them are married, some of them to a non-Albanian spouse (which decreases the propensity to return to Albania in the future). These overall features -a young and dynamic medical diaspora, gender-balanced -reflects the broader picture of the Albanian scientific diaspora (defined as PhD-holders) revealed in an earlier survey (King and Gëdeshi 2021). ...
... Low salaries in Albania are an issue, but more important, according to our survey respondents and interviewees, are working conditions, prospects for career development, the overall social and political environment in Albania, characterised by widespread nepotism and corruption, and the general feeling that 'there is no future in Albania'. These factors are not unique to doctors but have been found to be equally relevant to the Albanian population as a whole in its views and experiences of migration King and Gëdeshi 2021). ...
Taking the case of Albania, in this paper we present data on the brain drain of medical doctors and what can be done to prevent it. Globally, the demand for doctors and other healthcare professionals is rising fast due to ageing populations and also, in Europe especially, the ageing of the population of doctors. Like other Western Balkan countries, but to a greater extent, Albania ‘loses’ a large share of its medical students and young doctors to more advanced EU and OECD countries, especially Germany and Italy. We present survey (N=301) and interview (N=25) data on Albanian doctors living and working abroad in order to profile their sociodemographic characteristics, reasons for emigrating, professional and social experiences abroad, and prospects for returning to Albania. Crucially, more than a half of survey respondents do not wish to return to Albania, and a further one third are undecided. They are, however, keener to share their expertise with their home country in other forms of cooperation and mobility which do not involve a long-term return. The obstacles to return are seen not so much as economic as relating to the poor quality of the working environment and uncertain opportunities for professional development in Albania. Also highlighted as a barrier to return is Albania’s social and political system and endemic corruption. Policies are suggested to both stem the outflow of doctors and promote the return of those abroad – but these are much easier said than done.
... Negative consequences of migrations (brain drain) cannot and will not be stopped. On the other side, there are scholars (Aarhus and Jakobsen, 2019; Gëdeshi, and King, 2021) who talk about beneficial "brain drain" which can generate economic and social benefits for sending states. ...
... Негативне последице миграција (одлив мозгова) не могу се и неће се зауставити. Постоје, међутим, истраживачи (Gëdeshi & King, 2021; Aarhus & Jakobsen, 2019) који говоре о корисном "одливу мозгова", који може да генерише економске и социјалне користи за матичне државе. ...
The paper provides an overview of both social and monetary diaspora remittances and their societal and economic impacts. Since migration is never a sole "muscle drain" (labor power drain), but always to a certain extent a "brain drain", the study analyzes possible effects of high-skilled international migration (highly-skilled diaspora). In addition, the pros and cons of monetary remittances are summarized and analyzed. Being among the countries with the largest Diasporas relative to the total nation's population, Serbia represents a rich case study for societal and economic impacts of social and monetary diaspora remittances.
... osoba) ekvivalentan 43,6% stanovništva, jer u Albaniji živi 2,9 miliona ljudi. Ovaj omjer je 17. po veličini na svijetu (Gëdeshi & King, 2019), a unutar Evrope vode samo Crna Gora (45,4%, 15. mjesto) i Bosna i Hercegovina (44,5%, 16. mje-sto). Generalno, zemlje koje su u razvoju, s nižim-srednjim prihodom i koje su geografski i populacioni male, imaju problem i situaciju da se u njih ne vraća intelektualni ni profesionalni kapital. ...
... To također podrazumijeva stvaranje bolje okruženje za ovakvu saradnju i veću podršku. Naime, paralelno s unapređenjem političke volje i administrativnih kapaciteta, uspjeh ovakve akcije zahtijeva i reforme na univerzitetima i istraživačkim institucijama, kako bi se kreirala efikasnija naučna zajednica koja je sposobna da implementira zajedničke projekte i/ili istraživačku razmjenu, kao i uspostavila mreža s adekvatnim institucijama iz inostranstva (Gëdeshi & King, 2019). ...
... If there is one phrase that encapsulates both the decision to leave and the reluctance to return, it is that 'there is no future in Albania'. These factors are not unique to doctors but have been found to be equally relevant in surveys we have carried out on the Albanian population as a whole (King and Gëdeshi 2020) and of specific segments of the population such as the 'scientific diaspora' of PhD-holders (Gëdeshi and King 2021) and university students . ...
Across many countries of Central and Eastern Europe the emigration of skilled professionals since 1990 has become a serious problem of the loss of specialised human capital. This paper on Albanian doctors is one of the first to study in depth an example of this broader phenomenon of brain drain from the CEE region. There is a global demand for medical doctors which exceeds supply, leading to international competition in which the richer countries, with higher salaries and better working conditions, attract medical graduates and trained doctors from poorer countries. The migration of doctors from Albania is set within this globalised and hierarchised market for medical expertise. On the one hand, the movement of doctors to richer countries helps to plug the deficit in their supply in such countries and enables the individuals concerned to improve their incomes and life conditions. On the other hand, the loss of medical professionals severely harms the structure and quality of the health service in the sending country. This paper addresses three main questions. First, what are the characteristics of the Albanian medical brain drain in terms of its size, socio-demographics and destination countries? Second, what are the causes and consequences of Albania's loss of medical doctors? Third, what are the prospects of the migrant doctors returning to Albania or contributing their expertise from abroad? Answers are provided via a dual methodology of an online survey of Albanian doctors currently working abroad (N=301) and follow-up interviews with 25 of them. More than half of the survey respondents do not intend to return to Albania and a further third are undecided. Interview data indicate that the doctors are well-integrated abroad and see 'no future' for themselves and their families in Albania. There is, however, a greater willingness to share expertise with the home country via cooperation and short visits. Obstacles to return are partly income-related but, to a greater extent, reflect the poor working conditions and career prospects in Albania, including endemic corruption-the same factors that caused emigration in the first place. The policy implications of our findings are challenging; one solution is to mandate a period of work in Albania for newly qualified doctors before they are allowed to go abroad.
... When compared to the broader European context, living conditions in Albanian villages are frequently harsher than anywhere else. One significant factor contributing to this is the pervasive phenomenon of migration, which reemerged with vigorous intensity following the downfall of the Communist regime (GËDESHI & King, 2019). The emigration has significantly undermined the socio-economic fabric of the country, leading to a substantial weakening. ...
The municipality of Finiq, located in the Vlorë region, is an administrative division that encompasses multiple small towns and provides local government services such as public works, education, and health services. It is well known for its scenic landscapes and natural beauty, including forests, hills, and rivers which have the potential to drive economic growth through tourism. In addition, the proximity to Saranda and Greek regions could help to perceive tourism as a catalyst for economic regeneration. However, the lack of adequate infra- structure and appropriate services for both tourists and local communities does not facilitate this growth process in many villages of the municipality. Despite the various administrative and governmental efforts, orientated at aligning their intentions and actions with the goals of supranational European projects, they often require very long timelines to be realized. Furthermore, within the Feniq municipality, the most important cultural and archaeological attractions, often related to ancient times, are located in natural areas outside the existing urban center. This geographical location may cause a "bypass" effect where tourists do not visit the city center and negatively impact its economic growth. This phenomenon suggests that, on one hand, tourists will not be able to comprehend the authentic identity of local cultures, and on the other hand, small towns within the Finiq municipality may not realize optimal economic advantages from tourism. This process is also encouraged by the qualitative conditions of the towns, which are characterized by numerous buildings with a high degree of degradation and a constant presence of urban voids. Urban voids refer to abandoned or underutilized urban areas that do not meet the needs of local communities and represent a loss of economic, social, and environmental potential. These areas can be the result of factors such as economic recession, deindustrialization, or population migration to more prosperous areas. A key role in the regeneration of such areas does not only involve the design of adequate open urban spaces but also the redevelopment of buildings that face them and, in particular, their façades, which assume a public connotation in that context regardless of the building's use. The redevelopment of buildings’ façades that face these urban voids can play a crucial role in urban regeneration by increasing urban quality, identity, and tourist flows. These façades represent architectural backdrops that, if adequately redeveloped, contribute to triggering re- generative processes by increasing urban quality, and on the other hand, enhance the towns’ identity, strengthening, at the same time, the tourist flows. This contribution aims to investigate the role played by the façades in the urban regeneration process, showcasing international examples that emphasize it. The study explores how the implementation of successful international strategies in redeveloping existing facades on urban voids can help to overcome the challenges facing the Finiq municipality and drive eco- nomic growth through urban regeneration. The findings of this study will provide valuable insights into the role of buildings’ façades redevelopment that faces existing urban voids in promoting sustainable urban regeneration.
... Bu oran dünyadaki en yüksek 17. orandır ve bu oranı Avrupa içinde yalnızca, pek çok göçmenin -aslında iç göçmen olduğu-yeni bağımsız iki ülke olan Karadağ (%45,4) ve Bosna-Hersek (%44,5) geride bırakmıştır. Eski Yugoslavya içinde yükseköğrenim görmüş göçmenlerin payına bakıldığında, Arnavutların %31,3'lük rakamı dünya sıralamasında 15'inci sırada yer aldığı görülmektedir (Gëdeshi & King, 2021). ...
Son zamanlarda popüler bir kavram olan beyin göçü, eğitimli, yetkin ve
nitelikli insan kaynağının doğdukları ülkelerini terk edip başka bir ülkeye
yerleşmesi ve bilgi, beceri ve tecrübesini yerleştiği yeni ülkede ifa etmesini
açıklamaktadır. Dünyanın her yerinde eğitimli ve yetkin profesyonel işgücüne
ihtiyaç vardır. Gelişmiş ülkelerdeki daha iyi yaşam standartları, daha yüksek
ücretler, ileri teknolojiye erişim ve daha istikrarlı siyasi koşullar, daha az
gelişmiş bölgelerden yetenekli ve eğitimli bireyleri kendine çekmektedir.
Beyin göçünün çoğunluğu gelişmekte olan ülkelerden gelişmiş ülkelere doğru
olmaktadır. Bu durum, gelişmekte olan ülkeler için artan bir endişe kaynağıdır.
Ülkelerin en değerli varlığı bilgili, yetkin ve erdemli beşeri sermayesidir; yani
beyin gücüdür. Kalkınma, ilerleme ve refah beşeri sermaye ile mümkün olur.
Gelişmekte olan ülkelerden yetkin, kalifiye ve eğitimli bireylerin gelişmiş
ülkelere göç etmeleri istenmeyen bir durumdur. Beyin göçü olarak ifade edilen
bu durum son yıllarda dünya genelinde ve Türkiye’de önemli ve tartışmalı bir
konu olmuştur.
... Bu oran dünyadaki en yüksek 17. orandır ve bu oranı Avrupa içinde yalnızca, pek çok göçmenin -aslında iç göçmen olduğu-yeni bağımsız iki ülke olan Karadağ (%45,4) ve Bosna-Hersek (%44,5) geride bırakmıştır. Eski Yugoslavya içinde yükseköğrenim görmüş göçmenlerin payına bakıldığında, Arnavutların %31,3'lük rakamı dünya sıralamasında 15'inci sırada yer aldığı görülmektedir (Gëdeshi & King, 2021). ...
... At the same time, there is no obvious 'silver bullet' to settle this problem. Albania is still locked in the phase of on-going large-scale migration (Gëdeshi & King, 2021;King & Gëdeshi, 2019). In addition to high unemployment, endemic corruption, the unfavourable business climate, informal markets, lowstandard education and health services and widening socio-economic and spatial differences, the Covid-19 pandemic has added to these structural push factors. ...
The Covid-19 pandemic created economic turmoil and impacted various areas of life all over the world. One of the major socio-political aspects of this global crisis consisted of border closures and lockdowns imposed by governments. Migrant workers have been one of the most affected groups, because they are over-represented in vulnerable occupations and among workers with short-term labour contracts; hence, they are among the first to be laid off. Dependent for 30 years now on the financial capital coming from diverse types of migration – seasonal migration, circular mobility and remittances from international migration – the economy of Albania was negatively impacted by the consequences of these changes. Many migrant workers had to return to their country of origin and face the precarious situation from which they had already left. A lot of seasonal and circular migrant workers were trapped and could not emigrate. Outward mobility shrank or was postponed because of travel bans. The more significant consequences were experienced by seasonal migrants who are used to generating incomes through temporary work and who were unable to continue doing so due to being stuck in Albania. The fall in remittances during this period was partially caused by the strong impact that the crisis had on emigrant workers, be they temporary or permanent: the measures that prohibited many economic activities in the host countries; the difficulties of transferring money; as well as a significant portion of remittances normally making their way to Albania through informal channels.
... Despite the limited interaction with the private sector and other STI stakeholders, a key finding of our analysis is that there is a significant number of members of the diaspora who expressed an interest in maintaining contact and contributing scientifically to Costa Rica. Previous studies have highlighted that research on the needs and perceptions of the diasporas has been lacking and might be key to determining future policies directed at engaging with them (Séguin et al., 2006;Gëdeshi and King, 2019). To contribute to this specific gap, we analyzed the responses to four questions seeking recommendations from the diaspora on initiatives to support talent abroad, as well as incentives to retain scientific talent in the country and resolve the development needs of specific scientific areas. ...
Scientific diasporas have been identified as valuable resources to strengthen science, technology, and innovation in their countries of origin. In this context, our paper seeks to contribute by addressing the following research questions: What are the main features of the Costa Rican scientific diaspora, and what policy lessons can be extracted from their experiences abroad? Toward this goal, we analyzed ten years of diaspora perspectives as collected by TicoTal, an online database and network of Costa Rican scientists studying and working abroad created by the National Academy of Sciences (ANC) in 2010. Our study reveals the main features of the Costa Rican scientific diaspora using 121 interviews published over a ten-year period: we identified the academic areas in which the diaspora has specialized, the countries where they were trained, their current location, the most frequent funding mechanisms and sources that enabled professional opportunities abroad, the level of engagement and collaboration they maintain with the Costa Rican STI ecosystem, along with the incentives they consider important to support and harness the potential of this community to advance STI goals in the country. Results from this analysis can inform national policies and investment strategies in R&D infrastructure and resources, by providing a roadmap to engage with scientific diasporas and benefit from their training and talent, as well as guide future scholarship and exchange programs.
... This article will focus on the diaspora that migrates for scientific purposes: to advance their scientific career or to work in sectors requiring specialized, scientific skills. Gëdeshi and King (2019) describe as scientific diaspora a country's scientific talent moved abroad, including those who obtain high level training abroad. From a transnational approach, the scientific diaspora refers to highly qualified migrants who not only acquire knowledge in the host country, but also contribute to their homeland, becoming agents of development facilitating knowledge, connections and technology transfer (Tejada, 2007). ...
The current knowledge society has driven an unprecedented mobility of people, especially scientists, from emerging economies to developed countries. This mobility can allow the development of human talent and the access to first class infrastructure and resources, but it can also mean a loss for emerging economies due to the phenomenon of brain drain. To counteract this situation, some countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have developed models for the articulation of their scientific diaspora in projects and programs, with the aim of exchanging knowledge and capitalizing on human and technical resources to advance science, technology and innovation systems. Likewise, science diplomacy has become a tool for interlinking the work of various actors in order to advance the solution of national, transnational or global problems through scientific advice. Scientific diasporas are vital in new structures of cooperation, enabling them to innovate and solve problems jointly, advising their countries of origin and articulating policies and programs. This research seeks to analyze the interactions and initiatives identified between the organized scientific diaspora from Latin America and the Caribbean and their countries of origin in relation to science diplomacy processes, providing recommendations and proposals for public policy to improve the interaction between the diaspora and the governments of their countries of origin. Results show that diaspora organizations from Latin America and the Caribbean engage with governmental and non-state actors and are active science diplomacy stakeholders promoting the scientific developments of their country or their researchers, as well as enabling access to research resources creating alliances for scientific, institutional and academic collaborations. In the cases studied, these efforts are planned and executed by the diaspora without responding to any science diplomacy strategy of the country. Policies and programs are needed to effectively link the scientific diaspora organizations to the interests of the countries.
... Moreover, the Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI) emphasises the Attract-Grow-Retain as input pillars of a framework to be implemented by enterprises for talent management steering (Lanvin & Monteiro, 2020). According to this framework (figure 4.1), talent management is determined as the enterprise`s attempt to attract, select, develop, and retain talented employees to encounter their objectives, meanwhile its output can be differentiated among two level talents of mid (Vocational and Technical) and high (Global States, Germany, Italy and Greece, ranking it among the countries with the highest rate of migration percentage (Gëdeshi & King, 2019). However, beside this phenomenon there exist a more problematic issue, that of brain drain, the migration of scientists, engineers, talented and educated professionals to other countries to find better opportunities. ...
Firm growth and sustainability are difficult to be achieved in the early years for most start- ups, so supporting tech start-ups development is recognized as crucial part of innovation policies. Access to markets, human capital and finance are most important for the growth of entrepreneurial companies. Moreover, boosting entrepreneurs` human capital and promoting their companies to attract international venture capitalist players are key drivers to increase and sustain their growth potential and success. UK-Albania Tech Hub is a programme launched since 2017, implemented by the British Embassy in Tirana focusing on supporting Albania and the UK partnership in the technology sector. The programme aims at supporting entrepreneurship skills in Albania by boosting tech start-ups and creating opportunities to do business with the UK and the global market. This research focusses on analysing and assessing the contribution this three-year programme has had on tech start-ups development and globalisation in Albania.
Keywords: Tech Start—Ups, Innovation, Entrepreneurial Ecosystem, Knowledge Capital, Training, Exchange Programme, Globalization
In December 2023, Albania announced that its public administration would be using ChatGPT to accelerate its application to join the European Union. While digital governance scholars have frequently assessed cases involving the use of AI in the public sector, the Albanian case represents a unique study as it is among the first governments to explicitly use Generative AI in a key role within public administration. However, the proposed use-cases of translation and document summary do not directly address the real concerns withholding Albania from the EU, namely the lack of a healthy democracy typical of a post-communist state, demonstrating that the government may be succumbing to technological solutionism. This brief communication will provide background on the Albanian case, describing Albania’s historic progress with digital governance and assessing how effective ChatGPT may be in enhancing the country’s public administration. This offers digital governance researchers a base to pursue further research on the use of ChatGPT in Albania’s journey to join the EU, and the broader use of Generative AI in the public sector.
Background
In recent years, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo have witnessed a notable increase in the number of skilled individuals, including healthcare professionals, seeking employment outside the country.
Objective
This paper’s research objective is to determine the factors influencing the brain drain of young individuals who work abroad based on the migration push and pull factors of healthcare professionals in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo.
Methods
This paper combines a qualitative and quantitative research design. Data was generated via a questionnaire addressed to 300 young healthcare professionals. In addition, logistic regression was selected to evaluate future migration intentions.
Results
One of this paper’s main findings is that young healthcare professionals cannot make a sound judgment on whether remuneration in the destination country will improve their situation.
Conclusions
The absence of accounting literacy is one of the main factors in young professionals’ poor judgment. The negative correlation between home country opportunities and migration intentions appeals to significant reforms in the health care sector to deter brain drain from the Western Balkan region.
This article examines the evolution of Japan’s policy towards the community of Japanese researchers working abroad, tentatively referred to as the scientific diaspora. It traces the formation characteristics of this community in the 21st century and questions the legitimacy of recognizing it as a ‘scientific diaspora’. The article presents a periodization of Japan’s course towards the ‘scientific diaspora’, encompassing four stages. To verify the collected data, an interview with a representative of the Japanese ‘scientific diaspora’ in Russia was conducted. Among the main motives for the emigration of Japanese researchers abroad, underfunding and bureaucratization of science in Japan, an excess of non-research-related tasks, and a general decline in the international prestige of national science were identified. The authors conclude that Japan’s policy towards the ‘scientific diaspora’ until the second half of the 2010s was overshadowed by general diaspora policies. Currently, the largest organization of Japanese scientists abroad, UJAW, is under close government scrutiny. The analysis confirms the status of communities of Japanese scientists abroad as a scientific diaspora. It is established that decision-makers in scientific policy consider that scientific workers do not completely sever ties with their homeland and can contribute to achieving Japan’s strategic development goals.
This paper reports the results of empirical research into the characteristics of the Kosovan scientific diaspora. We define ‘scientific diaspora’ as persons holding a PhD or studying for one who are currently living and working abroad. This export of highly qualified talent is a major issue across the Western Balkan countries, and seems to be particularly high amongst ethnic Albanians, not only in Kosovo but also in Albania and the Albanian-speaking populations of North Macedonia and Montenegro. In the early sections of the paper, we review the history of emigration from Kosovo and trace the evolution of the debate on brain drain to argue for a shift towards considering it more in terms of a scientific diaspora which can be mobilised for supporting the home country, in this case Kosovo. The empirical heart of the paper is the presentation of findings from a dual-survey methodology: an online survey Kosovan PhD-holders and PhD students abroad (397 respondents), and a follow-up programme of interviews with 39 of the survey respondents. We find the Kosovan scientific diaspora mainly concentrated in the USA and in German-speaking European countries (Germany, Switzerland, Austria) and spread across a wide range of subjects and research specialisms. They are a young, dynamic population: three quarters of the survey sample are aged below 40. Their reasons for emigrating – poor quality of academic life in Kosovo, political and economic instability in the wider society – are the same reasons which hinder their future return. Only one-third of the survey respondents replied that they intended to return to Kosovo, although many more were undecided. By contrast a much larger share said they wanted ‘to give something back’ to their homeland by making a range of other contributions – short-term teaching assignments, research collaboration, writing joint publications etc. The Kosovan embassies could do more to encourage productive contacts with the homeland. Another suggestion is to create a comprehensive databank of Kosovan emigrants’ scientific expertise, which could be called upon to assist development objectives, both in the wider economy and society of Kosovo and in the university and scientific research sector.
Рад обухвата широко поље настанка, развоја, али и актуелног стања у високом образовању и науци у Републици Албанији. Високо образовање је у свим посткомунистичким државама огледало читавог друштва и политичко-економског стања државе, те се и у Албанији може приметити дуг еволуциони процес превирања између конзервативних и либералнијих високообразовних политика који је за последицу имао пад квалитета образовања и научног истраживања. На том путу усклађивања са светским и европским стандардима у области високог образовања и науке, рад истражује улогу Француске Републике из чега проистиче истраживачко питање: На ком нивоу су билатерални односи између Републике Албаније и Француске Републике у области високог образовања и науке,имајући у виду да је Република Албанија стални члан франкофоне организације, као и чињеницу да је удео албанског франкофоног становништва знатан? Рад ће нарочито узети у обзир мобилност
албанских студената, програме и пројекте који се спроводе на албанским универзитетима уз помоћ Владе Француске, универзитета, градова и региона, и приватних компаније, али ће обухватити и проблеме превеликог одлива образованог и радно способног становништва. Закључак ауторке је да је присуство Француске незанемарљиво, али и даље недовољно с обзиром на традиционално добре односе ових двеју држава. Од нарочитог значаја ће бити
коришћење методе анализе докумената, генеалогије, као и аналитичко-дескриптивних метода.
Higher education supports students in acquiring competences; a mix of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Experience has shown that it is precisely attitude and skills that ensure a better connection to the labor market, in whatever sector in whatever country. This article examines the developments and experiences in authentic learning environments in relation to international aspects of citizenship education. It discusses the possibilities and limitations of the use of extended reality in general and in this context. The author links this to the educational and societal developments in Albania and her home country The Netherlands, during and after COVID-19, and shares her thoughts on the needs for continuing attention on new forms of citizenship education. The pandemic makes it necessary to re-consider past self-evident interpersonal relations and international relations.
The devastating russian military invasion of Ukraine forced millions of people to flee their homes. Among those affected are highly skilled scientists, resulting in a significant loss of human capital for Ukraine, which is crucial for the post-war reconstruction. To address this pressing issue, the Young Scientists Council (YSC) at the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine launched the “Ukrainian Science Diaspora” initiative to mitigate the brain drain.The purpose of this study is to outline the first steps taken by this initiative. Moreover, it demonstrates lessons learned from the pilot meetings. The essence of the initiative is to keep links with scholars who left Ukraine and join the efforts of different migration waves of Ukrainian scientists for the further rebuilding of Ukraine. The YSC and other institutions prepared the analytical report on the needs and plans of Ukrainian scientists abroad. In addition, the paper highlights various events and activities organized by the YSC and other self-formed associations of Ukrainian scientists worldwide, working together to establish networks that could take the form of public organizations or be part of local unions of scientists. At present, efforts are focused on identifying Ukrainian scientists interested in joining this initiative, with the ultimate goal of identifying areas where Ukrainian scientists can participate in post-war reconstruction. The success of this initiative will undoubtedly play a crucial role in ensuring that Ukraine can retain its valuable human capital and continue to thrive in the face of adversity. AcknowledgmentThis study is co-funded by the European Union through the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) within the project “Europeanisation of Doctoral Studies in Line with the Innovative Doctoral Training Principles in Europe: Towards a Common Future” 101083493 – EDOCS – ERASMUS-JMO-2022-HEI-TCH-RSCH https://edocs.snau.edu.ua/en/
This chapter examines the effects of unemployment and precariousness on men’s personal identities and how these shape migrant (workers’) agency and relations within families. Drawing on the theoretical debate on job loss and masculinity that deals with the ways that unemployment affects men’s understandings of the self and family structures and relations, it analyses Albanian male migrant construction workers’ representations of their experiences during and after the Great Recession.This chapter concentrates on how unemployment impacted migrant construction workers’ well-being and which discursive practices they adopted to compensate for masculine identities. By reconsidering some of the coping practices that were analysed in Chaps. 3 and 4, this chapter also examines how the reconfiguration of labour market affected gender norms within the Albanian family and how men’s understandings shape migrants’ agency and affect marital and intergenerational relationships. Coping practices interplay with different aspects that concern male identities such as breadwinning, childcare, housework, fatherhood, and access to feminised jobs. The analysis also takes into consideration the role of migration experience in transforming gender identities and roles. Overall, this chapter fills the gap in research on migrants’ coping strategies that paid limited attention to the impact of the Great Recession on the personal identities of migrant men in construction; those workers are more heavily affected by long-term unemployment and underemployment. This chapter provides fundamental insights for a better understanding of migrant workers’ agency, adding to the interplay of decision-making factors among migrants. It also adds to our knowledge about the social change that was catalysed by the economic crisis in relation to (Albanian) migrant families in Southern Europe.
This chapter presents some characteristics of the contexts where fieldwork was conducted. First, it offers a brief historical account of Albanian emigration, pointing out contemporary migration patterns, processes, and trends. Second, it provides a snapshot of immigration policies and integration processes in Italy and Greece, as well as some information on their immigrant populations. Third, it discusses the presence of migrant labour across the European construction sector, and introduces the main characteristics of and trends in the Greek and Italian residential construction. This chapter also gives information about the research design and methods employed to collect and analyse data. It explains the reasons for which qualitative methods and techniques were used, and discusses the sampling process, the characteristics of the research participants, and the use of non-participant observation. It also reflects on the positionality of the researcher, difficulties in recruiting participants, and ethics. Some demographic and socio-economic aspects of Milan and Athens are presented. Finally, this chapter outlines the main theoretical approaches and concepts employed for the analysis of the empirical data. Classic theories to interpret migration processes at the macro-, meso- and micro-levels are provided, together with some conceptual tools that contribute to better understandings of the resources that enable or barriers that constrain migrants’ agency.
Ce travail vise à contribuer à la compréhension de la dynamique de collaboration des chimistes. Nous appréhendons le comportement collaboratif du chercheur comme non singulier et nous nous attachons à décrire sa multiplicité et son évolution au fil de la carrière scientifique. A partir d'une base de données bibliométrique originale, nous identifions et expliquons les dynamiques collaboratives via l'utilisation de données contextuelles, géographiques et sociales. Alors que beaucoup de travaux se positionnent sur l'étude de la compétitivité du chercheur au travers d'études macro, nous affinons notre perception de la carrière à partir de données micro et longitudinales dans une démarche descriptive et compréhensive. A partir de trois chapitres empiriques issus de diverses méthodologies (méthodologie mixte, économétrie des données de panel, analyse de réseaux sociaux, analyse de données), nous illustrons différentes dynamiques collaboratives reposant sur des relations sociales et des géographies particulières.
This article discusses towns in the inner areas affected by depopulation. It starts with a broad introduction to illustrate the critical issues that threaten their very existence, but also their potential and hope, and the planning capabilities that sometimes characterise the communities that inhabit them. It then describes a methodology which outlines sustainable local development processes based on knowledge, safeguarding and enhancing the cultural heritage (tangible and intangible; natural and anthropic). The aim is to contribute ideas and substantial proposals to improve the quality of life of the inhabitants of villages in the inner areas, creating new work opportunities linked to cultural and experiential tourism, strengthening the local identity and social networks. This methodology was tested as part of a research project – The Diaspora as a Resource for the Knowledge, Preservation and Enhancement of the Lesser Known Cultural Sites in Albania – carried out from 1 May 2019 to 31 July 2020 by the Interdepartmental Research Unit Florence Accessibility Lab of the University of Florence on behalf of the International Organization for Migration- IOM (the United Nations agency for migration). Members of the Albanian diaspora in Italy (university students and young architects and researchers) were part of the working group of the research, which focused on five Albanian villages situated from the north to the south of the country.
Questo articolo tratta dei paesi delle aree interne interessati dal fenomeno dello spopolamento. L’articolo si apre con un’ampia introduzione finalizzata ad illustrare le criticità che minacciano la loro stessa esistenza, ma anche le potenzialità e le speranze che esprimono e le progettualità che talvolta caratterizzano le comunità che li abitano. Successivamente è descritta una metodologia volta a delineare processi di sviluppo locale sostenibile basati sulla conoscenza, salvaguardia e valorizzazione del patrimonio culturale (tangibile e intangibile; naturale e an- tropico). L’obiettivo è quello di offrire un contributo di idee e di proposte concrete volto a migliorare la qualità della vita degli abitanti dei paesi delle aree interne, creando nuove opportunità di lavoro legate al turismo culturale e di esperienza, rafforzando l’identità locale e le reti sociali. Questa metodologia è stata testata nell’ambito di una ricerca – The Diaspora as a Resource for the Knowledge, Preservation and Enhancement of the Lesser Known Cultural Sites in Albania – svolta dal 1° maggio 2019 al 31 luglio 2020 dall’Unità di Ricerca Interdipartimentale Florence Accessibility Lab dell’Università di Firenze per conto dell’International Organization for Migration- IOM (l’Agenzia delle Nazioni Unite per la migrazione). Nel gruppo di lavoro della ricerca, incentrata su cinque villaggi albanesi situati da sud a nord del Paese, hanno prestato il loro lavoro membri della diaspora albanese in Italia (studenti universitari, giovani architetti e ricercatori).
In the economic and social aftermath of the 2008 crisis there has been an important and growing new wave of highly qualified Portuguese emigration comprising scientists. No or very few public policies have been designed to reverse this phenomenon, risking the consequences of brain drain. International literature argues that professional reasons are central to scientists’ decision to migrate, even after the 2008 crisis. Spending some time in a foreign country to study, research, or teach, is perceived as a common step in an individual academic trajectory and an advantage for a successful professional career in academia. It is also encouraged by European Union policies. Twelve individual portraits of Portuguese scientists living in central Europe reveal how important other factors are to the migration decision-making process. These factors include the economic crisis, student mobility programmes, and the current Portuguese scientific system revision.
The issue of brain drain has resurged to become an important policy concern of developing countries against the background of global talent competition. Based on a global survey covering Chinese scientists at leading universities in English academia, this paper examined the major contribution of returnees and the diaspora on China’s scientific progress between 1998 and 2006. By combining biographical and bibliometric data, the paper found that differences in the research output between domestic scientists and overseas scientists had been reduced substantially. Returnees with domestic degrees, instead of those with foreign degrees, are actually the driving force of China’s research output growth. Scientists working in China benefited greatly from international collaboration in general and collaboration with overseas Chinese in particular. This empirical study enriches our understanding of international migration in the scientific community, and helps explain China’s strategy in achieving rapid scientific development.
Diaspora knowledge networks (DKNs) — associations of highly skilled expatriates willing to contribute to the development of their origin countries — emerged in the 1990s. For mobility studies and migration policies, this meant a shift in the existing emphasis on brain drain toward a perspective on brain gain and from the physical return of people to distant though dense and continuous connections. The traditional ‘return option’ is distinguished from the ‘diaspora option’ with respect to the potentials of migration for development. Highly skilled migrants were no longer to be seen only as human capital holders to be repatriated but also as accessible social capital mediators who could potentially be mobilized in support of the country of origin (Barré et al., 2003). As new actors in the migration-development arena, DKNs have raised interests and expectations. But they have also been received with some suspicion, doubt and criticism as to their actual ability to perform a development role effectively. This chapter discusses new literature and empirical evidence from different world regions to point to the weaknesses of the DKN but also to the visible strengths. Thus it conceives of the DKN as an essential element of the migration-development nexus.
This qualitative assessment of poverty in Albania seeks to deepen the understanding of poverty in the country, first, by involving poor Albanians in a process of exploring the causes, nature, extent of poverty, and how it affects their livelihoods. Second, it is intended to support the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). Third, it supports preparation of the Country Assistance Strategy (CAS), and the Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) process. Fourth, it supports ongoing research on formal and informal institutions in the country that are relevant to poverty, and it identifies as well, emerging areas of concern. Findings suggest that poverty in the study sites, developed as a result of a weak economic base at the beginning of reform (as of 1990), worsened as the reforms continued and accelerated during the 1997 financial crisis. From household interviews, it is perceived that the causes of poverty are a result of unemployment, insufficient and low quality of land, absence of formal institutions, and marketing mechanisms to support industrial and agricultural development, and the government ' s inability to respond to infrastructure and basic needs. The study further examines the factors depressing and/or precluding (sector wide) the potential to compete, sustain livelihoods, attain employment, and receive economic and social assistance.
The growing knowledge gap between the North and the South shows the need for innovative perspectives in the study of the mobility of scientists and skilled professionals. Today, more than ever, it is obvious that there is a need to recognize the importance of science and the production of knowledge for development, the value of international cooperation and the intervention of scientific diasporas as relevant actors. As globalization and technological advances have promoted new ways of contributing from a distance, the challenge now is to find the best way to involve emigrated human capital in the scientific and socioeconomic progress of developing countries. This article offers an evidence-based analysis of the transnational practices of scientists and skilled professionals from Colombia, India and South Africa living in Switzerland, and it examines the conditions and the opportunity structures that are necessary if they are to act as agents of change in the benefit of their countries of origin.
This book draws on award-winning cross-generational research comparing the complex and life-changing processes of settlement among Albanian migrants and their adolescent children in three European cities: London (UK), Thessaloniki (Greece), and Florence (Italy). Building on key concepts from the social sciences and migration studies, such as identity, integration and transnationalism, the author links these with emerging theoretical notions, such as mobility, translocality and cosmopolitanism. Ethnic identities, transnational ties and integration pathways of the youngsters and adults are compared, focusing on intergenerational transmission in particular and recognizing mobility as an inherent characteristic of contemporary lives. Departing from the traditional focus on the adult children of settled migrants and the main immigration countries of continental North-Western Europe, this study centres on Southern Europe and Great Britain and a very recently settled immigrant group. The result is an illuminating early look at a second generation “in-the-making”. Indeed, the findings provide ample grounds for pragmatic and forward-looking policy to enable these migrant-origin youngsters, and others like them, to more fully attain their potential. The book ends with a call to reassess the term “second generation” as it is currently used in policy and scholarly works. Children of migrants seldom see themselves as a particular and homogeneous group with ethnicity as an intrinsic identifying quality. More importantly, they make use of all the limited resources at their disposal, and view their integration processes through broader geographies – showing sometimes a cosmopolitan orientation, but also using localized reference points, such as the school, city, or urban neighbourhood.
Despite a growing body of research assessing the impacts of the 1986 Renovation (Đổi Mới) Policy on labour migration, little is known about how this policy influenced the evolution of labour export and professional migration policies in Vietnam. Based on the limited literature and secondary media sources available, this article aims to sketch the landscape of work migration from Vietnam, which is the result of the government’s attempt to participate in the international arena. In attempting to map out the research landscape through a review of work migration since 1986, this paper argues that the mobilities of recent Vietnamese work migrants have been shaped by social, economic and political conditions in Vietnam. Market socialism and multilateralism dictated by the Đổi Mới and subsequent policies have encouraged an outflow of labour migration as an emerging export industry managed by the government, and self-initiated professional migration as the government’s development tool for human capacity building. While politicians claim that Vietnam’s development is compromised by brain drain, little is known about the mobilities of skilled Vietnamese migrants as well as the extent to which the outflows of work migrants bring back forces for development. As there is a tendency to include labour export and self-initiated skilled migration as an amorphous group, this article points out five ‘myths’ in the research profile of Vietnamese work migration.
While usefully underscoring return migrants’ ability to create and spread knowledge, present developmental perspective risks portraying return migrants as one homogenous group and tends to debate on outcomes while ignoring the process of knowledge use and returnees’ experience. To date, there is little documentation of returnees’ ‘emic’ perspective on what knowledge and skills they gain from the migration cycle, their idea about ‘contribution’, how they use their knowledge and skills upon return, and their experience of use of knowledge and skills after return. Moreover, literatures on Nepal have only focused on socio-economic aspects of labour migration. This study of student returnees and their experience of knowledge use provides a new perspective on the return development nexus. Based on case studies of Nepali student returnees and students studying in UK, Denmark and Sweden the paper shows a general typology of knowledge that is gained in the migration process and presents the idea of contribution from the perspective of the returnees. For them the preceding questions are on whether returnees should be expected to contribute more than others and if so, should they return physically. Lastly, the paper describes the context of returnee students’ and experience of knowledge use in Nepal.
Unlike many other groups living and working in Italy, Albanians have not gathered in communities. Moreover, only a minority of them have referred to home or diasporic media in order to recreate and sustain a positive sense of 'ethnic' belonging while living abroad. In fact, most Albanian migrants rely solely on Italian public and private television for entertainment and information. On the other hand, but in a sense consistent with the above picture, Albanian individuals and families seem to have integrated into Italian society better than many other migrant groups. They have developed family-based private networks of friendship and solidarity, which have generally increased the success of their migratory projects. Although some of these aspects can be understood as a consequence of their recent settlement in Italy, the peculiarity of Albanians' diaspora-in-the-making can be better explained by analysing the interaction between the two main roles Italian media have played in the mass migratory outflow that accompanied the process of Albanian post-communist transformation. Firstly, Italian media have articulated an aspect of Albanian people's identities that Albanian culture could not provide. Secondly, they have been the main source of information about Albanians living and working in Italy for Italians and Albanians alike, thus playing an active part in enforcing Albanian migrants' social exclusion and marginalisation.
This paper addresses the complex issue of Albanian migrants' economic and social incorporation in a Greek city, Thessaloniki. The empirical base of the research is 30 in-depth interviews with Albanian migrants. Migrants' integration is seen in a dynamic perspective, which examines different contexts of incorporation: the policy framework, the labour market context, the socio-spatial environment, and the role of social networks. Exclusion and integration of migrants in the host country are seen as dynamic processes, which may be contradictory but operate in parallel. Incorporation thus becomes the process through which immigrants, despite structural and institutional obstacles, build their lives in the host society; it is strongly conditioned by time and it may also take place-specific characteristics.
This chapter looks at transnational business investments of Ghanaian migrants in their country of origin. This helps to address two important misconceptions in the field of migration and development about how transnational investments by migrants in their country of origin actually come about. First, how migrants are actually able to achieve investments in their country of origin while they are still abroad has been too little studied. Second, while much attention is given to migrants and their abilities and incentives to realize investments in their country of origin, little attention is given to all other actors involved with these investments. notably those in the country of origin. While migrants are may be the primary financial investors, their investments are seldom realizable without strategic support from those they involve in their country of origin. In this study we look at various business investments of Ghanaian migrants in Accra, the capital city of Ghana, by zooming in on the roles of urban actors who help migrants achieve their business investments, and the social processes guiding their transnational exchanges with migrants. This helps to understand whether these investments, including how they have been set up and managed, form continuations of pre-migration social configurations, or rather transform these.
William Safran is professor of political science and director of the Center for Comparative Politics at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He is program coordinator of the Conference Groups on French Politics and Society and vice president of the Research Committee on Politics and Ethnicity of the International Political Science Association. He has written several books, including The French Polity (1977, 1979, 1985, 1991), and contributed to numerous journals and books, most recently the forthcoming Ethnic and Racial Minorities in Advanced Industrial Democracies.
This article is a revised and much enlarged version of a paper presented at the Université de Haute Bretagne, Rennes, France, in December 1988. The earlier version was published in Les Etrangers dans la ville, ed. Ida Simon and Jean-Pierre Simon (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1990). I also wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions, from which this version has benefited greatly.
1. For example, see Cobban; Shafer; Smith; Rothschild; and Enloe.
2. "Jeszcze Polska nie zginieła kiedy my żyjemy"—these are still the words of the Polish national anthem, which parallel those of "Hatikva," the Zionist and, later, Israeli national anthem: "As long as there is a Jewish soul within us . . . our eyes turn to Zion."
3. For an "inventory" of the Polish diaspora and its institutions, see Kolodziej, whose study was published under the auspices of the Cracow-based Institute for the Study of Poles Abroad.
4. See Morsy (15ff), who points out that this label is often used even for third-generation descendants of Algerian immigrants.
5. The term "Palestinian Arab" is preferred by some Israeli Jews, especially those of the older generation who remember that the term "Palestinian" was applied to the Jewish as well as the Arab inhabitants of Mandate Palestine. In Britain, the major fundraising agency in behalf of the Jewish settlers used to be called the United Palestine Appeal, and the Jerusalem Post, the English-language daily of the Jews in Israel, was, until 1948, known as the Palestine Post.
6. According to one sympathetic observer of the Palestinian condition, the focus of the Palestinians' homeland aspirations would not be Haifa (or the rest of Israel within the pre-1967 borders), "as a first step at least" (Colin Smith 5).
7. According to Zuheir Mohsen, head of the Saiqa faction of the PLO, "There are no differences between Jordanians, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese. . . . It is only for political reasons that we carefully underline our Palestinian identity." Saiqa is backed by the Syrian government.
Albanian migration can be said to represent a unique profile not matched by any other country in the world. By assessing its scale, effects and wider implications, this paper takes stock of twenty years of mass migration which have profoundly changed the country and its citizens. Statistics are set in a regional and global comparative perspective, and the chronology and evolution of this phenomenon is outlined in detail. This is done by focusing on the way that the migration process has consolidated, changed and ‘matured’ over the past two decades. Particular attention is paid to remittances as the driving-force of migration's developmental impact on the country's economy. Policy implications are hereby outlined. The paper finally introduces the four articles of this special issue on the theme of Twenty Years of Albanian Migration, by summarizing their key findings and conclusions.
Brain circulation, or more widely known as brain drain, is the term generically used to describe the mobility of high-level personnel. It is an emerging global phenomenon of significant proportion as it affects the socio-economic and socio-cultural progress of a society and a nation—and the world. In the information era we currently live in, the barriers of distance and space have been successfully conquered opening up a whole array of opportunities—and challenges—in the manner in which the whole human race communicates, lives and runs day-to-day activities. Instantaneous communication capabilities and their declining cost, massive movement of capital across borders and the expansion and dominance of multinational corporations (globalization), greater demand for talent to maintain competitiveness and replenish national pool, relative ease in the movement of people, the shift in geopolitics, the emergence of "greener pasture" paradigm, and the decline of many Third World countries to provide commensurate and appropriate work and living standard have catalyzed the global trend in the mobility of highly trained personnel. This presentation explores the unprecedented potentials advanced by the mobility of high level expertise while examining its underlying and emerging challenges. The paper also attempts to scrutinize some of the outmoded assumptions embedded in our current understanding of the mobility process—brain circulation.
This paper reviews four decades of economics research on the brain drain, with a focus on recent contributions and on development issues. We first assess the magnitude, intensity and determinants of the brain drain, showing that brain drain (or high-skill) migration is becoming the dominant pattern of international migration and a major aspect of globalization. We then use a stylized growth model to analyze the various channels through which a brain drain affects the sending countries and review the evidence on these channels. The recent empirical literature shows that high-skill emigration need not deplete a country’s human capital stock and can generate positive network externalities. Three case studies are also considered: the African medical brain drain, the recent exodus of European scientists to the United States, and the role of the Indian diaspora in the development of India’s IT sector. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the analysis for education, immigration, and international taxation policies in a global context.
The migration of health professionals has been accompanied by politically and morally charged discussions on the effect of such migration on the health of those left behind in their countries of origin. In the UK, the National Health Service, which has long been dependent on overseas migrants to bolster its own staffing, has responded to critics accusing it of ‘poaching’ health professionals from poorer countries with a range of measures to limit health worker mobility. These measures counterpose the right to mobility of health workers with the right to health for those they leave behind, posing academics working on brain drain with a quandary: how do we think ethically about brain drain migration? This paper aims to address this question by exploring the spatial and temporal ontologies that are being mobilised in current thinking around the brain drain. It explores how these ontologies shape both public debates and policy initiatives, foreclosing other ways of thinking about health worker mobility. It argues that routing discourses of brain drain through insights drawn from care ethics and postcolonial thinking will highlight the historical transnational connections that mark medical labour markets and how the category ‘medical worker’ is precisely dependent on this transnationalism.
Skilled migration has increased in recent years, often stimulated by the explicit use of targeted visa programmes by developed countries. This paper examines the available analytical and empirical literature on the brain drain to try and understand better whether skille migration from developing countries must always be harmful to the country of origin. We show that early generation models – mostly dating to the 1970s – found that such migration would be harmful, mostly though the impact on wages and employment, as well as through fiscal costs. A more recent literature has argued that a beneficial brain drain can arise if migration has educational externatilities. As human capital rises, growth will also be positively affected. However, we show that if screening is applied such benefits may disappear or become smaller. Recent empirical work on the health and software sectors provides some contrasting evidence.
Since the end of communist rule in 1991, Albania has seen, proportionately, one of the largest outflows of its people of any country in the world – an emigrant stock in 2013 equivalent to 44% of its resident population. This article addresses two issues related to the future trend of Albanian migration. First, a migration module of 23 questions designed by the authors and attached to the 2018 round of the European Values Survey asked about future migration intentions. These were found to be high and increasing: 52% of 18 to 40-year-olds expressed their intention to migrate compared to 44% in a comparable survey in 2006/7. The top two desired destination countries have switched from Italy and Greece in the past to Germany and the USA in the latest survey, which also shows potential migration higher amongst the more-skilled and educated population compared to past trends. A subsample of returned migrants captured by the survey shows even higher intentions to migrate – 71%. Second, Albania’s anticipated migration transition, from a country of emigration to one of net immigration, is deferred if migration intentions correlate with migration outcomes, with obvious reflections on the country’s overall development trajectory.
The ‘refugee crisis’ of 2015–2016 brought the ‘migration factor’ back to the centre of the political agenda in European Union–Western Balkans (WB) relations. But the way in which population movements from and through the region are framed by the EU has changed deeply from the past. After having been seen in the 1990s as the main sending region for irregular and humanitarian migration flows to Western Europe, and following a period of decreasing political attention in the 2000s, the opening of the ‘Western Balkans route’ for forced migrants from the Middle East turned the region into a ‘transit corridor’. Drawing upon literature on the role of policy frames and narratives in migration policy-making, the article reconstructs this evolution, identifying a trend towards narrative simplification based on an essentialized understanding of the relations between migration dynamics and territories. The risks of ‘geopolitical determinism’ in shaping future strategic choices are pointed out.
This paper traces the evolution of Stephen Castles’ writing on the theme of migration and development, using this as a mirror to reflect my own thinking on this subject. I start with his inaugural landmark volume Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, where an explicit Marxist reading of the role of migration is presented, and evaluate the continuing relevance of this framework against the changing nature both of migration and development themselves, and of the conceptual and ideological debate surrounding these two complexly linked phenomena. In Castles’ more recent writings, notably later editions of The Age of Migration, a somewhat different perspective emerges, more nuanced and more wide-ranging, set within broader debates on global social transformation and restructuring. From time to time, I bring in my own research on Albanian migration and development in order to illustrate different theoretical standpoints.
Knowledge constitutes a critical vector in processes and outcomes of migration, in the evolution of economies and societies, and in national policy-making. This is apparent in the growing emphasis on managing migration and the infrastructure of intermediaries involved in facilitating and channeling flows of migrants, but also finance, ideas and objects generated through diaspora communities. Scholars have captured these movements through vocabulary around ‘brain circulation’, or brain ‘drain’ and ‘gain’. While these concepts are useful for describing patterns and outcomes, sometimes in narrow cost-benefit terms, they do not provide tools to explore the constitution of knowledge flows in migration. This paper proposes a more nuanced construction of brain circulation which we call’brain chains’ to acknowledge the complex linkages comprising knowledge migration, between individuals, families, diasporic communities, private and public agents, and nation states. The rationalities of migration management and mediation are expressed at all levels, but perhaps most visibly at the level of national (im)migration policy. The concept of brain chains is illustrated through a case study of the relatively small country of New Zealand. This country is an apposite example because of its high levels of immigration, its changing ethnic composition, and its relatively large national diaspora. Further, it provides a clear example of changing regimes of migration management based on neoliberal assumptions related to human capital and the roles of migrants. A focus on brain chains provides a foundation to develop more theoretically substantive explorations of the production, circulation and mediation of knowledge in contemporary migration.
As the use of 'diaspora' has proliferated in the last decade, its meaning has been stretched in various directions. This article traces the dispersion of the term in semantic, conceptual and disciplinary space; analyses three core elements that continue to be understood as constitutive of diaspora; assesses claims made by theorists of diaspora about a radical shift in perspective and a fundamental change in the social world; and proposes to treat diaspora not as a bounded entity but as an idiom, stance and claim.
This paper discusses the Moldovan ‘scientific diaspora’ made up of students, researchers and those engaged in professional activities abroad, and their propensity to either return or engage in home-country development initiatives. Moldova has suffered a significant loss of its qualified personnel since 1991, due to a difficult political transition and current low level of development. An online survey, supplemented by follow-up interviews, enabled the authors to outline the parameters of the Moldovan scientific diaspora and its current and potential future transnational activities. Although skilled Moldovans do feel positive about their study and work experiences abroad, they are also keen to help in the development of their home country. However, several determinants are necessary to make this happen: information about institutional initiatives, political stability, improved socio-economic prospects and an adequate infrastructure, a shared vision of the diaspora role, as well as specific instruments for engagement. Policy options are discussed in the conclusion.
Analysing the dynamics of the post-1990 Albanian migration to Italy, this book is the first major study of one of Europe's newest, most dramatic yet least understood migrations. It takes a close look at migrants' employment, housing and social exclusion in Italy, as well as the process of return migration to Albania. The research described in the book challenges the pervasive stereotype of the "bad Albanian" and, through in-depth fieldwork on Albanian communities in Italy and back in Albania, provides rich insights into the Albanian experience of migration, settlement and return in both their positive and their negative aspects.
The recent brain drain literature suggests that the migration of highly skilled people can be beneficial for a country as it gives incentives to form additional human capital. We criticise this claim by developing a career concerns model and proposing that the migration opportunity as an incentive mechanism is unreliable. In addition, we show that when an individual forms two types of human capital, increased migration opportunity for one type has a negative effect on the formation of the other type. The economic benefit and full policy implications of the findings were not addressed in this paper.
This paper discusses migration of the skilled from Albania in the post-1990 period. It first highlights the scale of skilled migration and then examines the channels through which the phenomenon might have affected Albania's development. In recent years the issue of skilled migration and its impact has attracted the attention of both the Albanian government and civil society. The message delivered through this paper is, however, that while the country has possibly experienced substantial outflows of human capital, the impact the phenomenon has had on Albania's development is unknown. The paucity of data and research imposes severe limitations, preventing at the same time policy-makers from having the relevant information required for developing policies to manage skill losses and capacity-building in the country.
Recent migrations occur in a world deeply transformed by the digital revolution. The technological context of XXIst century is profoundly changing the nature of distant social relations. Nowadays, new migrants' generations can practice daily a biography liberated from territorial constraints, being "here and there" at the same time and able to take decision and act over the borders. Information and communication technologies (ICT) are intrinsically related to new networked ways of being, generating new patterns of transnational action. They facilitate both a transnational mobilization around local and specific aims, and local actions based on more universal principles. In addition, the use of ICTs by highly skilled migrants, endowed with high human, social and cultural capital, give place to innovative collaborative strategies. This paper aims to approach and explain some outcomes of the Romanian scientific migration by integrating this new reality. First, a short theoretical review will highlight the recent renewal of brain migration approaches, with specific focus on "diaspora networks". Then, the study of a website and a related virtual network (www.ad- astra.ro) of Romanian scientists scattered around the world will enable the analysis of the role of e-practices in the emergence of a transnational space in which migrants and non-migrants meet and act jointly in a new transnational public sphere. In this way, this paper will account for the emergence of a Romanian scientific e-diaspora, its impact on the scientific and research reform in Romania and its contribution to transnationally enable local change and reverse brain drain.
This article will discuss the present situation regarding the out- migration of highly skilled persons from the Balkans and the influence this has on the course of the transition that must take place in order for those countries to join the European Union (EU). Since most migration of highly skilled persons constitutes a 'brain drain' in the region, and because this part of the population represents the 'best and the brightest' human capital, the quality of transition is called into question. The main argument here will be that a variety of causes for emigration are closely related to the current social and political environment in the region, where oligarchic social orders 'push out' the highly skilled as an 'unwanted' elite. However, there are some encouraging examples which will be presented, allowing us to ask how a region like South East Europe might re-appear on the international scientific map and build its intellectual capital in a way that corresponds both to national interests and the needs of the global market, and not just exist as a source of low skilled workers for the EU.
By 2000, over one-third of Silicon Valley’s high-skilled workers were foreign-born, and overwhelmingly from Asia. These U.S.-educated
engineers are transforming developmental opportunities for formerly peripheral regions as they build professional and business
connections to their home countries. In a process more akin to “brain circulation” than “brain drain,” these engineers and
entrepreneurs, aided by the lowered transaction costs associated with digitization, are transferring technical and institutional
know-how between distant regional economies faster and more flexibly than most large corporations. This article examines how
Chinese- and Indian-born engineers are accelerating the development of the information technology industries in their home
countries—initially by tapping the low-cost skill in their home countries, and over time by contributing to highly localized
processes of entrepreneurial experimentation and upgrading, while maintain close ties to the technology and markets in Silicon
Valley. However, these successful models also raise several questions about the broader relevance of brain circulation outside
of several key countries, and regions of those countries, within the global South.
Albania is a country on the move. This mobility plays a key role in household-level strategies to cope with the economic hardship of transition. With the relaxing of controls on emigration at the beginning of the 1990s, international migration has exploded, becoming the single most important political, social, and economic phenomenon in post-communist Albania. Based on the 1989 and 2001 population censuses we estimate that over 600,000 Albanians live abroad, mostly in nearby Greece and Italy, with the vast majority coming from a limited number of districts located at the coastal and transport gateways to these destination countries, as well as Tirana. The available data also suggest that a similar number have considered migrating, and of these, half have tried and failed. Almost one-half of the children who since 1990 no longer live with their parents are now living abroad, a number of almost exodus proportions. This article also identifies clear patterns of temporary migration, with Greece being by far the most important destination and rural areas from the Center and North-East of the country being the primary origins of these flows. Although migration, with the resulting remittances, has become an indispensable part of Albanian economic development, there is increasing consensus on the necessity to devise more appropriate, sustainable strategies to lift households out of poverty and promote the country's growth.
We focus on the impact of migration prospects on human capital formation and growth in a small, open developing economy. We assume that agents are heterogeneous in skills and take their educational decisions in a context of uncertainty regarding future migrations. We distinguish two growth effects: an ex ante “brain effect” (migration prospects foster investments in education because of higher returns abroad), and an ex post “drain effect” (because of actual migration flows). The case for a beneficial brain drain (BBD) emerges when the first effect dominates, i.e., when the average level of human capital is higher in the economy opened to migrations than in the closed economy. We derive the theoretical conditions required for such a possibility to be observed. Using cross-section data for 37 developing countries, we find that the possibility of a BBD could be more than a theoretical curiosity.
The analysis of the consequences of highly skilled migration across countries has recently moved into novel economic legal and social areas of intellectual inquiry. However progress in the scientific pursuit of these questions and their possible implications has been handicapped partly by the rigid mental and emotional reflexes of some of the economists who actively participated in the early postwar debate on the consequences of brain drain and who evidently seem to fear that the newly burgeoning interest in the subject somehow breathes life into a public policy issue that they had hoped to have successfully buried. However part of the explanation lies also in the fact that the new developments have resulted almost entirely as a result of advocacy economics in the form of a proposal advanced by the author to tax brain drain in the shape of a supplementary income tax to be paid by the highly skilled migrants from the poor countries on their incomes in the developed countries. This proposal has economic ethical tax-legal human rights sociological and political implications and has therefore proved to be a powerful stimulus in opening up afresh what was until recently a rather moribund field of inquiry. But it has also correspondingly tended to provoke more heat than light. (excerpt)
We study human capital depletion and formation in an economy open to out-migration, as opposed to an economy which is closed. Under the assumption of asymmetric information, the enlarged opportunities and the associated different structure of incentives can give rise to a brain gain in conjunction with a brain drain. Migration by high-skill members of its workforce notwithstanding, the home country can end up with a higher average level of human capital per worker. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science S.A.
This paper analyzes the interaction between income distribution, human capital accumulation and migration. It shows that when migration is not a certainty, a brain drain may increase average productivity and equality in the source economy even though average productivity is a positive function of past average levels of human capital in an economy. It is also shown how the temporary possibility of emigration may permanently increase the average level of productivity of an economy. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.
- Bartram D.
- Gëdeshi I.
The brain drain. London: Collier-Macmillan
- W Adams
Beyond recognition: Polish scientific diaspora as a source of social capital. Warsaw: Polonium Foundation
- D Czerniaswka
- M Bochińska
- P Oléskiewicz
- R Mostowy
Conditions économiques et émigration des élites intellectuelles en Albanie. Cahiers d’Etudes Sur La Méditerranée Orientale Et Le Monde Turco-Iranien
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