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The pottery skills and tacit knowledge of a maser: An analysis using eye-tracking data

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An important aspect of Japanese traditional culture is the design and creation of pots, bowls, and other pottery, an artform that has historically been subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula. It has been suggested that passing down of hand-crafting techniques to the next generation is quite difficult, as the techniques involve considerable tacit knowledge. Thus, this study aimed to explore the creative processes of a master of the craft using an eye-tracking system. We recorded the eye movements of Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation artisan, as he created a bowl and a pot. The results showed that, in the process of working toward creating a piece of art, Mr. Nakamori first focused his attention on the whole piece, and then on certain elements thereof.
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ScienceDirect
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687
1877-0509 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of KES International.
10.1016/j.procs.2019.09.338
10.1016/j.procs.2019.09.338 1877-0509
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of KES International.
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
1877-0509 © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licen se (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
23rd International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering
Systems
The pottery skills and tacit knowledge of a maser:
An analysis using eye-tracking data
Jun Nakamuraa*, Sanetake Nagayoshib
aChuo University, 742-1 Higashinakano, Hachio-ji, Tokyo 192-0393, Japan
bShizuoka University,
3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011
, Japan
Abstract
An important aspect of Japanese traditional culture is the design and creation of pots,bowls, and other pottery, an artform that has
historically been subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula. It has been suggested that passing down of
hand-crafting techniquesto the next generation is quite difficult, as the techniquesinvolve considerable tacit knowledge.
Thus, this study aimed to explore the creative processes of amaster of the craft using an eye-tracking system. We recorded the eye
movements of Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation artisan, as he created a bowl and a pot.The results showed that, in the process
of working toward creating apiece of art, Mr.Nakamori first focused his attention on the whole piece,and then on certain elements
thereof.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
Keywords: Eye tracking; cognitive process; moulding
1. Introduction
Japan has the longest history of pottery-making in the world, although the development of this artform has been
subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula [1]. The oldest pottery pieces in the world, which
are about 12,000 years old, were excavated in Japan. During the 4th to mid-5th centuries,the potter’s wheel, which
enabled artisans to create works of various shapes, was introduced to Japan from the Korean peninsula. Later, the kiln
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jyulis.77f@g.chuo-u.ac.jp, jyulis@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
1877-0509 © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licen se (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
23rd International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering
Systems
The pottery skills and tacit knowledge of a maser:
An analysis using eye-tracking data
Jun Nakamuraa*, Sanetake Nagayoshib
aChuo University, 742-1 Higashinakano, Hachio-ji, Tokyo 192-0393, Japan
bShizuoka University,
3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011
, Japan
Abstract
An important aspect of Japanese traditional culture is the design and creation of pots,bowls, and other pottery, an artform that has
historically been subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula. It has been suggested that passing down of
hand-crafting techniquesto the next generation is quite difficult, as the techniquesinvolve considerable tacit knowledge.
Thus, this study aimed to explore the creative processes of amaster of the craft using an eye-tracking system. We recorded the eye
movements of Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation artisan, as he created a bowl and a pot.The results showed that, in the process
of working toward creating apiece of art, Mr.Nakamori first focused his attention on the whole piece,and then on certain elements
thereof.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
Keywords: Eye tracking; cognitive process; moulding
1. Introduction
Japan has the longest history of pottery-making in the world, although the development of this artform has been
subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula [1]. The oldest pottery pieces in the world, which
are about 12,000 years old, were excavated in Japan. During the 4th to mid-5th centuries,the potter’s wheel, which
enabled artisans to create works of various shapes, was introduced to Japan from the Korean peninsula. Later, the kiln
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jyulis.77f@g.chuo-u.ac.jp, jyulis@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp
2Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
was introduced,providing a sophisticated system for heating pottery to 1,000°C. This solved the problem of water
leakage,such that the pottery showed durability to liquids.
As an expression of traditional Japanese culture,pottery making obviously requires old-fashioned hand-crafting
techniques,despite recent developments in digital technology.Some have suggested that it is very difficult to pass
such techniques on to the next generation [2,3]. This study aims to draw attention to this artform to avoid the loss of
pottery-making techniques that are based on tacit knowledge [4], and to preservethe traditional skillsfor future
generations. Verbalising the techniques by which these skills could be conveyed is difficult [5], so this study focused
on eye movements. When recognising objects, people unconsciously come to an understanding of the ‘what’ of the
object; asthe proverb goes, “The eyes are the windows to the soul”. Another old proverb suggests that one should
learn by seeing his back”, i.e. that learners should acquire skills by observing veterans. For an example, Japanese
martial arts like judo, kendo, aikido, or kyudo take a way to learn by looking at teacher without advice in details, so
called as “Mitori Keiko”. Like this, followers should figure out by themselves something important as tacit knowledge
from teacher. Although this may sound easy, unless an amateur identifies the elements of a master’s work that should
be observedand imitated, the skills will not be transmitted, as they rely on tacit knowledge.
The present research was made possible by the generosity of a master of Kazuwa-yaki,a form of pottery practised
in Kurayoshi City , Tottori Prefecture, Japan. Kazuwa-yaki started in about 1750,and it disappeared for a time in the
1860s. In the 1930s, Otoyoshi Nakamori brought resurrected it in a form distinctive to Kyoto,after the potter’s wheel
and glaze§were introduced by second-generation artisans. A third-generation artisan, Hakuga Nakamori, now creates
innovative works while retaining the traditional and unique pinkish-red colour of Kazuwa-yaki pottery [6]. His work
received awards from the Japanese Kogei Association in 1997, 2000,and 2002.The present author filmed Mr.
Nakamori as he demonstrated how to use a potter’s wheel and then asked him to watch the recording. This article
analyses eye-movement data with the aim of identifying the tacit knowledge underlying the process by which amaster
potter passes on his techniques.
2. Previous studies
Cognitive science has highlighted the importance of vision in the process of recognition [7], and considerable
research has examined the role of vision in interpreting paintings and scenic representations. Some research has
focused on eye movements occurring as people try to solve aproblem or gather information when viewing an image
[8].
Human vision is characterised by several phenomena, including fixation, saccades (high-speed eye movements),
and blinking [9], which occur over about 100400, 2040, and 100150 ms, respectively. Human beingsblink
approximately 1015 times per minute. Due to saccadesand blinking, people are functionally blind for about 15% of
the time spent in visual activity [10]. These motions are known today as microsaccades (or fixational saccades), drifts,
and tremor [11]. Although visually acquired information is not always stable, at aminimum people are able to pay
conscious attention during fixation. Thus, this study was concerned with visual fixation.
Most research examining the effectiveness of advertising using eye tracking has considered print advertisements,
TV commercials, and banner advertisements on web pages [12,13,14]. In the marketing field, eye-tracking techniques
Kurayoshi City is located in the western part of Japan. It is located 550 km away from Tokyo and is 6.5 km from the shore of the
Sea of Japan.
An apparatus that shapes pottery into a round form by spinning.
§ A preparation applied to pottery before it is heated in a kiln. Glaze prevents water leaks and lends a glossy appearance to the
pottery.
Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687 1681
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
1877-0509 © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licen se (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
23rd International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering
Systems
The pottery skills and tacit knowledge of a maser:
An analysis using eye-tracking data
Jun Nakamuraa*, Sanetake Nagayoshib
aChuo University, 742-1 Higashinakano, Hachio-ji, Tokyo 192-0393, Japan
bShizuoka University,
3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011
, Japan
Abstract
An important aspect of Japanese traditional culture is the design and creation of pots,bowls, and other pottery, an artform that has
historically been subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula. It has been suggested that passing down of
hand-crafting techniquesto the next generation is quite difficult, as the techniquesinvolve considerable tacit knowledge.
Thus, this study aimed to explore the creative processes of amaster of the craft using an eye-tracking system. We recorded the eye
movements of Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation artisan, as he created a bowl and a pot.The results showed that, in the process
of working toward creating apiece of art, Mr.Nakamori first focused his attention on the whole piece,and then on certain elements
thereof.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
Keywords: Eye tracking; cognitive process; moulding
1. Introduction
Japan has the longest history of pottery-making in the world, although the development of this artform has been
subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula [1]. The oldest pottery pieces in the world, which
are about 12,000 years old, were excavated in Japan. During the 4th to mid-5th centuries,the potter’s wheel, which
enabled artisans to create works of various shapes, was introduced to Japan from the Korean peninsula. Later, the kiln
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jyulis.77f@g.chuo-u.ac.jp, jyulis@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
1877-0509 © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licen se (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
23rd International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering
Systems
The pottery skills and tacit knowledge of a maser:
An analysis using eye-tracking data
Jun Nakamuraa*, Sanetake Nagayoshib
aChuo University, 742-1 Higashinakano, Hachio-ji, Tokyo 192-0393, Japan
bShizuoka University,
3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011
, Japan
Abstract
An important aspect of Japanese traditional culture is the design and creation of pots,bowls, and other pottery, an artform that has
historically been subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula. It has been suggested that passing down of
hand-crafting techniquesto the next generation is quite difficult, as the techniquesinvolve considerable tacit knowledge.
Thus, this study aimed to explore the creative processes of amaster of the craft using an eye-tracking system. We recorded the eye
movements of Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation artisan, as he created a bowl and a pot.The results showed that, in the process
of working toward creating apiece of art, Mr.Nakamori first focused his attention on the whole piece,and then on certain elements
thereof.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review is the responsibility of KES International.
Keywords: Eye tracking; cognitive process; moulding
1. Introduction
Japan has the longest history of pottery-making in the world, although the development of this artform has been
subject to cultural influences from China and the Korean peninsula [1]. The oldest pottery pieces in the world, which
are about 12,000 years old, were excavated in Japan. During the 4th to mid-5th centuries,the potter’s wheel, which
enabled artisans to create works of various shapes, was introduced to Japan from the Korean peninsula. Later, the kiln
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jyulis.77f@g.chuo-u.ac.jp, jyulis@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp
was introduced,providing a sophisticated system for heating pottery to 1,000°C. This solved the problem of water
leakage,such that the pottery showed durability to liquids.
As an expression of traditional Japanese culture,pottery making obviously requires old-fashioned hand-crafting
techniques,despite recent developments in digital technology.Some have suggested that it is very difficult to pass
such techniques on to the next generation [2,3]. This study aims to draw attention to this artform to avoid the loss of
pottery-making techniques that are based on tacit knowledge [4], and to preservethe traditional skillsfor future
generations. Verbalising the techniques by which these skills could be conveyed is difficult [5], so this study focused
on eye movements. When recognising objects, people unconsciously come to an understanding of the ‘what’ of the
object; asthe proverb goes, “The eyes are the windows to the soul”. Another old proverb suggests that one should
learn by seeing his back”, i.e. that learners should acquire skills by observing veterans. For an example, Japanese
martial arts like judo, kendo, aikido, or kyudo take a way to learn by looking at teacher without advice in details, so
called as “Mitori Keiko”. Like this, followers should figure out by themselves something important as tacit knowledge
from teacher. Although this may sound easy, unless an amateur identifies the elements of a master’s work that should
be observedand imitated, the skills will not be transmitted, as they rely on tacit knowledge.
The present research was made possible by the generosity of a master of Kazuwa-yaki,a form of pottery practised
in Kurayoshi City , Tottori Prefecture, Japan. Kazuwa-yaki started in about 1750,and it disappeared for a time in the
1860s. In the 1930s, Otoyoshi Nakamori brought resurrected it in a form distinctive to Kyoto,after the potter’s wheel
and glaze§were introduced by second-generation artisans. A third-generation artisan, Hakuga Nakamori, now creates
innovative works while retaining the traditional and unique pinkish-red colour of Kazuwa-yaki pottery [6]. His work
received awards from the Japanese Kogei Association in 1997, 2000,and 2002.The present author filmed Mr.
Nakamori as he demonstrated how to use a potter’s wheel and then asked him to watch the recording. This article
analyses eye-movement data with the aim of identifying the tacit knowledge underlying the process by which amaster
potter passes on his techniques.
2. Previous studies
Cognitive science has highlighted the importance of vision in the process of recognition [7], and considerable
research has examined the role of vision in interpreting paintings and scenic representations. Some research has
focused on eye movements occurring as people try to solve aproblem or gather information when viewing an image
[8].
Human vision is characterised by several phenomena, including fixation, saccades (high-speed eye movements),
and blinking [9], which occur over about 100400, 2040, and 100150 ms, respectively. Human beingsblink
approximately 1015 times per minute. Due to saccadesand blinking, people are functionally blind for about 15% of
the time spent in visual activity [10]. These motions are known today as microsaccades (or fixational saccades), drifts,
and tremor [11]. Although visually acquired information is not always stable, at aminimum people are able to pay
conscious attention during fixation. Thus, this study was concerned with visual fixation.
Most research examining the effectiveness of advertising using eye tracking has considered print advertisements,
TV commercials, and banner advertisements on web pages [12,13,14]. In the marketing field, eye-tracking techniques
Kurayoshi City is located in the western part of Japan. It is located 550 km away from Tokyo and is 6.5 km from the shore of the
Sea of Japan.
An apparatus that shapes pottery into a round form by spinning.
§ A preparation applied to pottery before it is heated in a kiln. Glaze prevents water leaks and lends a glossy appearance to the
pottery.
1682 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000 3
have been applied in numerous ways, and one study focused on the eye movements of individuals tasked with
shopping within alimited amount of time [15].
However, few studies on the transfer of traditional artistic techniques have employed eye tracking.As an example
[16], a special interest group on knowledge, skill,and technology (SIG-KST) barely discussed such techniques. Indeed,
after 36 conferences between the group’s founding in June 2007 and March 2019, only one associated publication
employed eye tracking [17]. Thus,there is gap with respect to examination of the transfer of traditional techniquesvia
an eye tracking paradigm.
Taguchi (2013) summarised methods for passing down techniques among Japanese domestic corporations, and
divided them into eight types:1) technical documents;2) video libraries; 3) Curriculum Development Based on Ability
Structure (CUDBAS); 4) on-the-job training (OJT); 5) off-the-job training (Off-JT); 6. self-job training(SJT); 7.
IT-based systems; and 8) consultation [18]. The present paper is most closely related to video libraries,for which a
weak point is that the value of avideo depends on the knowledge and ability of the viewers. This paper aimed to
address that weak point.
3. The process of making pottery
Completing a pottery piece requires a series of procedures. The first step is to prepare the basic material, i.e. the
clay, and the next step is to mould and shape it.Of the several techniques available for shaping clay, this paper focuses
on shaping a piece using a potter’s wheel. The third step is to separate the pottery from the wheel, add patterns to the
surface, and dry it to eliminate any moisture. After it is heated in the kiln at 700–800°C, the piece is painted with glaze.
Subsequently, it is heated again, this time at 1,100–1,300°C, causing the surface to turn red due to the cinnabar in the
glaze. Finally,it is baked again at low temperatures and then removed from the kiln.
This paper concentrates on the moulding step,in recognition of Mr. Nakamori’s suggestion that this is one of the
processes that differs most markedly among artisans, and also and that it is difficult to articulate,being based on the
tacit knowledge of the master. It was hypothesised that the tacit knowledge would be expressed as follows:
1) By the potter first concentrating on the entirety of the clay on the potter’s wheel ; and then
2) Concentrating on a particular part of the spinning lump of clay; where
3) Steps 1) and 2) would then be repeated throughout the moulding process.
The hypotheses above are based on previous research [16] on system operationsthat identified the three steps of
first paying attention to the whole, then focusing on a particular element, and finally concentrating on relatively large
partsof the whole.
4. Study design
4.1. Preparation
Prior to explaining the methods employed herein, I will first introduce the equipment that was used for the study,
which included a video camera for filming, an eye-tracking system, a monitor, a computer, and software to film and
record eye movements:
-Video camera:HDR-AS300 (Sony)
-Eye tracker: AB:X2-30 (Tobii Technology)
-Monitor:23.8-in anomaly detection system,colour display (Princeton)
-Software: in-house developed system architecture (Figure 1), with user interface (Figure 2)
-The following steps were carried out:
Adatabase was made to store the video files
xand yeye-tracking coordinate data were recorded for every video
4Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
Eye tracking data was shown on the video along with timeline
Unit of coordinate on the video was not a pixel but grill, which was chosen in the analysis setting.
The xand ycoordinates for both eyes was shown for 1000 mm per second from the beginning of eye tracking.
Fig. 1. Developed system architecture. Fig. 2. User interface.
4.2. Overview of the study
Visual target:
Roughly shaped pot or bowl
Duration:
Approximately 5 minutes
Artisan:
Hakuga Nakamori
Location:
Kurashiki City, Tottori Prefecture, Japan
Date:
Tuesday, 5 February 2019
Time:
9:3011:30 (Japan Standard Time)
Flow: 1) Film the process of shaping the pottery (pot followed by abowl)
2) Play the video on the screen and record Mr. Nakamori’s eye movements
3) Analyse the eye-tracking data
Mr. Nakamori’s eye movements were measured as he watched the video.The eye-tracking glasses necessary to
capture eye movements during the actual process of creating the pottery were not available.As an alternative, asking
Mr. Nakamori to wear an action camera was considered, but ultimately this was not done because it would be unnatural
to sculpt pottery with the head in a completely stable and frozen position.Thus, this study should be regarded as
preliminary, early stage research.
In analysing the eye-tracking data according to the hypotheses delineated above, a level of attention was calculated
in the similar manner [19,20].
Based on the history of the xand ycoordinates at time t’, the diversity in attentional focus is calculated as follows:
 =(() ())+(() ()) (1)
 =(() ( ))+(() ())
 (2)
{()}=/ (1) ( /) (3)
,where
-(() ())is a two dimensional vector that indicates the coordinate location on the screen at a time of
- is the straight-line distance between the start at a time of and the end of the tracking point at a time of
- is the accumulated distance covered by all eye movement
Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687 1683
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000 3
have been applied in numerous ways, and one study focused on the eye movements of individuals tasked with
shopping within alimited amount of time [15].
However, few studies on the transfer of traditional artistic techniques have employed eye tracking.As an example
[16], a special interest group on knowledge, skill,and technology (SIG-KST) barely discussed such techniques. Indeed,
after 36 conferences between the group’s founding in June 2007 and March 2019, only one associated publication
employed eye tracking [17]. Thus,there is gap with respect to examination of the transfer of traditional techniquesvia
an eye tracking paradigm.
Taguchi (2013) summarised methods for passing down techniques among Japanese domestic corporations, and
divided them into eight types:1) technical documents;2) video libraries; 3) Curriculum Development Based on Ability
Structure (CUDBAS); 4) on-the-job training (OJT); 5) off-the-job training (Off-JT); 6. self-job training(SJT); 7.
IT-based systems; and 8) consultation [18]. The present paper is most closely related to video libraries,for which a
weak point is that the value of avideo depends on the knowledge and ability of the viewers. This paper aimed to
address that weak point.
3. The process of making pottery
Completing a pottery piece requires a series of procedures. The first step is to prepare the basic material, i.e. the
clay, and the next step is to mould and shape it.Of the several techniques available for shaping clay, this paper focuses
on shaping a piece using a potter’s wheel. The third step is to separate the pottery from the wheel, add patterns to the
surface, and dry it to eliminate any moisture. After it is heated in the kiln at 700–800°C, the piece is painted with glaze.
Subsequently, it is heated again, this time at 1,100–1,300°C, causing the surface to turn red due to the cinnabar in the
glaze. Finally,it is baked again at low temperatures and then removed from the kiln.
This paper concentrates on the moulding step,in recognition of Mr. Nakamori’s suggestion that this is one of the
processes that differs most markedly among artisans, and also and that it is difficult to articulate,being based on the
tacit knowledge of the master. It was hypothesised that the tacit knowledge would be expressed as follows:
1) By the potter first concentrating on the entirety of the clay on the potter’s wheel ; and then
2) Concentrating on a particular part of the spinning lump of clay; where
3) Steps 1) and 2) would then be repeated throughout the moulding process.
The hypotheses above are based on previous research [16] on system operationsthat identified the three steps of
first paying attention to the whole, then focusing on a particular element, and finally concentrating on relatively large
partsof the whole.
4. Study design
4.1. Preparation
Prior to explaining the methods employed herein, I will first introduce the equipment that was used for the study,
which included a video camera for filming, an eye-tracking system, a monitor, a computer, and software to film and
record eye movements:
-Video camera:HDR-AS300 (Sony)
-Eye tracker: AB:X2-30 (Tobii Technology)
-Monitor:23.8-in anomaly detection system,colour display (Princeton)
-Software: in-house developed system architecture (Figure 1), with user interface (Figure 2)
-The following steps were carried out:
Adatabase was made to store the video files
xand yeye-tracking coordinate data were recorded for every video
Eye tracking data was shown on the video along with timeline
Unit of coordinate on the video was not a pixel but grill, which was chosen in the analysis setting.
The xand ycoordinates for both eyes was shown for 1000 mm per second from the beginning of eye tracking.
Fig. 1. Developed system architecture. Fig. 2. User interface.
4.2. Overview of the study
Visual target:
Roughly shaped pot or bowl
Duration:
Approximately 5 minutes
Artisan:
Hakuga Nakamori
Location:
Kurashiki City, Tottori Prefecture, Japan
Date:
Tuesday, 5 February 2019
Time:
9:3011:30 (Japan Standard Time)
Flow: 1) Film the process of shaping the pottery (pot followed by abowl)
2) Play the video on the screen and record Mr. Nakamori’s eye movements
3) Analyse the eye-tracking data
Mr. Nakamori’s eye movements were measured as he watched the video.The eye-tracking glasses necessary to
capture eye movements during the actual process of creating the pottery were not available.As an alternative, asking
Mr. Nakamori to wear an action camera was considered, but ultimately this was not done because it would be unnatural
to sculpt pottery with the head in a completely stable and frozen position.Thus, this study should be regarded as
preliminary, early stage research.
In analysing the eye-tracking data according to the hypotheses delineated above, a level of attention was calculated
in the similar manner [19,20].
Based on the history of the xand ycoordinates at time t’, the diversity in attentional focus is calculated as follows:
 =(() ())+(() ()) (1)
 =(() ( ))+(() ())
 (2)
{()}=/ (1) ( /) (3)
,where
-(() ())is a two dimensional vector that indicates the coordinate location on the screen at a time of
- is the straight-line distance between the start at a time of and the end of the tracking point at a time of
- is the accumulated distance covered by all eye movement
1684 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000 5
The saccade is a movement defined with more than 2.0pxl/ms in this paper. In addition, within the saccade, the
movement with less than 10deg/sec is called as saccade-line here. The number of focus points and the range of twere
both adjustable in this system.
5. Results
Figure 3 displays one result of the experiment, showing the process of moulding the upper part of abowl.The x
axis is the amount of time and y axis is the result of calculation of Eq. (3).
Fig. 3. Resultsof Eq.(3). Upper panel:time spent focusing on the bowl; lower panel: time spent focusing on the base.
According to the graph, the eye movements initially corresponded to the attainment of an overview,and then the
visual attention was narrowed to focus on aparticular part of the piece; this was clear despite some missing data
(between 25 and 36 sfor the pot and 31 and 37 sfor the bowl).
The bowl-moulding process can be characterised as follows:
Total time: 427.211 ms (7.12 minutes)
Number of focus points: 1,420
Grid size:x:18, y:18
Maximum E score,left eye: 0.121420 (SD: 0.014071)
Maximum Escore,right eye: 0.122676 (SD: 0.017431)
As Figure 4 shows, saccade-line were observed about 42 seconds after the start of the moulding process; at
approximately the same time,the eyes captured the whole piece. Then, at 1 minute 12 seconds, the eyesmoved to the
left thumb and hand,as shown in Figure 5.
The pot-moulding process can be characterised as follows:
Total time: 477.617ms (7.96 minutes)
6Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
Number of focus points: 1,439
Grid size: x:18, y:18
Maximum Escore,left eye: 0.122756 (SD: 0.012097)
Maximum Escore,right eye: 0.121667 (SD: 0.014829)
Fig. 4. Observed saccade-line (bowl). Fig. 5. Eyes focus on the hands (bowl).
Mr Nakamori’s eyes fixated on patterned areas at 47 seconds after the start of moulding process,at which time his
fingers were moving continuously from the centre outward (Figure 6). At 1 minute 4 seconds,his vision was directed
to the tips of the fingers on the left hand (Figure 7).
Fig. 6. Shit in eye fixation point (pot). Fig. 7. Eyes focus on the left hand (pot).
Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687 1685
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000 5
The saccade is a movement defined with more than 2.0pxl/ms in this paper. In addition, within the saccade, the
movement with less than 10deg/sec is called as saccade-line here. The number of focus points and the range of twere
both adjustable in this system.
5. Results
Figure 3 displays one result of the experiment, showing the process of moulding the upper part of abowl.The x
axis is the amount of time and y axis is the result of calculation of Eq. (3).
Fig. 3. Resultsof Eq.(3). Upper panel:time spent focusing on the bowl; lower panel: time spent focusing on the base.
According to the graph, the eye movements initially corresponded to the attainment of an overview,and then the
visual attention was narrowed to focus on aparticular part of the piece; this was clear despite some missing data
(between 25 and 36 sfor the pot and 31 and 37 sfor the bowl).
The bowl-moulding process can be characterised as follows:
Total time: 427.211 ms (7.12 minutes)
Number of focus points: 1,420
Grid size:x:18, y:18
Maximum E score,left eye: 0.121420 (SD: 0.014071)
Maximum Escore,right eye: 0.122676 (SD: 0.017431)
As Figure 4 shows, saccade-line were observed about 42 seconds after the start of the moulding process; at
approximately the same time,the eyes captured the whole piece. Then, at 1 minute 12 seconds, the eyesmoved to the
left thumb and hand,as shown in Figure 5.
The pot-moulding process can be characterised as follows:
Total time: 477.617ms (7.96 minutes)
6Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
Number of focus points: 1,439
Grid size: x:18, y:18
Maximum Escore,left eye: 0.122756 (SD: 0.012097)
Maximum Escore,right eye: 0.121667 (SD: 0.014829)
Fig. 4. Observed saccade-line (bowl). Fig. 5. Eyes focus on the hands (bowl).
Mr Nakamori’s eyes fixated on patterned areas at 47 seconds after the start of moulding process,at which time his
fingers were moving continuously from the centre outward (Figure 6). At 1 minute 4 seconds,his vision was directed
to the tips of the fingers on the left hand (Figure 7).
Fig. 6. Shit in eye fixation point (pot). Fig. 7. Eyes focus on the left hand (pot).
1686 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000 7
6. Discussion
The previous sections described some characteristic elements of the moulding process.First,Mr Nakamori’s
fixationsallowed a wide view to be captured,including both the clay and the potter’s wheel; subsequently,his eyes
focused on the left hand and then the tips of the fingers. This sequence was very similar to that laid out above in the
three study hypotheses.
Second, in the process of shifting his concentration from the whole to a part of the piece,Mr Nakamori’s eyes
tracked from the centre outward when moulding both the pot and the bowl,showing that both the shape of the clay
and the position of the fingers were checked during themoulding process.Although the moulding of a pot and a bowl
share common features, some differences in the data were also seen;for instance, an obvious saccade-line occurred
while moulding the pot (Figure 4), and Mr Nakamori’s eyesshowed aleftward movement pattern during the bowl-
moulding process (see Figure 6). Authors have interviewed Mr.Nakamori on this habit that pays attention to the left
hand side. He explained that the edge is so important when it comes to make sure of shaping outer line.
Fig. 8. Moulding with a stick (pot)
Finally,Mr Nakamori concentrated on the tips of the fingers,which appears to be of key importance with respect
to revealing his tacit knowledge. Some elements of the moulding process are impossible to capture with the eye
tracker;for example, eye tracking cannot reveal when and to what degree the fingers apply pressure. When creating a
bowl, a stick is used to apply pressure from inside while the left hand, placed on the outer surface,senses the thickness
of the bowl;the potter’s tacit knowledge guides further shaping efforts (Figure 8).
Thus, acomplete formalisation of the tacit knowledge associated with the process of creating pottery remains a
distant goal, but the eye-tracking system used in the present study nevertheless extracted some key elements of this
process.
7. Conclusion
Using eye-tracking technology, this study examined an artisan’s techniques for crafting traditional Japanese pottery,
which usually remain as undefined elements within a body of tacit knowledge. A key component was the shift of focus
to the tips of the fingers;it is important that techniques for controlling the finger tips be verbalised.Although many
8Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000
studies have used eye tracking in the context of static images, dynamic eye-movement data coupled with tacit
knowledge would facilitate the process of passing on culturally important traditional techniques to the next generation.
Thecreation of a general instructional manual would be one way to convey such information, but demonstrating when
the shiftsin focus occur based on eye-tracking data would clearly be helpful.I intend to collect additional eye-tracking
data towards this end.
A video-based risk-recognition training system [21]revealed differences in eye movements between veterans and
amateurs. However, the focus of that study was on risk prediction rather than the transmission of techniques. In future
work, also intend to reveal differences between the eye movements of a master and an amateur,albeit with a different
aim in mind.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to Mr. Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation master of Kazuwa-yaki, for his invaluable
cooperation with this research. We also want to thank Mr. Kenta Otsuka, a student in my seminar group who is
currently working for NTT-Data and who assisted us in preparing and conducting this study. Last but not least, we
thank Mr. Naomasa Okumura and Ms. Reiko Fujiwara for introducing us to Mr. Hakuga Nakamori. In addition, this
research was supported by the grant from JSPS (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 19K03062).
References
[1] http://www.liqun123.com/ (viewed on 30 March 2019)
[2] Furukawa, K. (2012) “Gijutu Ginou Denshou Mattanashi (No enough time for technology transfer).” Factory Management 58 (14):24-27.
[3] Taruta, Y. (2012) “Consideration for succession of knowledge, technology, and skill.” SIG-KST 2012-034-04: 1-6.
[4] Polan yi, M.,and Sen, A. (2009) “The Tacit Dimension.” University of Chicago Press, Reissue edition
[5] Johansson, P., Hall, L., Sikstrom, S., and Olsson.(2005) “A. Failure to detect mismatches between intention and outcome in a simple decision
task.” Science 310:116-119, 2005.
[6] https://www.pref.tottori.lg.jp/30635.htm (viewed on 30 March 2019)
[7] Salvucci, DD., and Anderson, JR. (1998) “Tracing eye movement protocols with cognitive process models.” Proc. Annual Conference of the
Cognitive Science Society:923-928.
[8] Terai, H., and Miwa, L. (2003) “Insight problem solving from the viewpoint of constraint relaxation using eye movement analysis.” Proc. of
International Conference of Cognitive Science:671-676.
[9] Martinez-Conde, S. (2004) “The role of fixational eye movements in visual perception.” Nature Previews Neuroscience 5:229-240.
[10] Van Der Lans, R., and Wedel, M. (2017) “Eye movements during search and choice.” Handbook of Marketing Decision Models, 2nd edition,
Wierenga, B., and Van der Lans, R. (eds.), Springer:331-359.
[11] Martinez-Conde, and S., Macknik, S.L. (2015)From Exploration to Fixation: An Integrative View of Yarbus’s Vision.” Perception 44 (8-
9):884-899.
[12] Wedel, M., and Pieters, R. (2006) “Eye tracking for visual marketing.” Foundations and Trends in Marketing 1:231320.
[13] Wedel, M., and Pieters, R. (2008) “A review of eye-tracking research in marketing.” Review of Marketing Research, 4, K. N. Malhotra (ed.),
Emerald Group Publishing:122147.
[14] Dr`eze, X., and Hussherr, F.X. (2003) “Internet advertising: Is anybody watching?Journal of Interactive Marketing 17: 8–23.
[15] Pieters, R., Warlop, L. (1999) “Visual attention during brand choice: the impact of time pressure and task motivation.” International Journal
of Research in Marketing 16 (1): 1-16.
[16] Furukawa, Y. (2014) “Tishiki gijutu ginou no denshou ni kansuru kousatu (Discussion about transfer support of knowledge, skill and
technology).”, SIG-KST 2014-01-04.
[17] Shirayama, S., Takato, K., Osawa, R., and Bonkohara, N. (2017) “Abasic study of quantitative description of how to fly a taketombo.” SIG-
KST-030-06.
[18] Taguchi, Y.(2013) “Rokunai kigyo no ginoudensho no torikumi ni kannsuru itikosatu (Approaches to pass down techniques among
Japanese domestic corporations).” Bulletin of Shohoku College
[19] Nakamura, J., Ohsawa, Y. (2008) “Uncertainty items as concept sourcesin analogical thinking.” Proc.of International Conference on
Cognitive Science,Moscow:111-113.
[20]Krejtz, K., Duchowski, A., Szmidt, T., Krejtz, I., González Perilli, F., Pires, A., Vilaro, A., and Villalobos, N. (2015) “Gaze transition
entropy.” ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 13 (1) 4:1-4:20.
[21] Fujita, Y., Nakamura, J., and Kushiro, N. (2017) “Risk recognition training system by moviecharacteristics of risk recognition from
experts’ gaze.” Proc. of Forum on Information Technology
Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 159 (2019) 1680–1687 1687
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000000 7
6. Discussion
The previous sections described some characteristic elements of the moulding process.First,Mr Nakamori’s
fixationsallowed a wide view to be captured,including both the clay and the potter’s wheel; subsequently,his eyes
focused on the left hand and then the tips of the fingers. This sequence was very similar to that laid out above in the
three study hypotheses.
Second, in the process of shifting his concentration from the whole to a part of the piece,Mr Nakamori’s eyes
tracked from the centre outward when moulding both the pot and the bowl,showing that both the shape of the clay
and the position of the fingers were checked during themoulding process.Although the moulding of a pot and a bowl
share common features, some differences in the data were also seen;for instance, an obvious saccade-line occurred
while moulding the pot (Figure 4), and Mr Nakamori’s eyesshowed aleftward movement pattern during the bowl-
moulding process (see Figure 6). Authors have interviewed Mr.Nakamori on this habit that pays attention to the left
hand side. He explained that the edge is so important when it comes to make sure of shaping outer line.
Fig. 8. Moulding with a stick (pot)
Finally,Mr Nakamori concentrated on the tips of the fingers,which appears to be of key importance with respect
to revealing his tacit knowledge. Some elements of the moulding process are impossible to capture with the eye
tracker;for example, eye tracking cannot reveal when and to what degree the fingers apply pressure. When creating a
bowl, a stick is used to apply pressure from inside while the left hand, placed on the outer surface,senses the thickness
of the bowl;the potter’s tacit knowledge guides further shaping efforts (Figure 8).
Thus, acomplete formalisation of the tacit knowledge associated with the process of creating pottery remains a
distant goal, but the eye-tracking system used in the present study nevertheless extracted some key elements of this
process.
7. Conclusion
Using eye-tracking technology, this study examined an artisan’s techniques for crafting traditional Japanese pottery,
which usually remain as undefined elements within a body of tacit knowledge. A key component was the shift of focus
to the tips of the fingers;it is important that techniques for controlling the finger tips be verbalised.Although many
studies have used eye tracking in the context of static images, dynamic eye-movement data coupled with tacit
knowledge would facilitate the process of passing on culturally important traditional techniques to the next generation.
Thecreation of a general instructional manual would be one way to convey such information, but demonstrating when
the shiftsin focus occur based on eye-tracking data would clearly be helpful.I intend to collect additional eye-tracking
data towards this end.
A video-based risk-recognition training system [21]revealed differences in eye movements between veterans and
amateurs. However, the focus of that study was on risk prediction rather than the transmission of techniques. In future
work, also intend to reveal differences between the eye movements of a master and an amateur,albeit with a different
aim in mind.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to Mr. Hakuga Nakamori, a third-generation master of Kazuwa-yaki, for his invaluable
cooperation with this research. We also want to thank Mr. Kenta Otsuka, a student in my seminar group who is
currently working for NTT-Data and who assisted us in preparing and conducting this study. Last but not least, we
thank Mr. Naomasa Okumura and Ms. Reiko Fujiwara for introducing us to Mr. Hakuga Nakamori. In addition, this
research was supported by the grant from JSPS (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 19K03062).
References
[1] http://www.liqun123.com/ (viewed on 30 March 2019)
[2] Furukawa, K. (2012) “Gijutu Ginou Denshou Mattanashi (No enough time for technology transfer).” Factory Management 58 (14):24-27.
[3] Taruta, Y. (2012) “Consideration for succession of knowledge, technology, and skill.” SIG-KST 2012-034-04: 1-6.
[4] Polan yi, M.,and Sen, A. (2009) “The Tacit Dimension.” University of Chicago Press, Reissue edition
[5] Johansson, P., Hall, L., Sikstrom, S., and Olsson.(2005) “A. Failure to detect mismatches between intention and outcome in a simple decision
task.” Science 310:116-119, 2005.
[6] https://www.pref.tottori.lg.jp/30635.htm (viewed on 30 March 2019)
[7] Salvucci, DD., and Anderson, JR. (1998) “Tracing eye movement protocols with cognitive process models.” Proc. Annual Conference of the
Cognitive Science Society:923-928.
[8] Terai, H., and Miwa, L. (2003) “Insight problem solving from the viewpoint of constraint relaxation using eye movement analysis.” Proc. of
International Conference of Cognitive Science:671-676.
[9] Martinez-Conde, S. (2004) “The role of fixational eye movements in visual perception.” Nature Previews Neuroscience 5:229-240.
[10] Van Der Lans, R., and Wedel, M. (2017) “Eye movements during search and choice.” Handbook of Marketing Decision Models, 2nd edition,
Wierenga, B., and Van der Lans, R. (eds.), Springer:331-359.
[11] Martinez-Conde, and S., Macknik, S.L. (2015)From Exploration to Fixation: An Integrative View of Yarbus’s Vision.” Perception 44 (8-
9):884-899.
[12] Wedel, M., and Pieters, R. (2006) “Eye tracking for visual marketing.” Foundations and Trends in Marketing 1:231320.
[13] Wedel, M., and Pieters, R. (2008) “A review of eye-tracking research in marketing.” Review of Marketing Research, 4, K. N. Malhotra (ed.),
Emerald Group Publishing:122147.
[14] Dr`eze, X., and Hussherr, F.X. (2003) “Internet advertising: Is anybody watching?Journal of Interactive Marketing 17: 8–23.
[15] Pieters, R., Warlop, L. (1999) “Visual attention during brand choice: the impact of time pressure and task motivation.” International Journal
of Research in Marketing 16 (1): 1-16.
[16] Furukawa, Y. (2014) “Tishiki gijutu ginou no denshou ni kansuru kousatu (Discussion about transfer support of knowledge, skill and
technology).”, SIG-KST 2014-01-04.
[17] Shirayama, S., Takato, K., Osawa, R., and Bonkohara, N. (2017) “Abasic study of quantitative description of how to fly a taketombo.” SIG-
KST-030-06.
[18] Taguchi, Y.(2013) “Rokunai kigyo no ginoudensho no torikumi ni kannsuru itikosatu (Approaches to pass down techniques among
Japanese domestic corporations).” Bulletin of Shohoku College
[19] Nakamura, J., Ohsawa, Y. (2008) “Uncertainty items as concept sourcesin analogical thinking.” Proc.of International Conference on
Cognitive Science,Moscow:111-113.
[20]Krejtz, K., Duchowski, A., Szmidt, T., Krejtz, I., González Perilli, F., Pires, A., Vilaro, A., and Villalobos, N. (2015) “Gaze transition
entropy.” ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 13 (1) 4:1-4:20.
[21] Fujita, Y., Nakamura, J., and Kushiro, N. (2017) “Risk recognition training system by moviecharacteristics of risk recognition from
experts’ gaze.” Proc. of Forum on Information Technology
... Aytekin and Rızvanoğlu (2019) believed that the craftsmen's procedural knowledge could be presented and transferred in the environment outside the traditional apprenticeship system. Digital technology is widely used to retain various procedural knowledge in the inheritance of Intangible Cultural Heritage, such as motion capture systems (Zhao et al., 2019), eye-tracking (Nakamura & Nagayoshi, 2019), VR surround video (Rodil et al., 2019), etc. These technologies can record and capture all the details in the handicraft manufacturing process to the greatest extent. ...
... Eye-tracking technology has also begun to be used teaching handicraft skills. In the field of pottery, Jun Nakamura et al. (2019) used eye-movement technology to record the pottery-making process of Mr. Nakamori, a Japanese master of pottery making. It analysed the focus position in the making process, showing the special order of attention in the ceramic-making process. ...
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Mastering a handicraft skill requires not only being proficient in the use of tools and body coordination, but also the visual observation skills including planning, inspection and evaluation. In recent years, many studies of heritage education have focused on the development and promotion of traditional handicraft teaching. However, these studies rarely pay attention to effectively conveying the visual observation experience in procedural knowledge from experts to novices to help them learn handicraft skills. By analysing the eye-tracking metrics and visualizing the visual pattern of the expert, this study constructs an Eye-Movement Modelling Example (EMME) to demonstrate the expert model to novices to improve their ability to recognize and make appropriate judgements based on visual observations. A multi-dimensional evaluation was carried out to test the effectiveness of this novel instructional method in helping novices perceive visual knowledge from experts and learn handicrafts. Finally, this study successfully used eye-tracking technology to reveal the potential visual patterns of the expert in traditional handicraft making and confirm the role of EMME in promoting traditional handicraft teaching and inheritance. We provided a new way for the inheritance of traditional handicraft skills.
... A convincing example of tacit knowledge is Polanyi's own description of a student reading an X-ray of a chest [15]. Later, different experiments were organized to discover the existence of tacit knowledge in the field of medical care [15], construction industry [16], [17], medical care [18], [19], art [20], and sport [21], [22]. However, the above research is based on the method of statistical analysis, which is difficult to reveal the intrinsic factors of tacit knowledge. ...
... Eye-movement as the main manifestation of visual attention is a good quantized technique to extract and analyze tacit knowledge. The x and y coordinates were recorded by one research [20] for both eyes of a pottery-making master utilizing an eye-tracking system. The diversity was calculated in attentional focus to reveal the intrinsic tacit knowledge. ...
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... One example being eye tracking technology. Eye tracking was successfully used to explore tacit knowledge in Japanese pottery making, and inform about tacit knowledge gained with increasing experience (Nakamura & Nagayoshi, 2019). Furthermore, postural position tracking and head ergonomics was a complimentary tool deepening the understanding of expert skills in refinery patrol inspection (Takamido et al., 2022). ...
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... "You had to memorize the steps and procedures," shared Indralaxmi during the interview. Ghimire (2013) and Nakamura and Nagayoshi (2019) reported that traditional tacit knowledge and skills were passed from a higher generation to a lower one through demonstration, observation, and copying. Schunk (2012) notes that learning through observations includes different steps, such as attention, retention, production, and motivation. ...
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Visual attention is one of the most important brain cognitive functions, which filters the rich information of the outside world to ensure the efficient operation of limited cognitive resources. The underlying knowledge, i.e., tacit knowledge, hidden in the human attention allocation performances, is context-related and is hard to be expressed by experts, but it is essential for novice operator training and interaction system design. Traditional models of visual attention allocation and corresponding analysis methods seldomly involve task contextual information or present the tacit knowledge in an explicit and quantified way. Thus, it is challenging to pass on the expert’s tacit knowledge to the novice or utilize it to construct an interaction system by employing traditional methods. Therefore, this paper first proposes a new model called the visual cognitive graph model based on graph theory to model the visual attention allocation associated with the task context. Then, based on this graph model, utilize the data mining method to reveal attention patterns within context to quantitatively analyze the operator’s tacit knowledge during operation tasks. We introduced three physical quantities derived from graph theory to describe the tacit knowledge, which can be used directly to construct an interaction system or operator training. For example, discover the essential information within the task context, the relevant information affecting critical information, and the bridge information revealing the decision-making process. We tested the proposed method in the example of flight operation, the comparison results with the traditional eye movement graph model demonstrate that the proposed visual cognitive model can compromise the task context. The comparison results with the statistical analysis method demonstrate that our tacit knowledge mining method can reveal the underlying knowledge hidden in the visual information. Finally, we give practical applications in the examples of operator training guidance and adaptive interaction system. Our proposed method can explore more in-depth knowledge of visual information, such as the correlations of different obtained information and the way operator obtains information, most of which are even not noticed by operators themselves.
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The authors are interested in knowledge engineering for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) suffering from the difficult post-COVID19 business environment. We conducted fixed-point observation using eye tracking in a production site, aiming to improve the work efficiency of industrial production. Results showed that the experts not only paid attention to a large number of points but also spent considerable attention time, moving quickly among points of attention within the constant overall work time. The number of attention points and the attention time were measured over time. The results showed a learning effect, but experts paid more attention to the critical task. Based on these findings, knowledge engineering is discussed in terms of skill transfer.
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This article details a two-step method of quantifying eye movement transitions between areas of interest (AOIs). First, individuals' gaze switching patterns, represented by fixated AOI sequences, are modeled as Markov chains. Second, Shannon's entropy coefficient of the fit Markov model is computed to quantify the complexity of individual switching patterns. To determine the overall distribution of attention over AOIs, the entropy coefficient of individuals' stationary distribution of fixations is calculated. The novelty of the method is that it captures the variability of individual differences in eye movement characteristics, which are then summarized statistically. The method is demonstrated on gaze data collected from two studies, during free viewing of classical art paintings. Normalized Shannon's entropy, derived from individual transition matrices, is related to participants' individual differences as well as to either their aesthetic impression or recognition of artwork. Low transition and high stationary entropies suggest greater curiosity mixed with a higher subjective aesthetic affinity toward artwork, possibly indicative of visual scanning of the artwork in a more deliberate way. Meanwhile, both high transition and stationary entropies may be indicative of recognition of familiar artwork.
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A fundamental assumption of theories of decision-making is that we detect mismatches between intention and outcome, adjust our behavior in the face of error, and adapt to changing circumstances. Is this always the case? We investigated the relation between intention, choice, and introspection. Participants made choices between presented face pairs on the basis of attractiveness, while we covertly manipulated the relationship between choice and outcome that they experienced. Participants failed to notice conspicuous mismatches between their intended choice and the outcome they were presented with, while nevertheless offering introspectively derived reasons for why they chose the way they did. We call this effect choice blindness.
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The last decade has seen an increasing interest in marketing in the use of modern eye-tracking equipment for developing and testing theories of search and choice. This chapter reviews this development and provides a framework that assists marketing researchers in collecting and processing eye tracking data and incorporating that data into marketing decision models. The authors demonstrate how eye movement data is collected using modern eye-tracking equipment, and how such data relates to underlying visual processes. The chapter discusses key eye-tracking measures and illustrates how such measures can be integrated into decision models of search and choice. This chapter provides useful insights for researchers interested in setting up eye-tracking experiments, as well as for researchers interested in understanding how such data can be summarized and incorporated into their models.
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Alfred Lukyanovich Yarbus (1914-1986) pioneered the study of stabilized retinal images, miniature eye movements, and the cognitive influences that act on visual scanning. Yarbus's studies of these different topics have remained fundamentally disconnected and independent of each other, however. In this review, we propose that Yarbus's various research lines are instead deeply and intrinsically interconnected, as are the small eye movements produced during visual fixation and the large-scale scanning patterns associated with visual exploration of objects and scenes. Such apparently disparate viewing behaviors may represent the extremes of a single continuum of oculomotor performance that operates across spatial scales when we search the visual world.
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Motivated from the growing importance of visual marketing in practice, we review eye-tracking research to evaluate its effectiveness. We provide a case study of the application of eye-tracking to ad pretesting. We review eye-tracking applications in advertising (print, TV, and banner), health and nutrition warnings, branding, and choice and shelf search behaviors. We then discuss findings, identify current gaps in our knowledge, and provide an outlook on future research.
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We provide the theory of visual attention and eye-movements that serves as a basis for evaluating eye-tracking research and for discussing salient and emerging issues in visual marketing. Motivated from its rising importance in marketing practice and its potential for theoretical contribution, we first review eye-tracking research for visual marketing. Then, we discuss the structure of the eye, the visual brain, eyemovements, and methods for recording and analyzing them. Next, we describe our theory and review eye-tracking applications in marketing based on it. We conclude with an outlook on future theory and method development and recommendations for practice.
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Measures derived from eye-movement data reveal that during brand choice consumers adapt to time pressure by accelerating the visual scanning sequence, by filtering information and by changing their scanning strategy. In addition, consumers with high task motivation filter brand information less and pictorial information more. Consumers under time pressure filter textual ingredient information more, and pictorial information less. The results of a conditional logit analysis reveal that the chosen brand receives significantly more intra-brand and inter-brand saccades and longer fixation durations than non-chosen brands, independent of time pressure and task motivation conditions. Implications for the theory of consumer attention and for pretesting of packaging and shelf lay-outs are discussed.
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Our eyes continually move even while we fix our gaze on an object. Although these fixational eye movements have a magnitude that should make them visible to us, we are unaware of them. If fixational eye movements are counteracted, our visual perception fades completely as a result of neural adaptation. So, our visual system has a built-in paradox — we must fix our gaze to inspect the minute details of our world, but if we were to fixate perfectly, the entire world would fade from view. Owing to their role in counteracting adaptation, fixational eye movements have been studied to elucidate how the brain makes our environment visible. Moreover, because we are not aware of these eye movements, they have been studied to understand the underpinnings of visual awareness. Recent studies of fixational eye movements have focused on determining how visible perception is encoded by neurons in various visual areas of the brain.
Gijutu Ginou Denshou Mattanashi (No enough time for technology transfer)
  • K Furukawa
Furukawa, K. (2012) "Gijutu Ginou Denshou Mattanashi (No enough time for technology transfer)." Factory Management 58 (14): 24-27.
Consideration for succession of knowledge, technology, and skill
  • Y Taruta
Taruta, Y. (2012) "Consideration for succession of knowledge, technology, and skill." SIG-KST 2012-034-04: 1-6.