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Social (in)equity in access to cycling infrastructure: Cross-sectional associations between bike lanes and area-level sociodemographic characteristics in 22 large U.S. cities
Abstract
Cycling advocates have recently argued that low-income and minority communities across the U.S. have disproportionately low access to bike lanes. To date, however, quantitative evidence of disparities in access to bike lanes has been limited to a small number of cities. We addressed this research gap by examining cross-sectional associations between bike lanes and sociodemographic characteristics at the block group level for 22 large U.S. cities (n = 21,843 block groups). Dependent variables included the presence (yes/no), coverage, connectivity, and proximity of bike lanes, measured using secondary GIS data collected by each of the 22 cities between 2012 and 2016. Primary independent variables included indicators of race, ethnicity, educational attainment, income, poverty, and a composite socioeconomic status (SES) index, all measured using data from the 2011–2015 American Community Survey. We used linear and logistic multilevel mixed-effects regression models to estimate associations between these sociodemographic characteristics and each bike lane dependent variable, before and after adjusting for traditional indicators of cycling demand (population and employment density, distance to downtown, population age structure, bicycle commuting levels). In unadjusted associations, disadvantaged block groups (i.e. lower SES, higher proportions of minority residents) had significantly lower access to bike lanes. After adjusting for indicators of cycling demand, access to bike lanes was lower in block groups with particular types of disadvantage (lower educational attainment, higher proportions of Hispanic residents, lower composite SES) but not in those with other types of disadvantage (higher proportions of black residents, lower income, higher poverty). These results provide empirical support for advocates' claims of disparities in bike lane access, suggesting the importance of more closely considering social equity in bicycle planning and advocacy.
... Several studies draw attention to the importance of ensuring that efforts to promote sustainable development are equitably implemented (Aldred et al., 2019;Braun et al., 2019;Flanagan et al., 2016) and do not exacerbate existing disparities (Kiani et al., 2024). While these studies have increased in the past decade, there remains a paucity of research investigating disparities in access to cycling infrastructure (e.g., bike and pedestrian lanes), particularly in the UK. ...
... Similarly, a recent systematic review of US studies found larger concentrations of "African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, low-wage employees, individuals with lower education, and older adults" in communities with poor access to bike infrastructure (Sadeghvaziri et al., 2024). However, the proportion of Black residents, median income, and poverty had mixed associations with access to cycling infrastructure in another study (Braun et al., 2019). A longitudinal study from Portland, Oregon and Chicago, Illinois found that neighbourhoods with lower income and lower housing prices, but with incoming wealthier populations, were associated with higher cycling infrastructure investment in both cities (Flanagan et al., 2016). ...
... Although lack of deprivation cannot be conflated with affluence (Welsh Government, 2019b), this finding, along with the higher percentage of LSOAs in the most-deprived group with zero bike lanes, does suggest that residents in Cardiff living in areas with more access to a wider variety of services (a component of deprivation scores) may also have more access to certain types of cycling infrastructure. This pattern is similar to that described by Braun et al. (2019) who found a positive association of access to cycle lanes with overall SES and educational attainment. ...
... There are various reasons to believe that persons of color and those with lower socio-economic status do not receive the same health advantages of walking and cycling as their counterparts (3). Studies have shown that low-income and minority populations have disproportionately limited access to infrastructure such as bike lanes despite significant growth in riding and disproportionately high cycling fatality rates (23). Indeed, a growing body of literature suggests that some communities are not receiving the benefits of bikeshare programs in the U.S. despite their popularity and effectiveness. ...
... Even though equity is becoming an increasingly prominent principle in bicycle planning, many claims about socio-economic discrepancies have lacked quantitative evidence. For instance, advocacy reports have frequently mentioned differences in infrastructure access across the U.S. without giving particular proof of such national trends (23). To provide an equitable transportation system for the public, it is vital to fully understand underrepresented populations' walking and biking activities and their reasons for not adopting them. ...
... On the other hand, some studies have shown that people who live in areas with high concentrations of minorities and low socio-economic status use bikeshare more frequently, travel at different times of the day and across days of the week, and have more frequently used origin-destination stations pairs (67). This is particularly concerning because cycling is frequently debated from the standpoint of health equity, and riding may provide health advantages associated with physical exercise (23). However, some bikeshare programs have recently initiated equity strategies to focus on disadvantaged groups (2,68). ...
To provide an equitable transportation system for the public, it is vital to fully understand underrepresented populations’ active transportation needs and their challenges. This study is designed to identify the active transportation studies that focus on underrepresented populations, evaluate the quantification approaches used in the literature, and uncover barriers to the use of active transportation among underrepresented populations in the United States. We used PRISMA guidelines to systematically review relevant publications. After screening and reviewing the literature, some 60 articles were included in the review. The most frequent results when reviewing the literature include that active travel and daily transport trips decreased from younger to older age groups; bicycling was more popular among men, White, and individuals with higher education, whereas walking was more popular among women; bike usage was found to be low among minorities, and those with lower incomes. Furthermore, communities with poor accessibility to bike infrastructure had a larger concentration of African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, low-wage employees, individuals with lower education, and older adults.
... Equity considerations are becoming more prominent in bicycle planning, but claims of disparity have lacked quantitative evidence. For example, advocacy reports have frequently mentioned differences in infrastructure access across the U.S. without giving particular proof of such national trends (25). ...
... There are various reasons to believe that people of color and those with lower socioeconomic status (SES) in the U.S. do not get the full health advantages of walking and cycling (12). Studies have shown that low-income and minority populations have disproportionately high cycling fatality rates and limited access to biking infrastructure despite significant growth in ridership in recent years (25). ...
... Several studies on educational attainment (10,25) focused on the relationship between active transportation and education level. Quinn et al. (2016) used the 2009 NHTS data to show that young, low-income, and urban-dwelling respondents had a greater probability of using active transportation. ...
... Second, most research-based HIAs have measured the health impacts of cycling at the aggregate level of an entire city or region (Mueller et al., 2015), without considering how health risks vary across space. The equity implications of this variation could be substantial in the U.S.: pollution levels and crash rates are disproportionately high in marginalized neighborhoods (Sider et al., 2015), which have less bicycle infrastructure (Braun et al., 2019) and more high-speed vehicle traffic (Hajat et al., 2015). These factors could exacerbate health disparities among cyclists from populations who already suffer a high disease burden (Adler and Rehkopf, 2008). ...
... Thus, to our knowledge, no HIAs in cycling research have examined a spatial resolution below the city level with an emphasis on equity. This is a critical gap because marginalized communities in the U.S. tend to have high pollution concentrations (Sider et al., 2015), dangerous traffic conditions (Hajat et al., 2015), and low access to bicycle infrastructure (Braun et al., 2019); these populations also tend to have higher rates of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity (Adler and Rehkopf, 2008), and thus might benefit the most from increased active travel. Indeed, Nicholas et al. (2019) noted a critical need for research on disparate health impacts across neighborhoods. ...
... Furthermore, our analysis does not account for infrastructure (e.g., bike lanes) or the pollution-exposure impacts that different cycling environments may entail (e.g., through separation from tailpipe emissions). Since marginalized groups have disproportionately low access to cycling infrastructure (Braun et al., 2019), our findings with respect to equity could be conservative. Our results may also be conservative since we did not consider changes in risk that may occur alongside large-scale shifts to cycling, such as a "safety-innumbers" effect (Elvik and Bjørnskau, 2017) and reduced pollution from less car travel. ...
Health impact assessments (HIAs) have been used to evaluate the benefits and risks of cycling and other transportation interventions. Most HIAs use aggregate, city-level data rather than considering how impacts might vary across neighborhoods. To address this limitation, we developed a novel HIA framework for evaluating intra-city spatial variation and equity in the health tradeoffs of cycling. We illustrated the utility of this framework by applying it to Los Angeles, CA, estimating changes in mortality risk that might be expected from shifting a 2.5-mile daily car trip to cycling for five years. This shift was associated on average with a 12.4% net reduction in mortality risk, and a 50% increase in cycling could prevent approximately 600 deaths over five years. However, benefits were significantly lower in places with higher percentages of Black and Hispanic residents and lower socioeconomic status. To avoid widening health disparities, cycling promotion should be coupled with mitigation strategies in marginalized communities where risks are currently highest.
... In Braun et al.'s study examined data between 2012 and 2016, it was observed that block groups characterized by specific forms of disadvantage, such as lower educational attainment, a higher proportion of Hispanic residents, and lower composite SES, exhibited reduced accessibility to bike lanes. However, this pattern was not observed in block groups facing different types of disadvantage, such as a higher proportion of black residents, lower income levels, and higher poverty rates (Braun et al., 2019). The absence of sociospatial equity considerations in most transportation plans of Canadian cities may limit the effectiveness of new cycling infrastructure implementation to reduce inequities (Doran et al., 2021). ...
... In line with our findings, a study conducted in 22 large US cities reported disparities in access to cycling infrastructure among CTs with different SES or demographic profiles in 2011. However, after five years, CTs with higher SES, greater educational attainment, and fewer Hispanic residents experienced more benefits from cycling infrastructure additions, resulting in increased, inequity (Braun et al., 2019). Similarly, a study conducted in 29 US cities found that although cycling infrastructure improvements primarily targeted lower-income CTs, those with a high proportion of people of color experienced the lowest rate of new cycling infrastructure installation. ...
Background: Cycling infrastructure investments support active transportation, improve population health, and
reduce health inequities. This study examines the relationship between changes in cycling infrastructure
(2011–2016) and census tract (CT)-level measures of material deprivation, visible minorities, and gentrification
in Montreal.
Methods: Our outcomes are the length of protected bike lanes, cyclist-only paths, multi-use paths, and on-street
bike lanes in 2011, and change in total length of bike lanes between 2011 and 2016 at the CT level. Census data
provided measures of the level of material deprivation and of the percentage of visible minorities in 2011, and if
a CT gentrified between 2011 and 2016. Using a hurdle modeling approach, we explore associations among these
CT-level socioeconomic measures, gentrification status, baseline cycling infrastructure (2011), and its changes
(2011–2016). We further tested if these associations varied depending on the baseline level of existing infrastructure, to assess if areas with originally less resources benefited less or more.
Results: In 2011, CTs with higher level of material deprivation or greater percentages of visible minorities had
less cycling infrastructure. Overall, between 2011 and 2016, cycling infrastructure increased from 7.0% to 10.9%
of the road network, but the implementation of new cycling infrastructure in CTs with no pre-existing cycling
infrastructure in 2011 was less likely to occur in CTs with a higher percentage of visible minorities. High-income
CTs that were ineligible for gentrification between 2011 and 2016 benefited less from new cycling infrastructure
implementations compared to low-income CTs that were not gentrified during the same period.
Conclusion: Montreal’s municipal cycling infrastructure programs did not exacerbate socioeconomic disparities in
cycling infrastructure from 2011 to 2016 in CTs with pre-existing infrastructure. However, it is crucial to prioritize the implementation of cycling infrastructure in CTs with high populations of visible minorities, particularly in CTs where no cycling infrastructure currently exists.
... However, distribution is not the only cause of inequities, and therefore, redistribution cannot be chosen as the only solution to alleviate these inequities [27]. For instance, disparities in access to bike lanes could arise because of inadequate incorporation of equity considerations into planning goals, inadequate representation or involvement of disadvantaged groups in decision-making, or inactive demand from these groups regarding cycling infrastructure [28]. ...
... Considering access needs with regard to transportation facilities, the focus of 31 studies was mainly on how physical inaccessibility in transportation facilities [4], exclusion in planning, design, and construction of these facilities [91], and uneven distribution of them [28] hinder the participation of minorities, people with low SES, and people with health concerns, especially people with reduced mobility. However, there was a limited number of publications about the access needs of vulnerable age groups and displaced groups. ...
Equity in the built environment refers to the extent to which the built environment meets the needs of different groups through planning, design, construction, operation, management, and regulation. Though much studied in recent years, some needs and groups have received a greater research focus than others, and significant inequities continue to exist. Following PRISMA guidelines, we systematically reviewed the distributional and recognitional aspects of inequities experienced by vulnerable groups regarding their needs while using/occupying different types of built environments. We find that more studies focus on inequities regarding residential buildings, transportation facilities, and public open spaces, whereas comparatively few studies examine water and energy infrastructure, commercial buildings, educational buildings, and healthcare facilities. More studies focus on well-being, mobility, and access needs than shelter and safety needs. Inequities experienced by minorities, people with low socioeconomic status, people with health concerns, and vulnerable age groups receive more attention than the inequities experienced by people with gender/sexual-orientation vulnerability or displaced groups. The literature exhibits a relatively narrow focus on some subgroups, such as refugees, people experiencing homelessness, people with cognitive differences, people with visual or hearing impairments, children, and women. We argue that these findings demarcate high-impact future research directions to address vulnerable groups’ needs worldwide and suggest measures to alleviate inequities in the built environment.
... This recent increase in AT and new forms of micromobility has drawn attention to inadequate street facilities and created a more supportive climate for investing in safe streets infrastructure. In the United States, institutionalized practices of transport planning, including top-down and slow-moving processes, can tend to favor the status quo of autocentric street engineering with low prioritization of AT facilities (Braun, Rodriguez and Gordon-Larsen, 2019), such as sidewalks, bike lanes, and bike parking, which are now also important to support new forms of micromobility. Though transportation planning education has come to emphasize the needs of users of all transportation modes and public involvement in the planning process (Combs and Pardo, 2021), these goals can be difficult to achieve in practice (Broaddus and Cervero, 2019;Wagner, 2013). ...
... Though transportation planning education has come to emphasize the needs of users of all transportation modes and public involvement in the planning process (Combs and Pardo, 2021), these goals can be difficult to achieve in practice (Broaddus and Cervero, 2019;Wagner, 2013). During the pandemic, cities have experimented with new public engagement practices, managed to quickly reallocate space previously reserved for autos, and have become more open to AT advocates (Braun, Rodriguez and Gordon-Larsen, 2019). ...
Shared micromobility services that offer bikes and scooters on demand are complementing walking, cycling, and public transport to expand the role of active mobility in urban transportation. However, on-demand services are often introduced at a faster pace than streets are redesigned to protect the safety of users. The lack of safe street infrastructure limits the potential mode shift to micromobility and the associated benefits. Active travel advocacy groups can make a critical difference, but they generally lack access to data resources. In 2020, Spin, a shared micromobility company, launched an initiative called Mobility Data for Safer Streets (MDSS). This involved equipping six advocacy organizations in five US cities with a suite of mobility data tools to support their efforts to make streets safer. This research sought to understand how access to mobility data can help active travel advocates be more effective and was assessed via interviews with awardees throughout the 15-month program. Access to data improved advocates' effectiveness in working with the local government, garner-ing community support, supporting underserved communities, and advocating safe streets for all road users in their work. The MDSS model can be replicated to empower advocates or other stakeholders to advance collective understanding of active travel and influence supportive planning and policy.
... The built environment is a direct result of planning and zoning practices that directly impact physical activity, healthy behaviors, and access to resources. Disinvestment and neglect have resulted in inequitable built environment conditions for poor and minority groups and findings of an analysis of 22 U.S. cities showed disparities in bike lane access by socioeconomic status (Braun et al., 2019). The Austin city council's decision to allocate funds from the 2016 Mobility Bond equally across districts does not address the inequitable built environment conditions in the city's lower-income city council districts. ...
... Without taking a systematic approach to addressing the inherent racial hierarchies within planning organizations, the "unequal distribution of social and economic resources" will continue, which provides a challenge to the planning community, city governments, and metropolitan planning organizations to assess their organizational structural hierarchies (Solis, 2020). Others have provided further recommendations for how to address active transportation equity, including ensuring engagement of underrepresented communities in the planning and advocacy process (Lee et al., 2017, Braun et al., 2019. ...
The City of Austin, Texas, USA allocated significant funding for comprehensive Safe Routes to School (SRTS) infrastructure projects split equally across Council districts, but allocated funds using a scoring system incorporating demand, community input, safety, and equity. This case study describes the SRTS project prioritization process and provides a qualitative assessment of how well health equity was addressed. Data from City of Austin reports were combined with school-level demographic data to determine equity of need distribution; interviews were conducted with city-level stakeholders. Area-and school-level socioeconomic status represented equity measures in prioritization of projects for construction. Results indicate that council districts with the highest funding needs had an average of >80 % economically disadvantaged students, and qualitative data identified the equal, but inequitable nature of the funding among the council districts was a top concern. Lessons learned from this process can serve as an example for equity considerations in active transportation infrastructure.
... Moreover, long-lasting, structural inequalities can affect the availability and quality of cycling infrastructure and the capacity of local institutions to deliver or improve them. Often, such infrastructure is differently available among different areas of a city or groups of a population, with examples of both equitable and uneven distribution of cycleways and low-traffic zones (Aldred et al., 2021;Braun et al., 2019;Teunissen et al., 2015;Tucker & Manaugh, 2018). Such limitations can affect both low-income and high-income groups, which depending on the setting tend to rely more on cycling (Iglesias et al., 2019;Sagaris & Tiznado-Aitken, 2020;Nielsen et al., 2013;Vidal Tortosa et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2018). ...
... From a planning perspective aimed at granting people the possibility to access relevant urban opportunities (Martens, 2016), cycling can be relevant to provide a faster, affordable, and more convenient transport option for people. Studies addressing the access to cycling infrastructure in the US show that bike lanes are more prevalent in affluent areas, even after controlling for cycling demand (Braun et al., 2019;Hirsch et al., 2017). Moreover, bike lanes are often built on areas that exhibit early signs of gentrification (Lubitow et al., 2019), mirroring these processes as they develop (Flanagan et al., 2016). ...
Structural socio-economic and institutional limitations can affect the implementation of cycling infrastructure. More stringent cycling infrastructure standards aiming to solve deficiencies might exacerbate disparities, especially in poor districts with fragmentary governance. Using an audit and quantitative and spatial analysis of cycleways, this paper examines to what extent structural inequalities and governance issues affect the availability and quality of cycling infrastructure, considering new indicative and normative standards aiming at improving cycling infrastructure in Santiago, Chile. Our results show that the distribution of cycleways is unequal and only partially complies with national quality standards. All districts in the city have both high and low standard bicycle lanes, but since district finances have huge differences, this can lead to inequalities in cycle coverage and districts' capabilities to address current standard problems. This raises relevant challenges regarding governance and how to ensure an equitable distribution of cycling infrastructure in Global South cities.
... The results of this study highlighted the importance of equitably distributing bicycle facilities as exemplified by the negative association of certain demographics, especially Blacks and Hispanics, with housing market values. Previous research (Braun, 2021;Braun et al., 2019Braun et al., , 2023 showed that there is a disparity in access to bicycle paths and the health benefits of cycling, with disadvantaged neighborhoods with higher proportions of Black and Hispanic residents, and lower income and educational attainment having disproportionately lower accessibility to bicycle facilities. ...
... In cycling equity analysis, the equity measures used have primarily focused on hard measures and have typically considered equity in relation to the provision of cycling infrastructure (22). To discuss equity in cycling, previous studies focused on different criteria and methods, including the associations between sociodemographic characteristics and the availability of cycling infrastructure (14,(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28); the density of cycling routes (28); availability, coverage, and connectivity of bike lanes (29); associations between access to cycling infrastructure and sociodemographic characteristics using the deprivation index (30); and the Gini coefficient (31), Lorenz curve (32), Palma Ratio (33), Atkinson index (34), and Theil index (35). In all the aforementioned methods, access to cycling infrastructure was the main indicator used to measure equity in cycling, and discussions were built on the difference in levels of accessibility between the most and least deprived areas. ...
This study aims to evaluate equity in cycling initiatives and their operational challenges by reviewing a wide range of cycling initiatives implemented in Auckland, New Zealand. The effectiveness of current initiatives with respect to various target groups or resulting beneficiaries is discussed, along with potential additional initiatives, barriers to implementing cycling equity initiatives in practice, and possible solutions to address such barriers. By interviewing policymakers, decision-makers, planners, designers, and transportation professionals, 44 cycling initiatives are identified. Results suggest that the geographical distribution of some of the current initiatives implemented could be more equitable. While some initiatives are equitable, there remain challenges with respect to their implementation. Additionally, there are limited initiatives focusing on the safety of female cyclists in Auckland, and no initiatives specifically aimed at Māori and Pacific people, groups that can both be considered disadvantaged with respect to cycling in Auckland. Potential additional policy initiatives include e-bike/bicycle subsidies, policy and law changes, education and awareness campaigns, better urban planning, policies aimed at making cycling easier, and better monitoring and evaluation. Barriers to the implementation of cycling equity initiatives in practice include sociocultural issues, financial constraints, poor planning, human resource limitations, and the built environment. Suggested strategies to help overcome some of these issues include adopting an equity lens and providing equity assessments for all initiatives, thus providing a wider coverage with respect to diversity in the population, enhanced engagement with the community, and the empowerment of people.
... Chicago, located in the northeastern part of Illinois, United States, is a prominent city with the third-largest population in the country and an estimated 86 million tourists visiting each year. A comprehensive study conducted by Braun et al. (2019) on bicycle infrastructure across 22 major cities in the United States revealed that cycling facilities are predominantly concentrated in medium and high socioeconomic areas. Demographics of Chicago play a significant role in studying social equity concerns, as it has a population composed of 68.3 % non-white individuals and 27.3 % of households without vehicles . ...
Bikeshare is increasingly recognized as a healthy travel behaviour worldwide. However, issues of inequity in bike-sharing usage exist and hinder the social benefits of bike-sharing system. This paper aims to unveil the spatiotemporal evolution of inequalities in bike-sharing usage and their social-built environment correlates, using Chicago's Divvy system as a case study. Specifically, Gini coefficients and panel data regression models are applied to analyse equity concerns in bike-sharing uses and its social-built environmental factors. Thirty-two disadvantaged communities and forty-five non-disadvantaged communities are identified based on ethnicity, income, and education levels. The Gini index indicates a greater level of inequity and inconsistency in bike-sharing usage within disadvantaged communities compared to non-disadvantaged communities over time. Model results further reveal that built environment factors such as park space positively impact equitable bike-sharing uses in disadvantaged communities. In contrast, the social factor of educational levels in non-disadvantaged communities shows a negative relationship. These findings aim to promote essential, efficient, and equitable bike-sharing usage for Chicago, stakeholders and users.
... Cycling, a low-cost and physically active means of transportation, has been suggested as a tool for promoting more equal health outcomes (Rachele et al. 2015;Braun, Rodriguez, and Gordon-Larsen 2019). Exercise is a well-established factor in promoting health. ...
... Barajas & Braun (2021) and Braun et al. (2023) showed that the health benefits derived from traveling actively are not distributed equally across socioeconomic groups. These studies 105 revealed a relatively lower magnitude of association between good health and frequency of walking or cycling among disadvantaged groups (people of color, ethnic minorities) as compared to the socially advantaged 4 population in the U.S. Multiple studies have also concluded that areas with higher levels of disadvantage have significantly lower access to cycling infrastructure and are less likely to attract such investments (Braun et al., 2019;Cunha & Silva, 2022;Flanagan et al., 2016). Researchers have recommended that the interventions 110 aimed at promoting active travel should be tailored to address the specific needs of different socioeconomic groups that could vary in different geographies and neighborhood contexts (Yang et al., 2012;Dill et al., 2014). ...
... This addition of bike lanes would likely require greater public support to achieve funding and the right-of-way laws to implement bike lanes throughout the city. This will be especially important in regions that have disadvantaged populations ((Braun et al., 2019;Robartes et al., 2021). ...
The prevalence of obesity in Texas, specifically Harris County, is a growing health concern. 26.7% of Texan adults reported no leisure time activity, which is significantly higher than the national average (24.4%). This study aimed at collecting walkability and bike-ability scores for 115 zip codes covering the greater City of Houston in Harris County, Texas, USA. The walkability and bike-ability scores are objective representations of the ability one completes their daily errands. Walkscore.com was used to collect the data from 115 zip codes found inside Harris County. It ranks walkability and bike-ability on a scale of 0 to 100 depending on the availability of walking and biking infrastructure in an area. Thirty-three (28.4%) zip codes had walkability scores between 0 and 24, thirty-nine (33.6%) had scores between 25 and 49, thirty (25.9%) had scores between 50 and 69, eleven (9.5%) had scores between 70 and 89, and only two zip codes scored above 90 (1.7%). Only thirty-five counties have a reported bike-ability score. Zero (0%) are within 0-24, thirty (83.3%) are within 25 to 49, two (5.6%) are within 50 to 69, three (8.33%) are within 70 to 89, and zero (0%) are within 90-100. The majority (72, 62.1%) required vehicle transportation while only thirteen (11.2%) had walkability scores over 70. Only 5 (4.3%) of the total zip codes within Harris County have adequate biking infrastructure.
... Bicycling, whether for transportation, leisure, or sport, is a potential way to achieve recommended levels of physical activity and reduce physical inactivity-associated disease of risk and death (1). Bicycling as a means of transportation brings additional environmental benefits because of decreased greenhouse gas emissions and air and noise pollution (2). However, according to a study conducted during 2012-2019, less than 1% of people in the US achieve an average of 30 minutes per day of bicycling for any reason (3), and similarly, less than 1% of US workers bike to work (4). ...
Introduction
Integrating equity considerations into bicycle infrastructure, planning, and programming is essential to increase bicycling and reduce physical inactivity–related health disparities. However, little is known about communities’ experiences with activities that promote equity considerations in bicycle infrastructure, planning, and programming or about barriers and facilitators to such considerations. The objective of this project was to gain in-depth understanding of the experiences, barriers, and facilitators that communities encounter with integrating equity considerations into bicycle infrastructure, planning, and programming.
Methods
We administered a web-based survey in 2022 to assess communities’ experiences with 31 equity-focused activities in 3 areas: 1) community engagement, education, events, and programming (community engagement); 2) data collection, evaluation, and goal setting (data); and 3) infrastructure, facilities, and physical amenities (infrastructure). Respondents were people who represented communities in the US that participated in the League of American Bicyclists’ Bicycle Friendly Community (BFC) Program. We then conducted 6 focus groups with a subset of survey respondents to explore barriers and facilitators to implementing equity-focused activities.
Results
Survey respondents (N = 194) had experience with a mean (SD) of 5.9 (5.7) equity-focused activities. Focus group participants (N = 30) identified themes related to community engagement (outreach to and engagement of underrepresented communities, cultural perceptions of bicycling, and funding and support for community rides and programs); data (locally relevant data); and infrastructure (political will, community design, and infrastructure). They described barriers and facilitators for each.
Conclusion
Communities are challenged with integrating equity into bicycle infrastructure, planning, and programming. Multicomponent strategies with support from entities such as the BFC program will be required to make progress.
... Although some studies have investigated the association between the availability of cycling infrastructure and the gentrification status of urban neighborhoods (Braun, Rodriguez, & Gordon-Larsen, 2019;Pucher et al., 2011), few have examined the temporal association of these events i.e., which one precedes the other (Ferenchak & Marshall, 2021). In this study, we investigated whether the development of cycling infrastructure precedes, follows, or occurs simultaneously with gentrification. ...
Increases in cycling infrastructure might be linked to gentrification. However, there is little empirical evidence investigating the existence and directionality of this possible relationship. This study examined the temporal sequence involved in the relation between gentrification and increases in the cycling infrastructure in Montreal, Canada. We analyzed changes in cycling infrastructure between 2006, 2011, and 2016, considering cyclist-only paths, multi-use paths, and on-street bike lanes. The Ding measure was used to identify gentrified census tracts (CTs) using census data. We implemented logistic regression models with and without geographically weighted regression specification at the CT level to test three scenarios; whether an increase in cycling infrastructure (2006–2011) was associated with subsequent gentrification (2011–2016); whether gentrification (2006–2011) was associated with subsequent increase in cycling infrastructure (2011–2016); or if these phenomena happened simultaneously (2011–2016). Increase in cycling infrastructure was not linked to subsequent gentrification, nor did these two phenomena happen simultaneously. However, gentrified CTs had a 44% greater chance of a subsequent increase in cycling infrastructure, with varying strengths of associations across the study area. When planning increases in cycling infrastructure, it is crucial to take an equity-based approach that underlying sociodemographic dynamics of urban CTs. To achieve this, cities need to engage in broad upstream community engagement, ensuring the inclusion of a diverse range of voices in the decision-making process.
... Research has also shown that cycling infrastructure is installed inequitably across many cities (Ferenchak and Marshall 2021;Braun, Rodriguez, and Gordon-Larsen 2019). In Toronto, the lower cycling mode share amongst residents outside of the downtown core largely mirrors the lower coverage of cycling infrastructure (Ravensbergen, Buliung, and Sersli 2020). ...
... In the US, some research suggests that areas with larger white and higher-income populations are afforded better access by bicycle to destinations such as healthcare facilities and grocery stores (Jahanshahi et al., 2021). Overall, this body of work collectively underscores that there is marked variability across cities in the patterns of both existing and new investments in bicycling infrastructure by area-level income and race (Braun, Rodriguez and Gordon-Larsen, 2019;Ferenchak and Marshall, 2021;Fuller and Winters, 2017). In response, many municipalities are incorporating equity-based goals, objectives, and project prioritization procedures into their transportation plans (Doran, El-Geneidy and Manaugh, 2021;Manaugh, Badami and El-Geneidy, 2015). ...
Despite equity gaining increasing attention in Canadian bicycling practice and research, the demographics of who is bicycling have not been documented nationally in Canada. This study uses Canadian census data to provide a nationwide portrait of: 1) how bicycle commute mode share varies by gender, race, income, and age in Canada; 2) how the sociodemographic characteristics of bicycle commuters in Canada have shifted between 1996 and 2016; and 3) how bicycle commuting and the demographics of bicycle commuters vary across metropolitan regions in Canada. We find that men, people who are not visible minorities and low-income populations commute by bicycle at double the rates of women, visible minorities, and other income groups, respectively. Women comprise an increasing share of bicycling commuters over the 20 years, whereas bicycling is increasing at similar rates across race and income groups. Cycling distinctly decreases with age. Cycling rates vary by region and there is some evidence that low-income and visible minority groups bicycle more in smaller, more car-centric metropolitan areas. These findings identify differences in bicycling across socio-demographic groups and geographic regions, which sets a foundation for research to uncover why these differences are occurring, in order to point policymakers toward targeted solutions that specifically address inequities in bicycle commuting between population groups.
... Nicoletti et al. 12 have found that communities that have a larger share of minorities earn less and have a lower number of individuals with a university degree have low access to urban infrastructures. Braun et al. 13 analyzed access to bike lanes in 22 U.S. cities and found that communities with lower socioeconomic status have lesser access to bike lanes. Inadequate access to water and sanitation is prevalent among communities in the U.S. with higher American Indian and Alaskan Native households 14 . ...
This research proposes a data-driven approach to identify possible disparities in a utility’s outage management practices. The approach has been illustrated for an Investor-Owned Utility located in the Midwest region in the U.S. Power outage data for approximately 5 years between March 2017 and January 2022 was collected for 36 ZIP/postal codes located within the utility’s service territory. The collected data was used to calculate the total number of outages, customers affected, and the duration of outages during those 5 years for each ZIP code. Next, each variable was normalized with respect to the population density of the ZIP code. After normalizing, a K-means clustering algorithm was implemented that created five clusters out of those 36 ZIP codes. The difference in the outage parameters was found to be statistically significant. This indicated differential experience with power outages in different ZIP codes. Next, three Generalized Linear Models were developed to test if the presence of critical facilities such as hospitals, 911 centers, and fire stations, as socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the ZIP codes, can explain their differential experience with the power outage. It was found that the annual duration of outages is lower in the ZIP codes where critical facilities are located. On the other hand, ZIP codes with lower median household income have experienced more power outages, i.e., higher outage counts in those 5 years. Lastly, the ZIP codes with a higher percentage of the White population have experienced more severe outages that have affected more customers.
... In Wyoming, a rural state, 68% of heavy trucks account for a high proportion of crashes on interstate highways, and the incidence of crashes involving trucks in bad weather (such as strong winds or heavy snow) is 19% higher than those without trucks [11]. There is a correlation between socio demographic characteristics and the dependent variables of each bicycle lane [12], and areas with more children have less opportunities to use protected bicycle lanes [13]. In the Minneapolis St. Paul metropolitan area, including seven counties and two core cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, household income and the percentage of minority population are significantly correlated with the density of freight related crashes and freight related crashes that cause serious casualties [14]. ...
The significant increase of freight traffic related collision accidents has aroused people's increasing concern about road safety. Using data from California, this paper studies the spatial relationship between freight related traffic accidents and low-income and minority communities. The study found that household income and minority population were significantly correlated with the density of freight related crashes and freight related crashes that led to serious casualties. Compared with areas with high-income groups, areas with low economic status, such as blacks and Asians, are more than 119% more likely to have traffic accidents. Among them, areas with black populations are more than 39% more likely to have traffic accidents than areas with Asian populations. The results show that freight related collisions are affected by spatial inequality.
... In Germany, cycling for transport has gained popularity among higher educated, urban-living adults over the last two decades becoming a status symbol as a form of healthy and environmentally friendly transport alternative to cars (Hudde, 2022a(Hudde, , 2022b. Further, high SES neighborhoods have better infrastructure for AT (Braun et al., 2019) and thus young adults who have access to better AT infrastructure might find it more convenient to commute actively. Young adults of high SES families are also more likely to go to university and AT is more prevalent among university students compared to the general population (Whalen et al., 2013). ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate socio-structural predictors of active school transport (AST) change and to explore the stability and changes of transport modes during school transitions and into early adulthood in Germany. School transport mode, urbanicity level, socioeconomic status, and migration background were assessed in 624 children (8.9 ± 1.1 years, 51% female) and 444 adolescents (14.9 ± 1.7 years, 48% female) which were followed up longitudinally six years later. The results of multinomial logistic regressions and transition probability calculations indicated that residing outside of rural areas at baseline and follow-up predicts retaining or switching to AST in adolescence. Similarly, higher socioeconomic status at baseline predicted retaining or switching to AST in early adulthood. This research suggests that transition periods are crucial understanding AST behavior and may provide new opportunities for tailored AST promotion programs for different age groups.
... Accessibility is defined by the ease of reaching certain destinations within an existing transport network (Breheny, 1978;Dalvi & Martin, 1976). It has been studied in a bicycle context in a wide range of papers, e.g., concerning accessibility to specific destinations (Hamidi et al., 2019;Saghapour et al., 2017) and accessibility to bicycle infrastructure (Braun et al., 2019;Mora et al., 2021;Standen et al., 2021). We refer to Castañon and Ribeiro (2021), Reggiani (2022) and Vale et al. (2016) for detailed, general reviews of cycling accessibility. ...
To create bicycle-friendly urban environments, policymakers need tools for identifying and mapping the most efficient routes in terms of cycling accessibility. Yet, few studies have empirically investigated cycling accessibility in terms of detours. Using crowdsourced GPS data, this study measures both realized detour ratios (RDRs), describing detours resulting from network constraints and intentional behavior, and behavioral detour ratios (BDRs), describing detours resulting solely from intentional behavior. The study analyzes the measures in narrowly defined grid zones of the Copenhagen region and visual examination shows that zones along radial corridors with good connections toward the city center have the lowest RDRs, while the city center zones have slightly higher BDRs. Furthermore, the study uses regression with spatial autocorrelation to examine factors affecting RDRs and BDRs. Well-equipped zones containing more roads, a lot of dedicated bicycle infrastructure, and cycle superhighways have significantly lower average RDRs. Zones with recreation areas and a high percentage of high-income residents significantly increase the average BDRs. The insights of the study enable policymakers to identify where and how to improve bicycle infrastructure from a detour perspective.
... Though the passion for e-scooters in Portland [275], the black Portlanders raised concerns about possibility of racial discrimination and intimidation when riding them [275]. Others [291] discovered that places with less educated, lower social status, coupled with a higher Hispanic areas have slightly less bike lanes. As a result, greater attempts to remedy the drawbacks and oppression of persons of colour and other disadvantaged populations would only boost micromobility transportation results. ...
Micromobility is dominant in urban areas, enhancing the transportation sustainability and assisting in fulfilling the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This work provides an overall assessment of micromobility: its role under SDGs, policy options, micromobility regulations, emerging technologies, utilisation determinants, energy source, and energy storage. The analysis shows that micromobility could play a major role in achieving the SDGs, specifically SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by lowering toxic gas emissions and reducing projected traffic accidents. Also, the effect on SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) by reducing the transportation footprint, on SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by increasing transposition accessibility, reducing traffic congestion and improving the air quality, and equally on SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) by reducing transportation footprint and increase the sources efficiency. Moreover, micromobility affects SDG 13 (Climate Action) by reducing the greenhouse gases. Furthermore, the analysis shows a clear gap in literature and publications on micromobility, especially in energy management and energy storage area. This review shows that new technology of renewable energy and energy storage could play a significant role in achieving the sustainability of micromobility therefore achieving the SDGs.
... In many cities, low-income people are forced to live far from the city centre and they experience long commutes between their home and workplace which cause reduction of cycling rates as a commute mode. Moreover, many analyses have found that low-income people have poor access to cycling infrastructure whereas more affluent areas have better access to cycling infrastructure (Winters et al., 2018;Pistoll and Goodman, 2014;Flanagan et al., 2016;Braun et al., 2019). ...
COVID-19 restrictions imposed significant changes on human mobility patterns, with some studies finding significant increases or decreases in cycling. However, to date there is little understanding on how the neighbourhood-level built environment influenced cycling behaviour during the COVID-19 restrictions. As different neighbourhood have different built environment characteristics, it is possible that cycling trends varied across different built environment settings. We aimed to answer this question by examining recreational cycling during different stages of lockdown in Melbourne, Australia. We compared self-reported recreational cycling frequency (weekly) data from 1344 respondents between pre-COVID and two different stages in lockdown. We tested whether the built environment of their residential neighbourhood and different sociodemographic characteristics influenced leisure cycling rates and whether the effect of these factors varied between different stages of COVID-19 restriction. We found that cycling declined significantly during the two stages of COVID-19 lockdown. Cycling infrastructure density and connectivity are two built environment factors that had a significant effect on limiting the decline in leisure cycling during the pandemic. Furthermore, men and younger people had higher cycling rates in comparison to other groups, suggesting that restrictions on indoor activities and travel limits were not enough to encourage women or older people to cycle more during the pandemic.
... Other metrics of cycling infrastructure have considered normalizing by the total length of the road network. 10,12,25 This may be more suitable for studies that wish to compare rural and urban areas. Similarly, normalizing by population can be advantageous as it would capture the relationship between the supply of comfortable cycling infrastructure and potential demand (i.e., density of people living nearby to access it). ...
Background:
The lack of consistent measures of the cycling environment across communities hampers cycling research and policy action. Our goal was to develop the first national dataset in Canada for metrics of the cycling environment at the dissemination area (DA) level - the Canadian Bikeway Comfort and Safety (Can-BICS) metrics.
Data and methods:
The Can-BICS metrics are area-level metrics based on the quantity of cycling infrastructure within a 1 km buffer of the population-weighted centroid of DAs. The base data are a national cycling network dataset derived from OpenStreetMap (OSM) (extracted January 25, 2022) and classified by high-, medium- and low-comfort facilities. A Can-BICS continuous metric (sum of cycling infrastructure per square kilometre weighted by comfort class) and Can-BICS categorical metric were derived and mapped for all 56,589 DAs in Canada. The Can-BICS metrics were correlated with other national datasets (2016 Canadian Active Living Environments [Can-ALE] and 2016 Census journey-to-work data) to test for associations between Can-BICS and related measures. Additionally, city staff were engaged to provide feedback on metrics during the development phase.
Results:
One-third (34%) of neighbourhoods in Canada have no cycling infrastructure. According to the categorical measure, 5% of all DAs were assigned as the highest category of Can-BICS (corresponding to 6% of the population) and were nearly all within metro areas. The Can-BICS continuous metric had low correlation with bike-to-work rates (R = 0.29) and was more strongly correlated with sustainable-transportation-to-work rates (R = 0.56) and the Can-ALE metrics (R=0.62). These correlations were variable across cities.
Interpretation:
The Can-BICS metrics provide national research- and practice-ready measures of cycling infrastructure. The metrics complement existing measures of walking and transit environments (Can-ALE), collectively providing a cohesive set of active living measures. The datasets and code are publicly available, facilitating updates as new infrastructure is built.
Interventions to promote active travel (walking and bicycling) have manifold societal benefits. This study reviews the benefits of active travel infrastructure (e.g., painted bicycle lane, pedestrian refuge island) and programmatic interventions (e.g., bike share program), synthesizes the effects by outcome categories and provides a summary of the effects, and quantifies the effects where possible. We cite 236 studies on intervention-specific findings. Additional evidence is used to synthesize the benefits of active travel interventions into different benefit categories including safety, physical activity, reduction in vehicle miles traveled and emissions, other health effects, and economic activity. There is relatively more evidence in the literature on safety effects and changes in bicycling and walking associated with active transportation interventions than on other effects such as changes in physical activity and vehicle miles traveled. In general, we find strong evidence for wide ranging societal benefits from active transportation interventions that increase public health and transportation system sustainability in cost-effective ways. Variation in effects is substantial for most infrastructure interventions, likely due to the wide variety of land use, environmental, cultural, and political contexts, as well as the wide variety of research methods and analyses employed across a diverse set of academic fields. The existing local transportation infrastructure and land-use patterns are especially likely to moderate the effects of active transportation interventions. This suggests that it is necessary to keep the local context in mind when evaluating the effects of specific interventions.
Urban disparity has been extensively studied using geospatial technology, yet a comprehensive review of GIS applications in this field is essential to address the current research status, potential challenges, and future trends. This review combines bibliometric analysis from two databases, Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus, encompassing 145 articles from WOS and 80 from Scopus, resulting in a final list of 201 articles after excluding 24 duplicates. This approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of urban disparities and the extensive applications of GIS technology. The review highlights and characterizes research status and frontiers into research clusters, future scopes, and gaps in urban disparity analysis. The use of both WOS and Scopus ensures the review’s credibility and comprehensiveness. Findings indicate that most research has focused on accessibility analysis of urban services and facilities. However, there is a recent paradigm shift toward environmental justice, demonstrated by increasing GIS applications in analyzing pollution exposure, urban heat islands, vegetation distribution, disaster vulnerability, and health vulnerability.
Introduction: As a non-motorized active transportation modes, bike-sharing can be resistant, resilient and sustainable in respond to COVID-19.
Method: This study aims to examine time-varying effects of neighbouring built environment and socio-demographic characteristics on station-level urban bike-sharing trips under the influence of COVID-19. Specifically, the bike-sharing data for Citi Bike stations in New York City were collected across three periods: pre-COVID-19, the early outbreak period, and the stabilization period. To completely measure the station-level bike-sharing travel, two travel demand indexes are used: amount of trips generated in a station (trip frequency) and average duration of trips (trip duration). The spatial regression approach was utilized for model building.
Results: The empirical results revealed that the estimated effects of neighbouring characteristics on station-level bike-sharing travel demand have changed during the three tested periods. For instance, the differences in the trip frequency of bike-sharing due to age decreased in light of COVID-19. The results also demonstrated that it is necessary to integrate trip frequency and trip duration to measure the bike-sharing travel because certain factors may have different impacts on these two indicators. Such as, during the stable period of COVID-19, the setting of bicycle lanes reduced the trip frequency but extended the trip duration. Conversely, the setting of bus stops or subway stations increased the trip frequency but reduced the trip duration.
Conclusions: Our findings provide practical implications for both government transportation planning and operators of bike-sharing company.
La perméabilité filtrée (PF), qui renvoie à la capacité d’un réseau à permettre le mouvement, tend à s’imposer comme un élément clé permettant de comprendre le succès des villes cyclables, avec le postulat que la liberté de mouvement devrait être plus grande à vélo qu’en automobile. L’objectif de cet article est d’évaluer le niveau de perméabilité filtrée dans les 42 communes les plus peuplées de France. Pour ce faire, un indice de PF, fondé sur trois dimensions de la perméabilité d’un réseau (configuration, connectivité et densité), a été calculé à partir des données d’ OpenStreetMap . Les résultats indiquent une forte variabilité d’une ville à l’autre, plaçant Strasbourg en tête de classement. De plus, ils révèlent une corrélation positive entre le niveau de PF et la part modale du vélo, renforçant ainsi la pertinence d’intégrer l’approche de PF dans les pratiques de planification.
In German cities, higher levels of education increase people’s propensity to cycle. However, it remains unknown whether this effect is restricted to certain contexts, such as cities with low or medium cycling rates, or whether it is a more universal occurrence. This paper develops and tests competing hypotheses on how the effect of education on cycling might depend on the overall cycling level: (a) educational inequalities in cycling could increase proportionally with the overall cycling level or (b) such inequalities might diminish in high-cycling cities because their advanced pro-cycling mobility cultures encourage cycling among all social groups. I analyse about 150,000 trips made by about 50,000 residents from 143 cities in the Netherlands and Germany using multilevel regression models. Results fall in between the competing hypotheses, meaning that the effect of education is similarly large in cities with low, medium, or high overall levels of cycling. Hence, there is no automatism in the sense that higher cycling shares in general will also imply greater cycling equity.
High-quality and consistent cycling infrastructure data are needed to advance research into equity and safety and for planning active transportation. With recent growth in cycling and investments in cycling infrastructure, there are concerns that these investments have not been equitable across communities. There is no consistent and complete national dataset for cycling infrastructure in Canada. Our goal is to develop a national cycling infrastructure dataset by (1) classifying OpenStreetMap (OSM) using the Canadian Bikeway Comfort and Safety Classification System (Can-BICS) as consistent criteria and categorisation for comfort class and infrastructure type; (2) performing a site-specific accuracy assessment by comparing the classification with more than 2000 reference points from a stratified random sample in 15 cities; and (3) presenting summary results from the national dataset. Based on reference data collected in 15 test cities, the classification had an estimated accuracy of 76 ± 3% for presence or absence of infrastructure, 71 ± 4% for comfort class and 69 ± 4% (by length) for infrastructure type. High comfort infrastructure was slightly underestimated (since bike paths were sometimes confused with multi-use paths) and low comfort infrastructure was slightly overestimated. Nationally, we identified 22,992 km of cycling infrastructure meeting Can-BICS standards and 48,953 km of non-conforming infrastructure. Multi-use paths are the most common infrastructure type by length (16.6%), followed by painted bike lanes (11.0%), and then high comfort infrastructure (cycle tracks, local street bikeways and bike paths) (4.3%). There was a wider range in access to cycling infrastructure in small cities than in medium and large cities. To reduce repeated effort assembling data and increase reproducible active transportation research, we encourage contribution to OSM.
Knowing about the specific route preferences of demographic groups is crucial when researching equity in cycling. In this study, we use a large-scale stated-preference experiment with 4389 respondents and 35,112 choice observations to evaluate route choice behavior. We set up discrete route choice models and focus on the specific needs of women, people cycling with children, and older adults. Results show that all groups of interest show higher, but not fundamentally different, route requirements. In this context, lower speed limits for motorized transport are very important for people cycling with children, and older adults. In addition, women and those traveling with children attach significantly higher value to separated bike infrastructure. These results show that vulnerable road users benefit stronger from a bike-friendly road infrastructure than the cyclist population as a whole.
The public network of bicycle lanes in Bogota Colombia, known as ‘Cicloruta’, is the largest in Latin America. Despite its success, disparities in regards to the distribution of routes by socioeconomic status (SES) of neighborhoods have not been examined. This exploratory analysis sought to assess the distribution and distance to the city network of bicycle lanes by neighborhood SES in urban blocks located in flat terrains. We conducted a spatial ecological analysis using secondary data obtained through geographic information systems from official databases. We calculated the shortest route from the centroid of each urban neighborhood block to the closest access point of the bicycle lane network. The median distance to the bicycle lane network from urban block centroids was 444m. This median distance ranged from 1,062m for the most disadvantaged areas to 315m for the wealthiest, showing a clear difference in the spatial distribution. Results show wide variation in the distribution of bicycle lanes by SES, but particularly for the most disadvantaged areas. Improving the conditions for cycling in a more equitable manner may involve expanding the network of bicycle lanes for populations living in less advantaged areas.
It is widely agreed today that the existence of a network of bicycle paths fosters a feeling of safety as well as the use of the bicycle for both recreational and utilitarian purposes. Recent studies have found a link between the presence of cycling infrastructures and gentrification. Few studies have however examined the growth of the cycling networks from the perspective of environmental equity.
The main objective of this study is to determine whether the extension of the cycling network in the urban areas of Montreal and Longueuil and the city of Laval over a quarter of a century (1991 to 2016) has reduced or reinforced inequities in accessibility for low-income populations, recent immigrants, children, and older people.
Archival maps were employed to reconstruct the cycling networks in the Montreal area in a GIS for six years (1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016). Census data and spatial analysis methods were then used to measure whether or not inequities in the accessibility of the cycling network increased over the period in question.
The results show that, in 25 years, the cycling network has more than doubled in size. It can however be seen that some areas are still very poorly served, and that the network lacks connectivity. Low-income individuals have generally enjoyed good accessibility over the entire period. A strong decrease in inaccessibility for recent immigrants and seniors is also observed. The most important result is clearly that there has been little or no improvement for children, who are found to be in a situation of inequity.
While increasing evidence suggests an association between physical infrastructure in neighborhoods and health outcomes, relatively little research examines how neighborhoods change physically over time and how these physical improvements are spatially distributed across populations. This paper describes the change over 25 years (1985–2010) in bicycle lanes, off-road trails, bus transit service and parks, and spatial clusters of changes in these domains relative to neighborhood sociodemographics in four US cities that are diverse in terms of geography, size, and population. Across all four cities we identified increases in bicycle lanes, off-road trails, and bus transit service, with spatial clustering in these changes that related to neighborhood sociodemographics. Overall, we found evidence of positive changes in physical infrastructure commonly identified as supportive of physical activity. However, the patterning of infrastructure change by sociodemographic change encourages attention to the equity in infrastructure improvements across neighborhoods.
Located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, the Westlawn neighborhood is home to the State of Wisconsin’s largest public housing development. Westlawn is a low-income, African-American urban community that suffers from a wide range of health and environmental disparities. A community-based participatory action (CBPA) team was formed to address environmental health issues in Westlawn, and found asthma rates there are among the highest in the State. Decreasing air pollution, and corresponding asthma triggers, became a priority for the community. The CBPA team developed a bicycling program to reduce trips made by car and improve air quality in the Westlawn neighborhood. Input from focus group meetings shaped the development, implementation and expansion of the bicycling program. While the program was originally conceived to address environmental health issues, it provided key findings about how to encourage bicycling in low-income minority urban communities.
Over the course of the past two decades, bicycling has become increasingly popular in the USA. Although the rate of bike trips made in the USA has more than tripled since 1977, it is relatively low compared with many European cities (Pucher et al., 2011a). In urban areas throughout the USA, bicycling is increasingly being touted as an environmentally friendly way to enhance transit choice as public transportation budgets are slashed and automobile infrastructures remain congested. Discourse around the proliferation of bicycling infrastructure development in American cities often obscures complex aspects of community-level choice regarding transit, including the placement and implementation of bike lanes.
This paper seeks to explore the dynamic ways that community members and city planners make sense of bike infrastructure development in Chicago, Illinois. Qualitative interviews and participant observation were employed to clarify the community context of bike lane development in a gentrifying area of the city. We find that community engagement is a critical component of promoting the acceptance and use of bike infrastructure and discuss the role of a community bike shop in facilitating community engagement around bicycling in the neighbourhood of Humboldt Park, home to the second largest Puerto Rican community in the USA.
Despite decade old calls for a "just sustainability," urban sustainability policy and practice remains oriented toward environmental outcomes and eco-lifestyle projects. Notions of equity, justice, and inclusion continue to be marginalized in favor of technological solutions, such as green buildings, that are visible, easy to implement, and help to promote economic development. By examining a controversy over a bikeway development project in a rapidly gentrifying neighborhood in Northeast Portland, Oregon, this article explores how despite apolitical appeals to broadly shared values or visions of what a sustainable city ought to look like, sustainability projects can be - and perhaps should be - hotly contested. This article illustrates how sustainable development projects become sites of political debate, and provide space for environmental and social justice concerns to enter into the broader discourse on sustainability. Following the work of environmental justice advocates and scholars critiquing urban sustainability, this article contributes to the analysis and practice of efforts to advance a more socially robust, equitable, and political notion of sustainability.
To enhance social equity, three important sustainable transportation initiatives have been introduced in Bogotá. Spatial information and GIS have been used to analyze levels of inequality in access to these initiatives. The results show that the TransMilenio BRT offers equal access for all socio-economic strata (SES). Nonetheless, its modal share is low for the poor due to affordability issues. The Cicloruta bicycle network and Ciclovía recreational program do not offer equal access for all SES, especially for the lower SES. Their users, however, mainly come from low and middle income SES. Marginal network extensions can improve equality in access.
This research examines recent trends in the suburbanization of poor non‐Latino Whites, Blacks, and Asians, and Latinos of all races in the United States. The authors find strong associations between a temporally lagged measure of suburban housing supply and poverty suburbanization during the period 2006–2010 for all groups, but these associations are largely attenuated by similarly lagged controls for suburban affordable housing and employment, as well as for other characteristics of metropolitan areas. Findings indicate that poor non‐Latino Whites and Asians have higher suburbanization rates in metropolitan areas with higher levels of suburban employment, while the suburbanization of the Black and Latino poor is more strongly related to the availability of affordable suburban housing. Increases in housing supply are associated with change in poverty suburbanization over time for Whites, Blacks, and Latinos. In addition, increases in affordable rental housing are associated with increases in the suburbanization of the Latino poor.
Transportation improvements inevitably lead to an uneven distribution of user benefits, in space and by network type (private and public transport). This paper makes a moral argument for what would be a fair distribution of these benefits. The argument follows Walzer’s “Spheres of Justice” approach to define the benefits of transportation, access, as a sphere deserving a separate, non-market driven, distribution. That distribution, we propose, is one where the maximum gap between the lowest and highest accessibility, both by mode and in space, should be limited, while attempting to maximize average access. We then review transportation planning practice for a-priori distributional goals and find little explicit guidance in conventional and even justice-oriented transportation planning and analyses. We end with a discussion of the implications for practice.
The importance of factors affecting commuter bicyclists' route choices was evaluated. Both route-level (e.g., travel time) and link-level (e.g., pavement quality) factors are examined. Empirical models are estimated using data from a stated preference survey conducted via the Internet. The models indicate that, for commuter bicyclists, travel time is the most important factor in choosing a route. Presence of a bicycle facility ( especially a bike lane or separate path), the level of automobile traffic, pavement or riding surface quality, and presence of a bicycle facility on a bridge are also very important determinants. Furthermore, there are policy implications of these results for bicycle facility planning.
This paper reviews trends in cycling levels, safety, and policies in Canada and the USA over the past two decades. We analyze aggregate data for the two countries as well as city-specific case study data for nine large cities (Chicago, Minneapolis, Montréal, New York, Portland, San Francisco, Toronto, Vancouver, and Washington). Cycling levels have increased in both the USA and Canada, while cyclist fatalities have fallen. There is much spatial variation and socioeconomic inequality in cycling rates. The bike share of work commuters is more than twice as high in Canada as in the USA, and is higher in the western parts of both countries. Cycling is concentrated in central cities, especially near universities and in gentrified neighborhoods near the city center. Almost all the growth in cycling in the USA has been among men between 25-64Â years old, while cycling rates have remained steady among women and fallen sharply for children. Cycling rates have risen much faster in the nine case study cities than in their countries as a whole, at least doubling in all the cities since 1990. They have implemented a wide range of infrastructure and programs to promote cycling and increase cycling safety: expanded and improved bike lanes and paths, traffic calming, parking, bike-transit integration, bike sharing, training programs, and promotional events. We describe the specific accomplishments of the nine case study cities, focusing on each city's innovations and lessons for other cities trying to increase cycling. Portland's comprehensive package of cycling policies has succeeded in raising cycling levels 6-fold and provides an example that other North American cities can follow.
Providing safe, convenient places for walking and bicycling can reduce barriers to participating in regular physical activity. We examined bicycle- and pedestrian-related investments authorized by federal transportation legislation in 3,140 counties in the United States by region, population size and urbanization, social and economic characteristics, and indicators of travel-related walking and bicycling. From 1992 to 2004, states and counties implemented 10,012 bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects representing $3.17 billion in federal expenditures. We found disparities in implementation and system-building outcomes according to population size and location and social and economic indicators. Counties characterized by persistent poverty (odds ratio=0.69, 95% confidence interval 0.53-0.91) or low educational status (odds ratio=0.66, 95% confidence interval 0.52-0.84) were less likely to implement projects. Three key policy recommendations for improving public health outcomes are drawn from this research: Improved data tracking, more explicit linkages between transportation projects and public health, and improved planning assistance to underserved communities are all seen as essential steps.
Although many low-income urban areas are highly walkable by conventional measures such as population density or land use mix, chronic diseases related to lack of physical activity are more common among residents of these areas. Disparities in neighborhood conditions may make poor areas less attractive environments for walking, offsetting the advantages of density and land use mix. This study compared poor and nonpoor neighborhoods in New York City, using geographic information systems measures constructed from public data for US census tracts within New York City (N=2,172) as well as field observation of a matched-pair sample of 76 block faces on commercial streets in poor and nonpoor neighborhoods. Poor census tracts had significantly fewer street trees, landmarked buildings, clean streets, and sidewalk cafes, and higher rates of felony complaints, narcotics arrests, and vehicular crashes. The field observation showed similar results. Improving aesthetic and safety conditions in poor neighborhoods may help reduce disparities in physical activity among urban residents.
A growing body of evidence links the built environment to physical activity levels, health outcomes, and transportation behaviors. However, little of this research has focused on cycling, a sustainable transportation option with great potential for growth in North America. This study examines associations between decisions to bicycle (versus drive) and the built environment, with explicit consideration of three different spatial zones that may be relevant in travel behavior: trip origins, trip destinations, and along the route between. We analyzed 3,280 utilitarian bicycle and car trips in Metro Vancouver, Canada made by 1,902 adults, including both current and potential cyclists. Objective measures were developed for built environment characteristics related to the physical environment, land use patterns, the road network, and bicycle-specific facilities. Multilevel logistic regression was used to model the likelihood that a trip was made by bicycle, adjusting for trip distance and personal demographics. Separate models were constructed for each spatial zone, and a global model examined the relative influence of the three zones. In total, 31% (1,023 out of 3,280) of trips were made by bicycle. Increased odds of bicycling were associated with less hilliness; higher intersection density; less highways and arterials; presence of bicycle signage, traffic calming, and cyclist-activated traffic lights; more neighborhood commercial, educational, and industrial land uses; greater land use mix; and higher population density. Different factors were important within each spatial zone. Overall, the characteristics of routes were more influential than origin or destination characteristics. These findings indicate that the built environment has a significant influence on healthy travel decisions, and spatial context is important. Future research should explicitly consider relevant spatial zones when investigating the relationship between physical activity and urban form.
Differences in health behaviors may be important contributors to racial/ethnic disparities in the health status of adults. Studies to date have not compared whether there are health behavior differences in exercise and dietary behaviors among middle-age and older adults in the four largest racial/ethnic categories.
To investigate racial/ethnic differences in exercise and dietary behaviors of middle-aged and older adults.
We used data from the 2007 California Health Interview Survey. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine interactions between age and race/ethnicity in predicting two categories of health behaviors. Analyses were conducted adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, health insurance status, and healthcare utilization.
A population-based sample of 33,189 California adults 45 years old and older: 26,522 non-Hispanic whites, 1,686 African American/blacks, 2,565 Asian/Pacific Islanders (1,741 English-proficient; 824 limited English-proficient), and 2,416 Latinos (1,538 English-proficient; 878 limited English-proficient).
Self-report leisure-time physical activity (moderate and vigorous) and daily consumption of fruits and vegetables.
Racial/ethnic minorities generally engaged in less healthy exercise and dietary behaviors than whites, with differences more pronounced in middle adulthood. The disparities were the greatest among English-proficient minorities. Specifically, among middle-aged respondents, all racial/ethnic minorities engaged in less vigorous physical activity than whites (ORs range = 0.28 to 0.73; 95% CI range = 0.16-1.00). Additionally, middle-aged, English-proficient minorities engaged in less moderate physical activity compared to whites (ORs range =0.57 to 0.67; 95% CI range = 0.45-0.79). Furthermore, middle-aged, English-proficient Latinos had a poorer diet than whites (OR = 0.54; 0.39-0.75). Few significant racial/ethnic differences emerged in the exercise and dietary behaviors of older adults.
Racial/ethnic disparities in exercise and dietary behaviors are most notable among middle-aged, acculturated minorities. Results highlight the need to promote positive exercise and dietary behaviors during critical preventive ages, when racial/ethnic disparities are large and the potential to prevent chronic disease is great.
To assess existing research on the effects of various interventions on levels of bicycling. Interventions include infrastructure (e.g., bike lanes and parking), integration with public transport, education and marketing programs, bicycle access programs, and legal issues.
A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed and non-reviewed research identified 139 studies. Study methodologies varied considerably in type and quality, with few meeting rigorous standards. Secondary data were gathered for 14 case study cities that adopted multiple interventions.
Many studies show positive associations between specific interventions and levels of bicycling. The 14 case studies show that almost all cities adopting comprehensive packages of interventions experienced large increases in the number of bicycle trips and share of people bicycling.
Most of the evidence examined in this review supports the crucial role of public policy in encouraging bicycling. Substantial increases in bicycling require an integrated package of many different, complementary interventions, including infrastructure provision and pro-bicycle programs, supportive land use planning, and restrictions on car use.
This study was designed to examine the relationship between active transportation (defined as the percentage of trips taken by walking, bicycling, and public transit) and obesity rates (BMI > or = 30 kg . m-2) in different countries.
National surveys of travel behavior and health indicators in Europe, North America, and Australia were used in this study; the surveys were conducted in 1994 to 2006. In some cases raw data were obtained from national or federal agencies and then analyzed, and in other cases summary data were obtained from published reports.
Countries with the highest levels of active transportation generally had the lowest obesity rates. Europeans walked more than United States residents (382 versus 140 km per person per year) and bicycled more (188 versus 40 km per person per year) in 2000.
Walking and bicycling are far more common in European countries than in the United States, Australia, and Canada. Active transportation is inversely related to obesity in these countries. Although the results do not prove causality, they suggest that active transportation could be one of the factors that explain international differences in obesity rates.
Lack of physical activity among American adults is a serious public health concern. Many factors influence activity levels, and most research has focused on either individual factors, such as race and income, or on characteristics of the physical environment, such as the availability of parks. Our study used a cross-sectional multilevel design to examine the influences of individual- and neighborhood-level characteristics on participant's perceptions of their neighborhood as an appropriate venue for physical activity. Study participants were 1,073 African American and white adults living in the St. Louis, Missouri, metropolitan area. Individual-level information was gathered from self-administered questionnaires; neighborhood-level data for these same individuals were obtained from the 2000 US Census. We found that both individual and neighborhood characteristics were significant predictors of how individuals perceived physical activity opportunities in their neighborhood, and that African Americans perceived their neighborhoods as less safe and less pleasant for physical activity than did whites, regardless of the racial composition of the neighborhood. We suggest that any evaluation of opportunities for physical activity within a neighborhood should include consideration of resident's perceptions of the safety and pleasantness of using them, and that the role of perceived and actual neighborhood conditions in explaining disparities in physical activity between African American and other populations should be examined further.
There are significant differences in physical inactivity in various geographical areas and among demographic groups. Previous research suggests that walking is the most common form of physical activity; however, not all built environments support walking for recreational or transportation purposes.
The purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which area-level factors, poverty rate and racial distribution, are associated with aspects of the street-scale environment (i.e. sidewalk walkability and physical disorder) using community audits.
Street segments were randomly selected from 210 block groups. Pairs of trained auditors walked each street segment using an audit tool designed to capture aspects of the street environment. Multilevel logistic regression was used to assess the degree of neighborhood (i.e. block group) variation in sidewalk unevenness, sidewalk obstruction and the presence of physical disorder and the association with area-level characteristics.
1780 street segments were audited. Block groups that were predominantly African-American were 38 times more likely to have a lot of unevenness, 15 times more likely to have many obstructions, and 12 times more likely to have physical disorder. Poverty rate was not independently associated with sidewalk walkability; however, block groups with the highest poverty rates were 21 times more likely to have physical disorder.
The results indicate that aspects of the built environment vary by characteristics of the neighborhood. This suggests that there is a differential investment in community infrastructures and resources in neighborhoods that are mostly African-American. This differential investment is likely to influence disparities in rates of physical activity.
A stated preference experiment was performed in Edmonton in Canada to both examine the nature of various influences on bicycle use and obtain ratios among parameter values to be used in the development of a larger simulation of household travel behaviour. A total of 1128 questionnaires were completed and returned by current cyclists. Each questionnaire presented a pair of possible bicycle use alternatives and asked which was preferred for travel to a hypothetical all-day meeting or gathering (business or social). Alternatives were described by specifying the amounts of time spent on three different types of cycling facility and whether or not showers and/or secure bicycle parking were available at the destination. Indications of socio-economic character and levels of experience and comfort regarding cycling were also collected. The observations thus obtained were used to estimate the parameter values for a range of different utility functions in logit models representing this choice behaviour. The results indicate, among other things, that time spent cycling in mixed traffic is more onerous than time spent cycling on bike lanes or bike paths; that secure parking is more important than showers at the destination; and that cycling times on roadways tend to become less onerous as level of experience increases. Some of these results are novel and others are consistent with findings regarding bicycle use in work done by others, which is seen to add credence to this work. A review of previous findings concerning influences on cycling behaviour is also included. Copyright Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2007
Cycling is often promoted as a low cost, accessible and virtuous strategy for solving many urban problems, including air pollution, congestion, climate change and the ‘obesity epidemic’. Yet the status of cycling as a quick and easy transport solution available to all is rarely problematised in policy documents. Focussing on cycling policy documents in sub-tropical Brisbane (Australia) we apply interpretive policy analysis to identify the ways policy representations of cycling and cyclists may work to exacerbate the marginality of certain groups by excluding them from representation. Through analysis of these policy documents, and reference to international research on cycling and the right to the city, this article sketches out the figure of the ‘Cycling Citizen’ constructed within them. The Cycling Citizen is characterised in these policy documents by a combination of actions (such as demonstrations of speed and skill), personal attributes (such as body-type, clothes and gender) and attitudes (particularly around virtue). We argue that the dominance of representations of MAMIL (middle-aged men in lycra) cyclists in the policy documents analysed may work to make cycling less accessible to those less likely to identify as MAMIL such as women, people of colour, people with lower incomes, and fat people, and this may effectively exclude them from cycling policy decisions, and negatively shape personal choices about cycling. We further argue that policy representations of cycling and cyclists matter because they have the potential to influence infrastructure and funding decisions which may have material consequences with respect to cycling mode share, equity and safety.
In many Latin American cities, rapid motorization and population growth have resulted in unprecedented urban transportation challenges, with lower income populations disproportionately facing constraints to mobility as well as externalities like air pollution, traffic collisions, and the impacts of climate change. The construction of bicycle lane networks has been identified as an effective tool for increasing citizen's mobility and accessibility as well as combatting the effects of motorization, but in cities where bicycle lane networks exist, it is not known if they have benefitted different income groups equally. This paper assesses the extent to which bicycle lane provisioning has been equitable among neighbourhoods in Rio de Janeiro and Curitiba. Both cities were found to have more than twice the supply of bicycle lanes in the wealthiest quintile than the lowest-income quintile relative to area and population. A network analysis using a Level of Traffic Stress classification to categorize roads found that wealthier areas have more commercial areas accessible along safer cycling routes. Implications for cycling policy and future research are discussed.
Active transportation modes are increasingly being acknowledged for their individual and societal benefits. As a result, funding for pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure in the United States has increased substantially in recent years. However, pedestrian and bicycle equity impacts often go overlooked, which has resulted in an inequitable distribution of active transportation costs and benefits. The paper contributes to this small but growing field by developing an enhanced understanding of active transportation equity, identifying limitations in research and in practice, and providing a set of recommendations for planners and researchers. These recommendations include considering other transportation-disadvantaged groups beyond low-income and minority populations in equity analysis, adopting new performance measures, increasing inter-agency coordination, the need for stronger guidance from the federal government, and more representation from transportation-disadvantaged groups in the public participation and decision-making process. If the costs and benefits of active transportation are to be fairly shared among all users, equity will need to be meaningfully addressed in the planning process.
Bicycles have the potential to provide an environmentally friendly, healthy, low cost, and enjoyable transportation option to people of all socio-demographic backgrounds. This research assesses the geographic distribution of cycling infrastructure with regard to community demographic characteristics to assess claims that cycling investment arrives in tandem with incoming populations of privilege or is targeted towards neighborhoods with existing socioeconomic wealth. Using census and municipal cycling infrastructure data in Chicago and Portland from 1990 to 2010, we create demographic and cycling infrastructure investment indices at the census tract level. Linear regressions estimate the extent to which existing community demographics and change in demographics associated with gentrification are related to cycling infrastructure investment. In both cities, we identify a bias towards increased cycling infrastructure investment in areas of existing or increasing privilege. This paper suggests that marginalized communities are unlikely to attract as much cycling infrastructure investment without the presence of privileged populations, even when considering population density and distance to downtown, two motivators of urban cycling. To alleviate the continuation of inequitable distributions of cycling investments, planning processes may actively seek out diverse stakeholders and be sensitive to citywide community input and stated needs in future transportation projects.
Understanding how different socioeconomic indicators are associated with transport modes provide insight into which interventions might contribute to reducing socioeconomic inequalities in health. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between neighbourhood-level socioeconomic disadvantage, individual-level socioeconomic position (SEP), and usual transport mode.
This investigation included 11 036 residents from 200 neighbourhoods in Brisbane, Australia. Respondents self-reported their usual transport mode (car or motorbike, public transport, walking or cycling). Indicators for individual-level SEP were education, occupation and household income; and neighbourhood disadvantage was measured using a census-derived index. Data were analysed using multilevel multinomial logistic regression. High SEP respondents and residents of the most advantaged neighbourhoods who used a private motor vehicle as their usual form of transport was the reference category.
Compared with driving a motor vehicle, the odds of using public transport were higher for white collar employees (OR 1.68, 95% CrI 1.41-2.01), members of lower income households (OR 1.71 95% CrI 1.25-2.30) and residents of more disadvantaged neighbourhoods (OR 1.93, 95% CrI 1.46-2.54); and lower for respondents with a certificate-level education (OR 0.60, 95% CrI 0.49-0.74) and blue collar workers (OR 0.63, 95% CrI 0.50-0.81). The odds of walking for transport were higher for the least educated (OR 1.58, 95% CrI 1.18-2.11), those not in the labour force (OR 1.94, 95% CrI 1.38-2.72), members of lower income households (OR 2.10, 95% CrI 1.23-3.64) and residents of more disadvantaged neighbourhoods (OR 2.73, 95% CrI 1.46-5.24). The odds of cycling were lower among less educated groups (OR 0.31, 95% CrI 0.19-0.48).
The relationships between socioeconomic characteristics and transport modes are complex, and provide challenges for those attempting to encourage active forms of transportation. Further work is required exploring the individual-level and neighbourhood-level mechanisms behind choice of transport mode, and what factors might influence individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds to change to more active transport modes.
Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.
Neighborhood environments may influence the risk for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), but, to our knowledge, no longitudinal study has evaluated specific neighborhood exposures.
To determine whether long-term exposures to neighborhood physical and social environments, including the availability of healthy food and physical activity resources and levels of social cohesion and safety, are associated with incident T2DM during a 10-year period.
We used data from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis, a population-based cohort study of adults aged 45 to 84 years at baseline (July 17, 2000, through August 29, 2002). A total of 5124 participants free of T2DM at baseline underwent 5 clinical follow-up examinations from July 17, 2000, through February 4, 2012. Time-varying measurements of neighborhood healthy food and physical activity resources and social environments were linked to individual participant addresses. Neighborhood environments were measured using geographic information system (GIS)- and survey-based methods and combined into a summary score. We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of incident T2DM associated with cumulative exposure to neighborhood resources using Cox proportional hazards regression models adjusted for age, sex, income, educational level, race/ethnicity, alcohol use, and cigarette smoking. Data were analyzed from December 15, 2013, through September 22, 2014.
Incident T2DM defined as a fasting glucose level of at least 126 mg/dL or use of insulin or oral antihyperglycemics.
During a median follow-up of 8.9 years (37 394 person-years), 616 of 5124 participants (12.0%) developed T2DM (crude incidence rate, 16.47 [95% CI, 15.22-17.83] per 1000 person-years). In adjusted models, a lower risk for developing T2DM was associated with greater cumulative exposure to indicators of neighborhood healthy food (12%; HR per interquartile range [IQR] increase in summary score, 0.88 [95% CI, 0.79-0.98]) and physical activity resources (21%; HR per IQR increase in summary score, 0.79 [95% CI, 0.71-0.88]), with associations driven primarily by the survey exposure measures. Neighborhood social environment was not associated with incident T2DM (HR per IQR increase in summary score, 0.96 [95% CI, 0.88-1.07]).
Long-term exposure to residential environments with greater resources to support physical activity and, to a lesser extent, healthy diets was associated with a lower incidence of T2DM, although results varied by measurement method. Modifying neighborhood environments may represent a complementary, population-based approach to prevention of T2DM, although further intervention studies are needed.
In this article, we describe twopm, a command for fitting two-part models for mixed discrete-continuous outcomes. In the two-part model, a binary choice model is fit for the probability of observing a positive-versus-zero outcome. Then, conditional on a positive outcome, an appropriate regression model is fit for the positive outcome. The twopm command allows the user to leverage the capabilities of predict and margins to calculate predictions and marginal effects and their standard errors from the combined first- and second-part models. Copyright 2015 by StataCorp LP.
This study used multivariate modeling techniques to estimate the effect of household proximity to retail and bicycle facilities on the odds of walking and cycling in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. We analyzed these relationships employing detailed GIS data and individual-level travel diary data. We found that distances to retail and bicycle facilities are statistically significant predictors of choosing active modes of transport at close distances, but the relationships do not appear to be linear.
Physical activity has various health benefits. Active transport can contribute to total physical activity and thus affect body weight because of increased energy expenditure. This review summarizes published evidence on associations of active transport, general physical activity, and body weight in adults.
A systematic review of the literature was conducted in October 2010 using eight databases. A total of 14,216 references were screened; full texts were retrieved for 95 articles. Forty-six articles (36 unique studies) were included: 20 (17) from Europe; 18 (13) from North America, Australia, and New Zealand; and eight (six) from other countries. Analyses of the retrieved papers were carried out between November 2010 and March 2011.
Of 15 studies assessing active transport and physical activity, five found associations in the expected direction (more active transport associated with more physical activity) for all or most variables studied, nine found some associations, and one reported no associations. Of 30 studies assessing active transport and body weight, 13 reported associations in the expected direction (more active transport associated with lower body weight) for all or most variables studied, 12 found some associations, two presented some associations in the expected and some in the opposite direction, and three reported no associations.
There is limited evidence that active transport is associated with more physical activity as well as lower body weight in adults. However, study heterogeneity, predominantly cross-sectional designs, and crude measures for active transport and physical activity impede quantitative conclusions.
This paper describes the development of a mode choice model for the journey to work with special emphasis on the propensity to cycle. The model combines revealed preference (RP) and stated preference (SP) data to form a very large and comprehensive model. RP data from the National Travel Survey was combined with a specially commissioned RP survey. A number of SP surveys were also undertaken to examine the effects of different types of en-route and trip end cycle facilities and financial measures to encourage cycling.
The development of the model is described in detail. The model was used to forecast trends in urban commuting shares over time and to predict the impacts of different measures to encourage cycling. Of the en-route cycle facilities, a completely segregated cycleway was forecast to have the greatest impact, but even the unfeasible scenario of universal provision of such facilities would only result in a 55% increase in cycling and a slight reduction in car commuting. Payments for cycling to work were found to be highly effective with a £2 daily payment almost doubling the level of cycling. The most effective policy would combine improvements in en-route facilities, a daily payment to cycle to work and comprehensive trip end facilities and this would also have a significant impact on car commuting.
Compact, mixed-use, and walk-friendly urban development, many contend, can significantly influence the modes people choose to travel. Despite a voluminous empirical literature, most past studies have failed to adequately specify relationships for purposes of drawing inferences about the importance of built-environment factors in shaping mode choice. This paper frames the study of mode choice in Montgomery County, Maryland around a normative model that weighs the influences of not only three core dimensions of built environments – density, diversity, and design – but factors related to generalized cost and socio-economic attributes of travelers as well. The marginal contributions of built-environment factors to a traditionally specified utility-based model of mode choice are measured. The analysis reveals intensities and mixtures of land use significantly influence decisions to drive-alone, share a ride, or patronize transit, while the influences of urban design tend to be more modest. Elasticities that summarize relationships are also presented, and recommendations are offered on how outputs from conventional mode-choice models might be “post-processed” to better account for the impacts of built environments when testing land-use scenarios.
The present study explored whether perceived neighborhood environmental attributes associated with physical activity differ by neighborhood income. Adults aged 20-65 years (n=2199; 48% female; mean age=45 years; 26% ethnic minority) were recruited from 32 neighborhoods from the Seattle, WA and Baltimore, MD regions that varied in objectively measured walkability and neighborhood income. Perceived built and social environment variables were assessed with the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale. There were neighborhood income disparities on 10 of 15 variables. Residents from high-income neighborhoods reported more favorable esthetics, pedestrian/biking facilities, safety from traffic, safety from crime, and access to recreation facilities than residents of low-income areas (all p's <0.001). Low-income neighborhoods may lack amenities and safety attributes that can facilitate high levels of physical activity for both transportation and recreation purposes.
A pedestrian plan is a public document that explains a community's vision and goals for future pedestrian activity. This study explored whether involvement by public health professionals in the development of pedestrian plans was associated with certain characteristics of the plan (vision, goals, identified programs, and evaluation). This study identified, collected, and analyzed content of all pedestrian plans in North Carolina through 2008. Among the 46 plans, 39% reported involvement by public health professionals in their development. Overall, 72% of pedestrian plans included a vision statement; health was mentioned four times and quality of life was mentioned five times. Slightly more than half (52%) of the plans included goals to improve public health. Plans that involved public health professionals more often included the type of physical activity, safety, or education program. Only 22% of all pedestrian plans included a proposal to evaluate their implementation. Plans that included public health professionals were less likely to include an evaluation proposal (11%) compared with those that did not involve public health professionals (21%). Public health professionals are encouraged to seek involvement in the pedestrian planning process, particularly in the areas of health program development, implementation, and evaluation.
To examine the association between neighborhood disadvantage and physical activity (PA).
We use data from the HABITAT multilevel longitudinal study of PA among middle-aged (40-65 years) men and women (N = 11,037, 68.5% response rate) living in 200 neighborhoods in Brisbane, Australia. PA was measured using three questions from the Active Australia Survey (general walking, moderate, and vigorous activity), one indicator of total activity, and two questions about walking and cycling for transport. The PA measures were operationalized by using multiple categories based on time and estimated energy expenditure that were interpretable with reference to the latest PA recommendations. The association between neighborhood disadvantage and PA was examined with the use of multilevel multinomial logistic regression and Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation. The contribution of neighborhood disadvantage to between-neighborhood variation in PA was assessed using the 80% interval odds ratio.
After adjustment for sex, age, living arrangement, education, occupation, and household income, reported participation in all measures and levels of PA varied significantly across Brisbane's neighborhoods, and neighborhood disadvantage accounted for some of this variation. Residents of advantaged neighborhoods reported significantly higher levels of total activity, general walking, moderate, and vigorous activity; however, they were less likely to walk for transport. There was no statistically significant association between neighborhood disadvantage and cycling for transport. In terms of total PA, residents of advantaged neighborhoods were more likely to exceed PA recommendations.
Neighborhoods may exert a contextual effect on the likelihood of residents participating in PA. The greater propensity of residents in advantaged neighborhoods to do high levels of total PA may contribute to lower rates of cardiovascular disease and obesity in these areas.
While the relationship between urban form and travel behavior is a key element of many current planning initiatives aimed at reducing car travel, the literature faces two major problems. First, this relationship is extremely complex. Second, several specification and estimation issues are poorly addressed in prior work, possibly generating biased results. We argue that many of the latter problems are overcome by systematically isolating the separable influences of urban design characteristics on travel and then properly analyzing individual-level data. We further clarify which results directly follow from alternative land use arrangements and which may or may not, and thus identify the specific hypotheses to be tested against the data. We then develop more-reliable tests of these hypotheses, and explore the implications of alternative behavioral assumptions regarding travel costs. The measured influence of land use on travel behavior is shown to be very sensitive to the form of the empirical strategy.
Leisure time physical activity is inversely associated with cardiovascular risk, although evidence for the protective effects of active commuting is more limited. The present review examines evidence from prospective epidemiological studies of commuting activity and cardiovascular risk.
Meta-analytic procedures were performed to examine the association between commuting physical activity and cardiovascular risk. Several cardiovascular endpoints were examined including mortality, incident coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension and diabetes.
We included eight studies in the overall analysis (173,146 participants) that yielded 15 separate risk ratios (RR). The overall meta-analysis demonstrated a robust protective effect of active commuting on cardiovascular outcomes (integrated RR=0.89, 95% confidence interval 0.81-0.98, p=0.016). However, the protective effects of active commuting were more robust among women (0.87, 0.77-0.98, p=0.02) than in men (0.91, 0.80-1.04, p=0.17).
Active commuting that incorporates walking and cycling was associated with an overall 11% reduction in cardiovascular risk, which was more robust among women. Future studies should investigate the reasons for possible gender effects and also examine the importance of commuting activity intensity.
Little is known about relationships between attributes of land use plans and sociodemographic variations in physical activity (PA). This study evaluates associations between policy-relevant plan attributes, sociodemographic factors, and PA in North Carolina. Results suggest that land use plans that included non-automobile transportation improvements and more comprehensive policies to guide development were positively associated with both leisure and transportation-related PA. However, residents of counties with lower-income levels and higher proportions of non-white residents were less likely to have attributes supportive of PA included in their plans. Implications for transdisciplinary collaboration with respect to reducing health disparities are discussed.
Several models for limited dependent variables (variables having a non-negligible probability of exactly equaling zero) are examined. Estimation in and discrimination among the various models are considered, followed by a small sampling experiment into the procedures and an example of their application.
Is the right to bicycle a civil right? Synergies and tensions between the transportation justice movement and planning for bicycling
- Golub
Introduction: Creating an inclusionary bicycle justice movement
- Golub
Quantifying the equity of bikeshare access in US cities
- Ursaki