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1960
Finding harmony with others and harmony
with nature are foundational goals of Asian
philosophies. While Indian traditions (Hindu-
ism, Buddhism, and Jainism) focus largely on
the individual’s path toward harmony with the
cosmos, Chinese philosophies (Confucianism
and Daoism) depend on fi nding the right Way
(
dao
) to live a prosperous life—and on worthy
rulers to administer the state in line with the
right values.
A
sian philosophies teach notions related to living
well in harmony with others and in harmony
with nature. Both India and China developed complex
responses to issues of cosmology, ultimate meaning,
ethics, and human will. Especially today, Asians are
seeking to reclaim their philosophical foundations,
and intellectuals worldwide see the need to under-
stand traditional and contemporary Asian thought.
In south Asia, the profound affect of Mohandas Gan-
dhi’s teachings on nonviolence can still be seen. In
China, the twenty-fi rst century has seen a resurgence
of interest in neo-Confucianism. Understanding the
key ideas of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confu-
cianism, and Daoism can help put the role of India
and China on the world stage in a clearer context.
From the creations myths conveyed in the hymns
of the sacred Rig Veda some 3,500 years ago, to the
emergence of the Jainism (800
BCE
) and Buddhism
(500 BCE), and, in the early centuries of the common
era, the six distinct paths toward spiritual realization,
philosophies originating in India grew from and fos-
tered a number of beliefs: the connectedness between
the human order and the larger cosmos; principles of
self-sacrifi ce as a means of fulfi llment; the importance
of breath and breathing techniques; the theory of
karma (the law of moral causation); hierarchical rela-
tionships, rules, and rituals that bring an individual
to a place of identifi cation with and empathy for the
natural order; and methods of achieving transcen-
dence and interiority. Indian philosophy, then, was
largely focused on an individual’s path toward har-
mony with the cosmos.
Ancient Chinese philosophy focused on fi nding
the Way (dao), that is, the right way to live a pros-
perous life. Unlike Greek and Roman philosophers
who sought an abstract truth, Chinese philosophers
sought the best path to success. The Chinese philo-
sophical tendency inspired a social movement away
from aristocratic birth rights to follow worthy rulers
with versatile ministers who could administer the
state, ensuring safety and a good harvest. The an-
cient Chinese developed logical argumentation, made
scientifi c discoveries, and invented technology, espe-
cially in metallurgy and agriculture, that required a
greater need for (and advanced as a result of ) these
philosophical “disciplines.”
Ancient Indian ought
The philosophy of India begins with the early hymns
of the Rig Veda. Chanted, memorized, and kept sa-
cred by priests whose ancestors composed them at
least 3,500 year ago, in the northern area of what
today is Pakistan and India, these hymns represent
the oldest extant literature in the Indo-European lan-
guage family.
In the creation narrative of the Rig Veda (X: 129),
the world begins in a nameless, shapeless chaos. From
this beginning, water fi rst emerges, followed by the
Philosophy, Asian
PHILOSOPHY, ASIAN • 1961
fi re of the sun and the movement of breath. Desire
wells up from these vaguely perceptible entities, and
from desire, that which is below distinguishes itself
from what lies above. Sages emerge who perceive that
the existent always remains in close proximity to the
non-existent. They also proclaim that no one can look
to the gods for answers on the ultimate origin of the
universe, as the gods were created after that originary
moment.
In another hymn, the human body is seen as a
microphase of the macrophase realities of heaven
and Earth. Human feet touch the body of the Earth.
The mid-regions of the body correlate to the rise
and fall of the breath. The head reaches up into
the sky, with the right eye betokening the sun and
the left eye the moon. Furthermore, human social
structures also follow the structures of the body.
Farmers work the Earth and correlate to the feet.
Merchants ply their wares through the movements
of the legs. Soldiers and kings protect the people
with their strong arms. Priests, teachers, physi-
cians, and law-givers depend on their heads in or-
der to maintain ritual order.
The story of the great warrior Indra, who battles
the life-obscuring dragon to release life-giving wa-
ters (and hence ensures the fl ourishing of humans),
also embodies early Indian philosophy. From the
dreaded, drought-fi lled state of non-existence (asat),
Indra allows the emergence of a reliable existent
realm or world (sat-loka) by releasing the life-giving
monsoons with his thunderbolts (vajra). Within this
realm, people are free to perform sacrifi ces (yajna) to
myriad deities, seeking fulfi llment through worship
of Lakshmi to receive wealth, Sarasvati to receive
knowledge, Vak to become strong in voice, and so
forth. Having sacrifi ced and been fulfi lled, one dwells
for a moment in a state of art, ritual culmination, and
rhythm (rta) that signals the good life. Eventually, the
cycles of life continue, requiring the process again
to repeat.
Fou ndatio nal Tradit ions
When they emerged by 800 BCE, the early Upani-
shads (spiritual treatises) signaled new philosophies
that form the foundation for later traditions. Desire
and the importance of the breath remain constant
themes. New insights given forth by such teachers
as Yajnavalkya and Satyakama Jabala discuss the
primacy of the elements and the importance of ori-
enting oneself within the four directions, the three
zones—Earth (bhu), the atmospheric zone of life and
movement (bhuva), and the sky above (sva)—as well
as the vast ocean (udaka). Yoga, reincarnation, and
ideas of karma were fi rst introduced into Brahmanical
circles through the Upanishads.
This same historical period saw the rise of Jainism
(c. 800 BCE) and later of Buddhism (c. 500 BCE). T he
Ja i nas em pha s i zed a r i gorous c ode of ethic s desig ned
to rid the human spirit ( jiva) of the fettering presence
of karmic material. This code includes the practice
of nonviolence, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual re-
straint, and the minimal possession of material goods.
The early Jainas condemned the elaborate animal sac-
rifi ces performed by some Brahmanical communities,
and continue to promote vegetarianism.
Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha, c. 566–486
BCE
)
created a monastic religious order more moderate
than that pursued by the Jainas. The Buddha taught
an eightfold path to rid oneself of suffering, beginning
with the adoption of right view and culminating in
rarefi ed states of meditation. Both traditions created
copious literature, detailing their philosophy (purifi -
ca t ion of sou l in Jainis m, a bsence of enduring so u l in
Prince Siddhartha cuts his
hair, signifying his retreat
from the world. Relief
sculpture at Borobudur.
New York Public Library.
1962 • BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY
Buddhism), the stories of their great teachers, past life
narratives, and detailed lists of rules to be followed.
In the Brahmanical traditions, four goals and
an ideal fourfold analysis of life stages emerged.
Dharmashastras (Hindus law codes, both sacred
and secular, written between 600 and 300 BCE) list
the pursuit of wealth and pleasure as the fi rst two
great necessities. Next is the responsibility to soci-
ety (dharma). For some, these three goals provide
insuffi cient meaning for human life. In such a case,
there is a fourth: the quest for liberation (moksha)
by following a teacher (guru) skilled in techniques
and philosophies that lead to transcendence. At the
age of seven, according to the ancient Dharmashas-
tras, one’s study should begin and continue for ap-
proximately seven years, after which one marries and
take s up t he life of a ho usehold er. In l ate m iddl e age,
one might turn all one’s duties to one’s children and
grandchildren and enter the stage of the spiritual
quest (sannyasa). Those who gain wisdom then are
qualifi ed to teach others.
Six Distinct Paths
By the early centuries of the common era, six dis-
tinct philosophical paths arose within Brahmanical
India: Samkhya, Vedanta, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaiseskika,
and Mimamsa. The fi rst three hold forth spiritual at-
tainment as a human possibility. The last three claim
that liberation from the woes of the world can only
take place after death. The best hope, according to
these three, is to live one’s life well, with hopes for
reward after death.
Classical Samkhya analyzes life in terms of two
major categories, consciousness and activity, with
the latter divided into twenty-three subcategories.
Activity generates a psyche that differentiates into
ego and thought. This psyche, which serves as the
repository for karma, can be fraught with anxiety and
diffi culty, or it can be trained to become pure. The
psyche further gives forth the human body, whose ac-
tion organs (anus, genitals, hands, feet, and voice) are
connected to the fi ve senses and to the fi ve elements
of ea r t h, wa t er, fi re, air, and space. By understanding
that all this activity provides experience and libera-
tion for consciousness, one advances toward human
freedom.
Vedanta, while not rejecting the details pro-
vided by Samkhya, opts for a simpler philosophy.
Grounded in some of the great apothegms from the
Upanishads, Vedanta proclaims that all things are
suffused with an indwelling consciousness linked
to God. God is one without a second. All things are
part of God. Each individual embodies that God in
the form of an individual soul (atman). When one
sees the true nature of one’s soul, then a connection
is made with God.
Krishna sits on a white snake with a woman who
washes his feet. A deity rises above in a lotus fl ower.
From an 1850 version of the Mahabharata. Beinecke
Rare Books and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
PHILOSOPHY, ASIAN • 1963
Yoga, b u i lding on Samkhya , provide s sp e c i fi c ethi-
cal and physical practices to move an individual to a
state of freedom (nirbija or dharma-megha samadhi;
also referred to as sublime aloneness or kaivalyam).
These include the cultivation of friendliness, compas-
sion, happiness, and equanimity, as well as the ethical
pr e cepts o f the Ja i nas lis t e d above. T h e Yoga sut ras of
Patanjali specify the performance of exercises to pu-
rify the breath and make connection with the energy
centers of the subtle body (chakras).
To live the good life, Nyaya suggests that one be
skilled in thought and logic. Vaisesika outlines the
categories of the physical world, suggesting that by
knowing how the world works, one can optimize plea-
sure and happiness. Mimamsa provides detailed in-
structions for how best to perform rituals, noting that
an act of worship yields states of deep happiness.
By the late classical period (c. 400 CE) these vari-
ous traditions were in active conversation with one
another. The Buddhists constructed a vast univer-
sity near modern-day Patna called Nalanda, which
housed and trained thousands of monks each year.
By this time, vast temple and cave projects gave testi-
mony to the wealth and power of each of these three
traditions, Buddhism, Jainism, and what came in
later years to be known as Hinduism. Epic literature,
including the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the
Puranas became widespread. These vast texts, in ad-
dition to including compelling stories, also served
as a vehicle for people to learn about philosophy.
The Bhagavad Gita emerged as a repository for the
teaching of Indian thought, as Krishna (an avatar of
Vishnu) informs the reluctant soldier Arjuna about
Yoga in its various forms: Knowledge, Action, Devo-
tion, and Meditation.
New Visions
In the seventh and eighth centuries a new movement
appeared, Tantra, which arose in both the north
and the south. Tantra suggested that rituals might
be enacted that would effi ciently propel one toward
de eper state s of power a nd interiority. It inclu ded t he
violation of conventional morality in order to help
practitioners overcome all forms of attachment. Tan-
tra gave birth to a copious new body of literature,
both Hindu and Buddhist, as well as stern critiques of
its methods by numerous Jaina monks, for whom the
adherence to a strict ethical code was inviolable.
At the same time the young philosopher Sankara,
who wrote extensive commentaries on the Upanishads
and the Bhagavad Gita, advanced a new philosophi-
cal articulation known as Advaita Vedanta. Sankara
emphasized that the world of change is merely an
illusion (maya) and that through correct contempla-
tion and remembrance of “not this, not that,” one can
sift through the veils and dross and achieve a vision
of reality. Other philosophers came to prominence
over the next several hundred years, including Abhi-
navagupta, who articulated a philosophy grounded
in aesthetics, and the unnamed author of the Yogava-
sistha, who advanced a view that the world appears
and dissolves as if it were a dream, and that we need
to fi nd the strength within to manage and purify this
dream. Partly in response to the compelling mono-
theistic theology of Islam, which began to enter India
by the eleventh century, devotional movements arose
that urge dedication to a single deity, most notably
Krishna, particularly as found in the poetry and song
of Chaitanya and Mirabai. The middle period of the
la s t millennium a lso s aw t he r i se of s ystemat ic philos -
ophers such as Yashovijaya (Jaina) and Vijnanabhik-
shu (Advaitin). By this time, Buddhism had retreated
from India as the Sultans from the west destroyed
Buddhist monasteries and libraries. Hindu and Jaina
construction projects were dwarfed by such edifi ces
as the Taj Mahal.
The British period of India saw a resurgence and
re-energization of Indian thought. Such thinkers as
Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath
Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, and Mohandas (Mahatma)
Gandhi received Western educations and brought
new ideas into dialogue with the ancient texts and
traditions of India. Roy was an advocate of a Hindu
Universalism. Vivekananda suggested that the Yo-
gas of India would enhance spirituality worldwide.
Tagore, a Nobel Laureate, reminded the world of the
importance of poetic beauty. Aurobindo rejoiced in
1964 • BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY
joining such ideas as evolution with the inner process
of self-realization. Gandhi’s philosophy of nonvio-
lence revolutionized political strategies. Not only did
he successfully campaign for India’s independence
from colonial rule, he also inspired the civil rights
movement in the United States, and the overthrow
of Marcos in the Philippines decades later.
Philosophy in India has a long legacy. As the world
modernizes, its distinctive stamp can be found not
only in the subcontinent, but also in a now nearly uni-
versal discourse on theories of karma, dharma, and
the life well lived through various forms of Yoga.
Ancient Chinese ought
Before the state of Qin unifi ed China in 221 BCE,
ending the bloody Warring States period (475–221
BCE
), Chinese philosophers focused on fi nding the
right Way (dao) to pursue a prosperous life, and they
expected rulers to administer their governments ac-
cording to those values. The various philosophers
of the pre-Qin period were subsequently categorized
into schools of thought. Sima Qian’s (145–86? BCE)
Records of the Grand Historian (c. 99–98 BCE) lists
six schools: Confucian, Mohists, Legalists, School of
Names, Yinyang School, and Daoists. In Ban Gu’s
(32–92
BCE
) Standard History of the Former Han,
the “Journal of Literature” by Liu Xin (d. 23 BCE) adds
four schools: Agriculturalists, Diplomats, Eclectic
School, and Storytellers. Each “school” contains in-
terpretations that are used to subdivide them. There
are various sub-schools of Confucianism, Mohism,
and Daoism, as well as schools not listed in these
ancient records, including the Militarists School, and
the Pacifi sts represented by Song Rongzi. Unsurpris-
ingly, disputes materialized not only about which way
(dao) was right way, but about how to fi nd it.
Technological changes in agriculture, metallurgy,
military arts, and rulership created the need for
skilled personnel. The notion of a worthy ruler lead-
ing versatile ministers is a shared idea among the
various philosophers. Political, economic and cul-
tural changes accelerated during the pre-Qin period,
opening a context for new philosophies. Providing
an education for everyone, even commoners, begun
by Confucius (551–479 BCE), became popular during
the pre-Qin period because of the need for highly
trained scholar-knights, offi cials, and skilled crafts-
men. Most of the pre-Qin philosophers proposed that
all people, especially the ruler and ministers, adhere
to their socially acquired roles. Everyone was to do
his or her part for society to function properly. Most
of the philosophers looked back to a past golden age
to set a standard for harmony among people and with
natu re. M any of them advocated that ever yone is po-
tentially a sage. Aside from these general common-
alities, the various philosophers disagreed about the
details for achieving harmony and how to properly
educate people.
Confucius and His Infl uence
Confucius believed that the Zhou imperial family
and the feudal lords had lost the way of the former
kings, the way of the Zhou founders—kings Wen
and Wu, and the Duke of Zhou. For Confucius, the
dao refers to the way of the former kings, the way
of virtue. Confucius advocated the popular idea of
a past golden age of perfect social harmony. He in-
tended to reform society by reviving past virtues and
values; such reform instituted fi rst within the ruling
families, would trickle down to commoners through
aristocrats. Methodologically, Confucius’ teachings
begin by instilling fi lial piety within children. Filial
children become loyal ministers. Ontologically, Con-
fucius held that all people are similar at birth, having
the ability to be kind. Through improper training,
people lose their natural propensity to be kind. Filial
devotion maintains the propensity to be benevolent.
These teachings promote graded love in which people
love close relatives more than distant ones and villag-
ers more than strangers.
The problem of social decay is further abated by
virtue education and character development. Ritual
action (li) is the proper way to promote human kind-
ness (ren). All people and especially government of-
fi cials must be trustworthy (xin). People must follow
the correct standards of rightness (yi). They should
. . . bearing with the uncultured in gentleness, / fording the river with resolution, / not neglacting what
is distant, / not regarding one’s companions: / thus one may manage to walk in the middle. • I Ching
PHILOSOPHY, ASIAN • 1965
practice moral wisdom (zhi). These are commonly
called the fi ve virtues; there are many more. Through
virtue education people learn their role and practice
virtue, resulting in a well-rounded individual and
peace in the empire.
The Confucian disciples emphasized different as-
pects of his teachings. Mencius (Mengzi, 371–289
BCE) argued that people are naturally good at birth.
Mencius interpreted the Mandate of Heaven, the di-
vine sanction to rule, to include peasant rebellions.
Mencius debated against the individualist Yang Zhu,
the Agriculturalists, the Militarists, and the Mohists.
His philosophy was revitalized in Song dynasty (960–
1279
CE
) Neo-Confucianism. Xunzi (fl . 298–238
BCE
),
who offered a pragmatic Confucianism, proposed that
people are born deviant. Education and ritual-action
control them. Xunzi argued that a wise ruler follows
the way of the recent kings, not the former kings. His
teachings infl uenced the development of Confucian-
ism in the Han dynasty (206 BCE –220 CE).
Mozi (Mo Di, fl . 479–438 BC E) began as a Confu-
cian. Trained in military arts, he defended the un-
derdog. He attracted many disciples. Like Confucius,
Mozi believed that the way of the former kings and
virtue education are the means to rectify social de-
cay. He at t acked Con f ucius’ projec t. For Mozi, social
decay is caused by promoting the family values and
graded love of Confucius. Mozi argues that the way
of the former kings promotes equal love for each and
every person (jianai). I f people wou ld l ove each o t her
the way they love their parents, all strife would end
with peace in the empire. For the general welfare,
Mozi advocated frugality in state functions, oppos-
ing the excesses of aristocratic funerals and musical
performances that the commons imitated. Mozi criti-
cized offensive warfare as evidence that graded love
generates misery. His followers developed methods
for defi ning terms and argumentation.
The Legalists argued for social reform to establish
law and order, proposing that Confucianism and Mo-
hism corrupt society by promoting morality over the
law. Mora l ity cre ates s ocial proble m s beca u se it just i -
fi ed protecting special interests, not the law. As the
Western Zhou (1045–771 BCE) incorporated various
ethnic groups and expanded economically, the need
for legal governance grew. By the end of the Spring
and Autumn period (770–476
BCE
) written laws were
published. Some Legalists emphasized the need for
a well-ordered state administration; written law ap-
plied equally to commoners and nobility, the value of
statecraft, and political techniques and methods. Han
Fei and Li Si studied under the Confucian, Xunzi.
They went to Qin to assist Lü Buwei, prime minister
to the child king who would become the fi rst Qin
Emperor. Han Fei synthesizes Legalist thought, espe-
cially the concepts of law, power, and statecraft. He
attacks the Confucians and Mohists for claiming to
accurately represent the moral way of the early sage
rulers, criticizing their morality in favor of the law.
Similar legal developments occurred in the ancient
Greek and Roman states.
The School of Names (or Logicians) originated
among the offi cials who allocated rewards and pun-
ishments. Assessing job titles and performance trans-
formed into a philosophy of linking name and reality.
Because debate was the means by which philosophers
gained fame and a livelihood, argumentation was
emphasized by all the schools. The logicians took
rational inquiry into the paradoxical realm. Hui Shi
(c. 380–305
BCE
) was a friend of the Daoist Zhuangzi.
They argued that all things form a comprehensive
unity. Hui sought to know that unity through rea-
son and language. Zhuangzi sought it through direct
experience. Their ideas can be contrasted with the
Greek Skeptics and Sophists.
Grappling with nature’s forces, people demarcate
bipolar, interconnected yet opposing phenomena,
such as heavy/light, dry/damp, hot/cold, bright/
dark. This kind of correlative thinking underlies
most Chinese philosophy. It is seen in the Greek pre-
Socratic thinkers, especially Anaxagoras. At fi rst, yin
denoted the shadow, and yang the sunlight. Later
they become philosophical concepts, referring to the
interconnected yet opposing forces of the universe.
Yang is associated with light, movement, the male
gender, and life -giving forces. Yin is associated with
darkness, tranquility, the female, decay and death.
These two forces are interconnected and contain each
1966 • BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY
other. They are used to explain why and how things
change. They were coupled with the fi ve phases (wux-
ing), namely, wood, fi re, earth, metal, and water.
Daoists and the Way
If the Confucians establish the cultural tradition,
then the Daoists form the counter-culture. Unlike
most philosophers, the Daoists wanted to be anon-
ymous. Some of their ideas are similar to those of
Heraclitus. Some of the Daoist practices are similar
to the Greek Cynics who withdrew for society. Their
meditation practices can be compared to Hindu and
Buddhist practices. Daoism originates in ancient
shaman-practices such as merging with the forces of
nature. These shamanic practices were modifi ed into
breathing and meditative techniques (Roth, 1999).
The Laozi and the Zhuangzi are the two extant
texts from the pre-Qin period that form Daoism’s
core. Lao Dan or Master Lao (Laozi, c. 6th century
BCE), is the alleged author of eighty-one poems (chap-
ters) that bear his name, Laozi. The text was written
by court offi cials who sought to give advice to their
ruler and other offi cials on the proper way to govern
the state by means of self-cultivation that connects
them to the forces of nature. The four great things
in existence are: the dao, sky, Earth, and the king.
People take Earth as their model; Earth follows sky;
sky follows dao, and dao follows self-so-spontaneity
(Laozi, chapter 25). The ruler is encouraged to behave
like the dao by taking no purposive action and noth-
ing will be left undone (Laozi, chapter 37). Laozi’s
contribution to ancient philosophy was his ability to
abstract the dao into the most general and ultimate
category.
According to Zhuang Zhou’s (370–301 BCE) biogra-
phy in the Records of the . . . Historian, he rejected an
invitation by King Wei of Chu (reigned 339–329 BCE)
to serve as prime minister. He is the alleged author
of the fi rst seven chapters of his namesake book, the
Zhuangzi, focusing on the theme of self-cultivation by
embracing the fl ow of natural transformation that ulti-
mately leads to entering the silent oneness of the sky,
or mystical union with the dao. This type of nature
mysticism can be contrasted with the transcendental
mysticism of the Neoplatonists and Brahmanic mysti-
cism. Living properly in harmony with the forces of na-
ture, the dao, and dying in harmony with nature is the
ultimate mystical experience. Zhuangzi’s philosophy
emphasizes the importance of living in harmony with
change. Zhuangzi recognizes that people are preoc-
cupied with others’ opinions. So they work hard, live
in distress, and die young. He proposes that people
practice meditation and reduce stress and confl ict to
bring them into harmony with the dao of nature.
The fi rst three texts, the Shizi, the Lüshi chunqiu,
and the Huainanzi, listed under Eclectic School in
the “Journal of Literature,” are philosophical works
that employ a unifi ed philosophy, drawing from the
other schools. The Shizi (c. 300
BCE
), survives in
fragments, synthesizes other philosophies. The syn-
cretic, unifi ed philosophy of the Lüshi chunqiu (238
BCE
), and the Huainanzi (130
BCE
) are more obvi-
ous. The Lüshi chunqiu organizes the philosophi-
cal systems under the seasonal calendar such that
Yang Zhu’s individualism, Daoist non-action, and
Mohist love are practiced in the spring; Confucian
education, ritual, and music are studied in the sum-
mer; military and legal affairs are reserved for the
autumn, and Mohist frugal funerals, Legalist admin-
istrative matters, and executions are suited for the
The yin–yang and bagua symbols are both signifi cant
to the philosophy of Daoism.
PHILOSOPHY, ASIAN • 1967
winter. This eclectic trend infl uenced Han dynasty
literature and philosophy.
The Militarists are not listed among the other
schools in the Han histories. They were given the
honorary title of Master (zi) that is bestowed on the
philosophers. Sun Wu (Sunzi) is famous for his work
on strategy, the Art of War, which is studied at military
academies today. His text recognizes the importance of
developing moral virtues in the troops to bolster their
loyalty, and proposes only engaging in just war.
The pre-Qin period was a turbulent yet important
time for Chinese philosophy. Aspects of the various
schools were absorbed into Han dynasty Confucianism,
making it comprehensive and viable. Although Confu-
cians disdain Legalism, the imperial “Confucian” state
sponsored by the Han and subsequent dynasties could
not have prospered without a legal system, fi rst and
foremost, in addition to the system of ritual for control-
ling the masses, and for diplomacy with other countries.
Given the eclectic character of the subsequent develop-
ment of Confucianism and Daoism, the Eclectic school
left a lasting impression on Chinese philosophers as
they continued their search for the right Way.
Christopher Key CHAPPLE
Loyola Marymount University
James D. SELLMANN
University of Guam
See also Confucius; Conf ucianism; Buddha; Buddhism; Daoism;
Gandhi, Mohandas; Hinduism; Jainism; Laozi; Mencius; Philoso-
phy, Modern; Ph ilosophy, Greek and Roman
Further Reading
Ames, R. T., & Rosemont H., Jr. (1998). The analects of Confucius:
A philosophic al translation. New York: Balla ntine Books.
Chan, W. T. (1963). A source book in Chinese philosophy. Princ-
eton, NJ: Princeton University P ress.
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