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Correction to: Relationships Between Dry-land Resistance Training and Swim Start Performance and Effects of Such Training on the Swim Start: A Systematic Review

December 2019
Sports Medicine 49(12)

DOI:10.1007/s40279-019-01198-3

Authors:

Shiqi Thng

Bond University

Simon Pearson

Queensland Academy of Sport

Justin W L Keogh

Bond University

No sources of funding were used in the preparation of this article.

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Sports Medicine (2019) 49:1975

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01198-3

CORRECTION

Correction to: Relationships Between Dry‑land Resistance Training

andSwim Start Performance andEects ofSuch Training ontheSwim

Start: ASystematic Review

ShiqiThng1,2 · SimonPearson2· JustinW.L.Keogh1,3,4,5

Published online: 3 October 2019

Correction to: Sports Medicine

https ://doi.org/10.1007/s4027 9-019-01174 -x

Page 15, Compliance with Ethical Standards, Funding:

The following sentence, which previously read:

“No sources of funding were used in the preparation of this

article.”

Should read:

“This research was supported by the Queensland Academy

of Sport’s Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge

Excellence Unit in conjunction with Bond University Fac-

ulty of Health Sciences and Medicine.”

The original article can be found online at https ://doi.org/10.1007/

s4027 9-019-01174 -x.

* Shiqi Thng

sthng@bond.edu.au

1 Faculty ofHealth Sciences andMedicine, Bond University,

GoldCoast, QLD, Australia

2 Queensland Academy ofSport, Nathan, QLD, Australia

3 Sports Performance Research Centre New Zealand, AUT

University, Auckland, NewZealand

4 Cluster forHealth Improvement, Faculty ofScience, Health,

Education andEngineering, University oftheSunshine

Coast, SippyDowns, Australia

5 Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy

ofHigher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Sports Auxiliary Training Based on Computer Digital 3D Video Image Processing

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Jan 2022
Comput Intell Neurosci

Saisai Xu

With the continuous development of social economy, sports have received more and more attention. How to improve the quality of sports has become the focus of research. The computer digital 3D video image processing is introduced in this paper, taking shooting as the starting point, in which computer digitization technology is used to collect images of sequence targets through combining the operation flow of shooting, monitor the results and data of shooting and process 3D video images, conduct the analyze and mine according to the corresponding statistical processing results, and evaluate the corresponding training. The simulation experiment proves that the computerized digital 3D video image processing is effective and can scientifically support sports-assisted training.

Muscle Fiber Typology and Its Association With Start and Turn Performance in Elite Swimmers

Article

Jan 2020

Purpose: To determine the association between estimated muscle fiber typology and the start and turn phases of elite swimmers during competition. Methods: International and national competition racing performance was analyzed from 21 female (FINA points = 894 ± 39: 104.5 ± 1.8% world record ratio [WRR]) and 25 male (FINA points = 885 ± 54: 104.8 ± 2.1% WRR) elite swimmers. The start, turn, and turn out times were determined from each of the swimmers' career best performance times (FINA points = 889 ± 48: 104.7 ± 2.0% WRR). Muscle carnosine concentration was quantified by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the gastrocnemius and soleus and was expressed as a carnosine aggregate z score relative to an age- and gender-matched nonathlete control group to estimate muscle fiber typology. Linear mixed models were employed to determine the association between muscle fiber typology and the start and turn times. Results: While there was no significant influence of carnosine aggregate z score on the start and turn times when all strokes and distance events were entered into the model, the swimmers with a higher carnosine aggregate z score (ie, faster muscle typology) had a significantly faster start time in 100-m events compared with the swimmers with a lower carnosine aggregate z score (P = .02, F = 5.825). The start and turn times were significantly faster in the male compared with the female swimmers in the 100-m events compared with other distances, and between the 4 different swimming strokes (P < .001). Conclusion: This study suggests that start times in sprint events are partly determined (and limited) by muscle fiber typology, which is highly relevant when ∼12% of the overall performance time is determined from the start time.

The prediction of swim start performance based on squat jump force-time characteristics

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

Background Depending on the stroke and distances of the events, swim starts have been estimated to account for 0.8% to 26.1% of the overall race time, with the latter representing the percentage in a 50 m sprint front crawl event (Cossor & Mason, 2001). However, it is still somewhat unclear what are the key physiological characteristics underpinning swim start performance. The primary aim of this study was to develop a multiple regression model to determine key lower body force-time predictors using the squat jump for swim start performance as assessed by time to 5 m and 15 m in national and international level swimmers. A secondary aim was to determine if any differences exist between males and females in jump performance predictors for swim start performance. Methods A total of 38 males (age 21 ± 3.1 years, height 1.83 ± 0.08 m, body mass 76.7 ± 10.2 kg) and 34 females (age 20.1 ± 3.2 years, height 1.73 ± 0.06 m, body mass 64.8 ± 8.4 kg) who had competed at either an elite ( n = 31) or national level ( n = 41) participated in this study. All tests were performed on the same day, with participants performing three bodyweight squat jumps on a force platform, followed by three swim starts using their main swimming stroke. Swim start performance was quantified via time to 5 m and 15 m using an instrumented starting block. Results Stepwise multiple linear regression with quadratic fitting identified concentric impulse and concentric impulse ² as statistically significant predictors for time to 5 m ( R² = 0.659) in males. With time to 15 m, concentric impulse, age and concentric impulse ² were statistically significant predictors for males ( R² = 0.807). A minimum concentric impulse of 200–230 N.s appears required for faster times to 5 m and 15 m, with any additional impulse production not being associated with a reduction in swim start times for most male swimmers. Concentric impulse, Reactive strength index modified and concentric mean power were identified as statistically significant predictors for female swimmers to time to 5 m ( R² = 0.689). Variables that were statistically significant predictors of time to 15 m in females were concentric impulse, body mass, concentric rate of power development and Reactive strength index modified ( R² = 0.841). Discussion The results of this study highlight the importance of lower body power and strength for swim start performance, although being able to produce greater than 200 or 230 N.s concentric impulse in squat jump did not necessarily increase swim start performance over 5 m and 15 m, respectively. Swimmers who can already generate greater levels of concentric impulse may benefit more from improving their rate of force development and/or technical aspects of the swim start performance. The sex-related differences in key force-time predictors suggest that male and female swimmers may require individualised strength and conditioning programs and regular monitoring of performance.

The Relationship Between Training Load and Injury in Athletes: A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2018
SPORTS MED

Background: The relationship between training load and musculoskeletal injury is a rapidly advancing area of research in need of an updated systematic review. Objective: This systematic review examined the evidence for the relationship between training load and musculoskeletal injury risk in athlete, military, and first responder (i.e. law enforcement, firefighting, rescue service) populations. Methods: The CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE, SportDISCUS, and SCOPUS databases were searched using a comprehensive strategy. Studies published prior to July 2017 were included if they prospectively examined the relationship between training load and injury risk. Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale (NOS) and Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine levels of evidence. A narrative synthesis of findings was conducted. Results: A total of 2047 articles were examined for potential inclusion. Forty-six met the inclusion criteria and 11 known to the authors but not found in the search were added, for a total of 57 articles. Overall, 47 studies had at least partially statistically significant results, demonstrating a relationship between training load and injury risk. Included articles were rated as poor (n = 15), fair (n = 6), and good (n = 36) based on NOS score. Articles assessed as 'good' were considered level 2b evidence on the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Model, and articles assessed as 'fair' or 'poor' were considered level 4 evidence. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that the existence of a relationship between training load and injury continues to be well supported in the literature and is strongest for subjective internal training load. The directionality of this relationship appears to depend on the type and timeframe of load measured.

Effects of 2 Types of Activation Protocols Based on Postactivation Potentiation on 50-m Freestyle Performance

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2018

Cuenca-Fernández, F, Ruiz-Teba, A, López-Contreras, G, and Arellano, R. Effects of 2 types of activation protocols based on postactivation potentiation on 50-m freestyle performance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-Postactivation potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon which improves muscle contractility, strength, and speed in sporting performances through previously applied maximal or submaximal loads on the muscle system. This study aimed to assess the effects of 2 types of activation protocols based on PAP, on sprint swimming performance. A repeated-measures design was used to compare 3 different scenarios before a 50-m race. First, all of the participants performed a standard warm-up (SWU), consisting of a 400-m swim followed by dynamic stretching. This protocol acted as the control. Subsequently, the swimmers were randomly assigned into 2 groups: the swimmers in the first group performed the SWU followed by a PAP one-repetition maximum warm-up (RMWU), consisting of 3 "lunge" and 3 "arm stroke" repetitions, both at 85% of the one-repetition maximum. The swimmers in the second group performed the SWU followed by a PAP eccentric flywheel warm-up (EWU), consisting of one set of 4 repetitions of exercises of both the lower and upper limbs on an adapted eccentric flywheel at the maximal voluntary contraction. The time required for the swimmers to swim 5 and 10 m was shorter with the PAP protocols. The swimming velocity of the swimmers who underwent the EWU and RMWU protocols was faster at 5 and 10 m. The best total swimming time was not influenced by any of the protocols. When isolating swimming (excluding start performance and turn), best time was achieved with the SWU and RMWU compared with EWU (SWU: 20.86 ± 0.95 seconds; EWU: 21.25 ± 1.12 seconds; RMWU: 20.97 ± 1.22 seconds). In conclusion, a warm-up based on PAP protocols might exert an influence on performance in the first meters of a 50-m race. Nevertheless, other factors, such as fatigue, could modify swimming patterns and yield results contradictory to those of the desired task.

Assessing the impact of a targeted plyometric training on changes in selected kinematic parameters of the swimming start

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017
Acta Bioeng Biomech

Purpose: The aim of this study was to analyse changes taking place within selected kinematic parameters of the swimming start, after completing a six-week plyometric training, assuming that the take-off power training improves its effectiveness. Methods: The experiment included nine male swimmers. In the pre-test the swimmers performed three starts focusing on the best performance. Next, a plyometric training programme, adapted from sprint running, was introduced in order to increase a power of the lower extremities. The programme entailed 75 minute sessions conducted twice a week. Afterwards, a post-test was performed, analogous to the pre-test. Spatio-temporal structure data of the swimming start were gathered from video recordings of the swimmer above and under water. Results: Impulses triggered by the plyometric training contributed to a shorter start time (the main measure of start effectiveness) and glide time as well as increasing average take-off, flight and glide velocities including take-off, entry and glide instantaneous velocities. The glide angle decreased. Conclusions: The changes in selected parameters of the swimming start and its confirmed diagnostic values, showed the areas to be susceptible to plyometric training and suggested that applied plyometric training programme aimed at increasing take-off power enhances the effectiveness of the swimming start.

The Impact of Resistance Training on Swimming Performance: A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2017
SPORTS MED

Background The majority of propulsive forces in swimming are produced from the upper body, with strong correlations between upper body strength and sprint performance. There are significant gaps in the literature relating to the impact of resistance training on swimming performance, specifically the transfer to swimming performance. Objective The aims of this systematic literature review are to (1) explore the transfer of resistance-training modalities to swimming performance, and (2) examine the effects of resistance training on technical aspects of swimming. Methods Four online databases were searched with the following inclusion criteria: (1) journal articles with outcome measures related to swimming performance, and (2) competitive swimmers participating in a structured resistance-training programme. Exclusion criteria were (1) participants with a mean age <16 years; (2) untrained, novice, masters and paraplegic swimmers; (3) triathletes and waterpolo players; (4) swimmers with injuries or illness; and (5) studies of starts and turns specifically. Data were extracted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was applied. ResultsFor optimal transfer, specific, low-volume, high-velocity/force resistance-training programmes are optimal. Stroke length is best achieved through resistance training with low repetitions at a high velocity/force. Resisted swims are the most appropriate training modality for improving stroke rate. Conclusion Future research is needed with respect to the effects of long-term resistance-training interventions on both technical parameters of swimming and overall swimming performance. The results of such work will be highly informative for the scientific community, coaches and athletes.

Application of Postactivation Potentiation Methods to Improve Sprint Speed

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2017

THIS ARTICLE EXAMINES THE APPLICATION OF A VARIETY OF MODALITIES TO ELICIT A POSTACTIVATION POTENTIATION (PAP) RESPONSE IN SPRINTING. WE PRESENT THE EXISTING LITERATURE ON THE ACUTE EFFECTS OF BACK SQUATS, POWER CLEANS, PLYOMETRICS, AND SLED PULLING ON SPRINT DISTANCES RANGING FROM 5 TO 50 M. WE ALSO DISCUSS AND PROVIDE AN EXAMPLE OF HOW COACHES CAN ASSESS THE INDIVIDUAL EFFECTS OF PAP PROTOCOLS ON THEIR ATHLETES TO IDENTIFY WHETHER A PROTOCOL ELICITS AN ACUTE IMPROVEMENT OR IMPAIRMENT IN PERFORMANCE. FINALLY, WE PROVIDE PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS ON HOW COACHES CAN INCORPORATE THESE METHODS INTO A SPRINT TRAINING SESSION.

IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF DEEP TRUNK MUSCLE TRAINING ON SWIMMING START PERFORMANCE

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2016
Int J Sports Phys Ther

Background: In recent years, deep trunk muscle training has been adopted in various sports, including swimming. This is performed both in everyday training and as part of the warm-up routine before competitive races. It is suggested that trunk stabilization exercises are effective in preventing injury, and aid in improving performance. However, conclusive evidence of the same is yet to be obtained. The time of start phase of swimming is a factor that can significantly influence competition performance in a swimming race. Hypothesis/purpose: If trunk stabilization exercises can provide instantaneous trunk stability, it is expected that they will lead to performance improvements in the start phase of swimming. The purpose of this study was to investigate the immediate effect of trunk stabilization exercises on the start phase in swimming. Study design: Intervention study. Methods: Nine elite male swimmers (mean age 20.2 ± 1.0 years; height 174.4 ± 3.5 cm; weight 68.9 ± 4.1 kg) performed the swimming start movement. The measurement variables studied included flying distance, and the time and velocity of subjects at hands' entry and on reaching five meters. Measurements were taken in trials immediately before and after the trunk stabilization exercises. A comparison between pre- and post-exercise measurements was assessed. Results: The time to reach five meters (T5m) decreased significantly after trunk stabilization exercises, by 0.019 s (p = 0.02). Velocity at entry (Ventry) did not demonstrate significant change, while velocity at five meters (V5m) increased significantly after the exercises (p = 0.023). In addition, the speed reduction rate calculated from Ventry and V5m significantly decreased by 5.17% after the intervention (p = 0.036). Conclusion: Trunk stabilization exercises may help reduce the time from start to five meters in the start phase in swimming. The results support the hypothesis that these exercises may improve swimming performance. Levels of evidence: Level 3b.

Does Elite Sport Degrade Sleep Quality? A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2017
SPORTS MED

Background Information on sleep quality and insomnia symptomatology among elite athletes remains poorly systematised in the sports science and medicine literature. The extent to which performance in elite sport represents a risk for chronic insomnia is unknown. Objectives The purpose of this systematic review was to profile the objective and experienced characteristics of sleep among elite athletes, and to consider relationships between elite sport and insomnia symptomatology. Methods Studies relating to sleep involving participants described on a pre-defined continuum of ‘eliteness’ were located through a systematic search of four research databases: SPORTDiscus, PubMed, Science Direct and Google Scholar, up to April 2016. Once extracted, studies were categorised as (1) those mainly describing sleep structure/patterns, (2) those mainly describing sleep quality and insomnia symptomatology and (3) those exploring associations between aspects of elite sport and sleep outcomes. ResultsThe search returned 1676 records. Following screening against set criteria, a total of 37 studies were identified. The quality of evidence reviewed was generally low. Pooled sleep quality data revealed high levels of sleep complaints in elite athletes. Three risk factors for sleep disturbance were broadly identified: (1) training, (2) travel and (3) competition. Conclusion While acknowledging the limited number of high-quality evidence reviewed, athletes show a high overall prevalence of insomnia symptoms characterised by longer sleep latencies, greater sleep fragmentation, non-restorative sleep, and excessive daytime fatigue. These symptoms show marked inter-sport differences. Two underlying mechanisms are implicated in the mediation of sport-related insomnia symptoms: pre-sleep cognitive arousal and sleep restriction.

The Effect of an Altitude Training Camp on Swimming Start Time and Loaded Squat Jump Performance

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2016
PLOS ONE

This study evaluated the influence of an altitude training (AT) camp on swimming start time and loaded squat jump performance. To accomplish this goal, 13 international swimmers (8 women, 5 men) were allocated to both the control (Sea Level Training, SLT) and experimental conditions (AT, 2320 m above sea level) that were separated by a one year period. All tests (15 m freestyle swimming start and loaded squat jumps with additional loads of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of swimmers’ body weight) were performed before and after a concurrent 3-week strength and endurance training program prescribed by the national coach. Following the SLT camp, significant impairments in swimming start times to 10 (+3.1%) and 15 m (+4.0%) were observed (P < 0.05), whereas no significant changes for the same distances were detected following the AT camp (-0.89%; P > 0.05). Trivial changes in peak velocity were obtained during the loaded squat jump after both training periods (effect sizes: < 0.20). Based on these results we can conclude that a traditional training high—living high strategy concurrent training of 3 weeks does not adversely affect swimming start time and loaded squat jump performance in high level swimmers, but further studies are necessary to assess the effectiveness of power-oriented resistance training in the development of explosive actions.

The Relationship Between the Lower-Body Muscular Profile and Swimming Start Performance

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2016

This study aimed to examine the correlation of different dry land strength and power tests with swimming start performance. Twenty international level female swimmers (age 15.3 ± 1.6 years, FINA point score 709.6 ± 71.1) performed the track freestyle start. Additionally, dry land tests were conducted: a) squat (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ), b) squat jumps with additional resistance equivalent to 25, 50, 75 and 100% of swimmers’ body weight [BW]), and c) leg extension and leg flexion maximal voluntary isometric contractions. Correlations between dry land tests and start times at 5, 10 and 15 m were quantified through Pearson’s linear correlation coefficients (r). The peak bar velocity reached during the jumps with additional resistance was the variable most correlated to swimming start performance (r = -0.57 to -0.66 at 25%BW; r = -0.57 to -0.72 at 50%BW; r = -0.59 to -0.68 at 75%BW; r = -0.50 to -0.64 at 100%BW). A few significant correlations between the parameters of the SJ and the CMJ with times of 5 and 10 m were found, and none with the isometric variables. The peak velocity reached during jumps with external loads relative to BW was found a good indicator of swimming start performance.

Reliability of the PEDro Scale for Rating Quality of Randomized Controlled Trials

Article

Aug 2003

Background and purpose: Assessment of the quality of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) is common practice in systematic reviews. However, the reliability of data obtained with most quality assessment scales has not been established. This report describes 2 studies designed to investigate the reliability of data obtained with the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale developed to rate the quality of RCTs evaluating physical therapist interventions. Method: In the first study, 11 raters independently rated 25 RCTs randomly selected from the PEDro database. In the second study, 2 raters rated 120 RCTs randomly selected from the PEDro database, and disagreements were resolved by a third rater; this generated a set of individual rater and consensus ratings. The process was repeated by independent raters to create a second set of individual and consensus ratings. Reliability of ratings of PEDro scale items was calculated using multirater kappas, and reliability of the total (summed) score was calculated using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC [1,1]). Results: The kappa value for each of the 11 items ranged from.36 to.80 for individual assessors and from.50 to.79 for consensus ratings generated by groups of 2 or 3 raters. The ICC for the total score was.56 (95% confidence interval=.47-.65) for ratings by individuals, and the ICC for consensus ratings was.68 (95% confidence interval=.57-.76). Discussion and conclusion: The reliability of ratings of PEDro scale items varied from "fair" to "substantial," and the reliability of the total PEDro score was "fair" to "good."

Correction to: Relationships Between Dry-land Resistance Training and Swim Start Performance and Effects of Such Training on the Swim Start: A Systematic Review

Abstract

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