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Self-Control and Aggression Amongst Mixed Martial Arts Practitioners
Abstract
Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a popular, yet controversial, martial art which have amassed plenty of practitioners and fans in recent years. MMA-gyms frequently conveys the message that the sport of MMA facilitates sociopsychological development; however, the evidence for this claim is weak. Instead, Blomqvist Mickelsson (2019) have reported that young and novel MMA practitioners may increase in aggression. However, the same practitioners also exhibited increased self-control. This finding is peculiar, as the psychological core of these characteristics are opposite to one another. This would suggest that the increased self-control did not mitigate aggression levels. Thus, a series of moderation analyses were performed with the same MMA practitioners (n = 63) who underwent a 5-month training intervention. The results indicated that initial levels of either trait both predicted and interacted with each other. These results suggest that, despite the parallel increase in both characteristics, high levels in one of aforementioned traits may mitigate the other. Finally, further inquiry revealed that, some items in the Self-Control Scale may draw from different dimensions related, and non-related, to aggression; thus, allowing practitioners to increase in both self-control and aggression simultaneously. These findings may have practical implications. Whereas MMA-training may be harmless when practiced by individuals with high self-control and low aggression, the combination of these traits is not common amongst youths at risk.
... Therefore, MMA fighters had higher levels of general or total aggression. This appears to be consistent with previous research on the predisposition and tendency to be aggressive in athletes [15,29]. ...
... The findings also encourage preventive measures for MMA fighters. It seems beneficial to introduce them to mental training focused on the development of self-control and coping with aggression in everyday situations [29]. It seems important for athletes to be able to distinguish between aggression that is useful in combat and very harmful in everyday life. ...
Background: Aggressive behavior is inherent in many sports, especially martial arts. It is usually considered undesirable; nevertheless, in some cases, it can be a motivating factor in a competition. It is important to distinguish types of aggression. The aim of this study was to compare the level of aggressiveness between athletes practicing mixed martial arts (MMA) and Oyama Karate. Methods: In total, 30 Oyama Karate and 30 mixed martial art athletes were asked about their aggressive behavior. The Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire was used in the study. Results were statistically analyzed. Results: There were statistically significant differences between the performance of Oyama Karate and MMA athletes (p < 0.001), which occurred in all the types of aggression tested (anger, physical aggression, hostility, and verbal aggression). Hence, the results of the study confirmed the accuracy of the research hypothesis that the level of intensity of aggression is higher in MMA fighters than in full-contact Oyama Karate fighters. Conclusions: Physical aggression was dominant in the evaluated fighters. The greatest difference between both groups of fighters was in verbal aggression, whereas the smallest was in hostility.
Contemporarily, two martial arts have emerged as highly popular among youth; Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) and Brazilian Jiu-Jiutsu (BJJ). Despite their popularity, we know little of how they affect individuals sociopsychologically. The current study sought to explore how the currently underexplored martial art disciplines may contribute to sociopsychological development among young people. In addition, it was investigated whether individuals who are predisposed to different traits may favor one sport over the other. This study was conducted with a longitudinal design; over the course of 5 months, 113 participants completed training in either condition. The results show that both groups displayed increased self-control and pro-social behavior; however, MMA practitioners also reported increased aggressiveness, whereas BJJ practitioners experienced a decline in aggression. Accordingly, individuals who trained in MMA displayed substantially higher pre-existing aggression levels than the BJJ practitioners. The current results further corroborate research suggesting that modern martial arts and MMA may not be suitable for at-risk youth to practice, whereas traditional martial arts and sports with a healthy philosophical foundation may be effective in reducing antisocial behavior while enhancing socially desirable behavior among young people.
This research sought to establish the impact of a 10-week program combining mixed martial arts (MMA) and one-to-one psychotherapy on young males’ mental health and determine factors that predict help-seeking behavior in at-risk males. Preparticipation and post-participation interviews were employed as the method of data collection. Seven males (20–35 years; M = 24.57) completed preparticipation interviews and five completed follow-up interviews. Thematic analysis of preparticipation revealed that help-seeking behavior in at-risk males is impeded by the presence of male gender stereotypes, the absence of positive role models, as well as difficulty navigating challenging social landscapes. Post-participation interviews revealed that the sport provided structure and fitness for at-risk males, while the counseling was pivotal for personal growth. Improved relationships, work life, and self-esteem were also observed. The sporting element of the program helped to reduce stigma associated with engaging in psychotherapy, and positive male relationships were noted as particularly impactful. Findings support previous research indicating that combining sports and psychotherapy positively impacts young males’ mental health. Sport provides an acceptable doorway to psychotherapy, providing space to explore personal issues.
Martial arts involvement among the youth has been described in controversial terms. Studies regarding the effects of martial arts practise on youth show contrasting images. While some refer to enhanced personal and social opportunities for those that participate, others warn against increased levels of aggressiveness and antisocial behavior among its participants. The aim of the present review is to provide, firstly, an overview of the major findings of studies concerning the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise. Secondly, the limitations of those studies are discussed. From more than 350 papers, collected during a two-year lasting literature study, 27 papers met all criteria to be included in this study. This review revealed that even though a considerable amount of research on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise has been conducted over the years, to date, it has not brought clarity in the existing duality regarding the possible effects of martial arts involvement. It is proposed that a better understanding can be provided if specific influential factors are taken into account in future research (i.e., participants' characteristics, type of guidance, social context and structural qualities of the sport). Key pointsMany common beliefs exist about the positive and negative outcomes of martial arts practise.Studies regarding the effects of martial arts practise on youth show contrasting images.Several influential factors have to be taken into account when examining the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise.
On the basis of an empirical analysis of the emergence, spread and transformation of No Holds Barred fighting contests during the 1990s, we argue that Norbert Elias's model of sportization represents a fruitful but not sufficiently differentiated framework for understanding the recent development of combat sports and fighting contests. Although the martial arts in the 20th century provide striking examples of processes of sportization and para-sportization, the rise of No Holds Barred events in the 1990s represented an opposing trend, a process of de-sportization . The analysis of No Holds Barred contests demonstrates that both sportization and de-sportization trends depend primarily on the interests of the organizers, and in particular on the degree to which they rely on the perspectives of practitioners, spectators, or viewers. The decisive factor for the predominance of the latter perspective was the formation of a new and poorly regulated market for visual material, which emerged with pay-per-view television. This allowed media entrepreneurs to commercialize non-sanctioned events, which depend primarily on the demands and fantasies of viewers who are less interested in the specifics of particular sports or games than in the antinomian excitement produced by the transgression of the rules and conventions of ordinary life. The case of No Holds Barred fighting thus suggests that new markets for visual material are likely to become an important factor in the development of spectator sports and sport-like forms of entertainment. It also suggests that regulatory regimes are an essential feature for the actual outcome of the changes that these new markets may bring about. Public pressure eventually led to the disappearance of No Holds Barred events from the major US cable television networks and from the full contact fighting scene in most Western European countries. In response, various initiatives worked towards a re-sportization of the matches, a process that has led to the transformation of No Holds Barred tournaments into Mixed Martial Arts matches.
The scholarship on the economics of individual sports is scant relative to that of team sports. This study advances sport management scholarship, particularly sport economics, by using consumer-theory modeling to estimate Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) pay-per-view purchases. Our generalized linear models show fan preferences for certain weight classes, star fighters, outcome uncertainty and comain event quality factors as well as scheduling preferences for holiday weekends. The popular notion that The Ultimate Fighter reality series served as the impetus for the UFC's growth is supported in part. The study concludes by showing how the modeling results impact firm revenue generation via fight card characteristics.
Psychological science has largely neglected the role of self-control in studying aggression. Fortunately, the past half decade has witnessed a surge of research on this long-neglected topic, including two self-control-informed integrative theories of aggression. Robust experimental evidence demonstrates that self-control failures frequently predict aggression and, conversely, that bolstering self-control decreases aggression. Research on rumination also suggests that maladaptive anger regulation decreases self-control and, consequently, increases aggression. Advances from social-affective and cognitive neuroscience suggest that the neural mechanisms involved in emotion regulation and cognitive control mediate the relationship between deficient self-control and aggression.
Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a newly established and rapidly growing sport. Given questions surrounding claims of developmental outcomes for youth through MMA broadcasted on gym websites, coupled with parents’ practices to gather and utilize website information, it is important to explore the content of MMA gym websites. This study describes the content of MMA gyms’ youth programs’ websites, examining proposed developmental outcome claims for youth and processes of facilitation. Using a quantitative content analysis of 18 MMA youth gym websites in Toronto, Canada, a 37-item coding manual was developed to categorize content. MMA gyms drew upon popular media, anecdotal evidence and selective academic research findings to promote the benefits of their youth programs to parents. The claims of developmental outcomes and facilitation of positive youth development appear misguided and raise concerns for parents seeking information on child MMA programs. Findings highlight potential implications for parents interested in enrolling their children in MMA.
Few studies have explored anger, aggression and antisocial behaviour in sport competition. Therefore, this study intends to analyse the patterns of association between aggression-related variables, and the effect of type of sport, competitive categories and success levels. Two hundred and thirty one athletes from different types of sport completed measures of anger, aggression, anti-social behaviour, anger rumination and provocation. Results provided support for the link between anger, aggression and anti-social behaviour, as well as the importance of provocation and anger rumination in aggressive behaviours. Additionally, athletes from sports with higher levels of physical contact and from lower or younger competitive categories tended to be more aggressive than those from sports with lower levels of contact and from higher competitive levels. However, results failed to demonstrate any significant differences considering the achievement level. These findings provide an important basis to understand individual differences in aggressive-related variables.
Aggression and violence have a large impact on society. Researchers have highlighted the need to incorporate impulsive processes into models of aggression. The current research is the first to investigate the role of self-control, measured by both explicit questionnaires and an implicit association test, on trait aggression. Results indicated that higher levels of implicit self-control were associated with lower levels of anger, and physical and verbal aggression, but not hostility while higher levels of explicit self-control were related to lower levels of all types of aggression. We also investigated the role of gender in the current study and showed that gender was associated with aggressive tendencies, such that males had higher levels of trait aggression on three out of four outcomes, and the relationship between explicit self-control and physical aggression differed according to gender whereby the relationship between these variables was stronger among males. The current findings provide the first indication that both implicit and explicit self-control have roles in aggressive tendencies.
This paper draws on social ‘theories of practice’ in re-thinking the relationship between social practice and
social change. Fundamentally, I emphasise an understanding of practice as both becoming and situated within the constantly changing rhythms of everyday life. I begin by asking how do we draw the boundaries of, label and fix ‘a practice’ as an entity and what are the consequences for considering the relationship between practice and change? With this question in mind, I explore the experiences of people engaged in the changing rhythms of, what is today commonly referred to as the fastest growing sport in the world, Mixed Martial Arts. This case demonstrates, by way of adaptation to changing fighting styles and training methods, a knowledge-in-practice of continual change and adaptation that fosters strong rhythms of routine commitment and participation. Therefore, rather than considering practice as a provisionally stable entity and change as something that is external to practice, discussion of the constantly changing rhythms of Mixed Martial Arts leads me to argue for an understanding of practice as temporally and spatially situated, as always becoming and as fundamentally ongoing change. This discussion not only adds to and builds on a theoretical literature of practice; but is also particularly relevant for an analysis of rhythms of sporting practice, for which routines of commitment and
participation are particularly important. Thus I build on and develop discussions regarding the relationship between social action and social change.
This paper analyses the influence of sports participation on the approval and use of violence among German adolescent males. The article is driven by the assumption that not all kinds of sports are equal in their impact on prosocial or antisocial outcomes but rather have a specific effect on youths. Therefore, athletes are classified according to sports disciplines. It is hypothesised that youths in sports disciplines involving combat or hard physical contact and adolescents engaged in bodybuilding activities would report a higher approval of violence and would use physical violence more often. Multivariate regression models indicate that adolescents in combat sports and bodybuilding activities do indeed approve violence to a higher degree and use physical violence more often than non-athletes. The scientific and policy implications of the findings are discussed in the conclusion.
Martial arts are very popular among juveniles all over the world, but the relation between martial arts and externalizing behavior in juveniles remains unclear. The current multilevel meta-analysis of 12 studies, including 94 effect sizes and N = 5949 juveniles, was conducted to examine the relation between martial arts participation and externalizing behavior in juveniles, and to examine factors with a possible moderating effect. Results showed that there was no overall relation between martial arts participation and externalizing behavior in juveniles. However, a trim-and-fill procedure implicated publication bias of studies reporting that juvenile martial artist showed more externalizing behavior than non-martial artists, suggesting that the current overall outcomes might underestimate externalizing behavior in martial artists. Moderator analyses showed that studies published in higher impact factor journals, and studies with a higher training intensity in martial arts found more externalizing behavior in martial artists. Furthermore, karate was found to be less related to externalizing behavior than judo. Finally, in comparison with non-athletes and team sport athletes, martial artists showed similar levels of externalizing behavior, but they showed more externalizing behavior when compared to individual sport athletes. Implications for future policy and research are discussed.
Self-control is one of the most important structures of human personality and has been linked to a wide variety of benefits for the individual, and for society. Additionally, self-control has been consistently reported, both empirically and theoretically, as a major disposition in the regulation of aggressive behavior. Taking the advantages of the sport context as a natural environment to study human aggression, this study explored the individual differences in aggressive and anti-social behaviors as function of self-control capacity and gender. Results converged to the idea that athletes with higher levels of self-control capacity seem to be better at controlling aggression, and male athletes tend to be more aggressive. These findings not only support previous laboratory findings, but also suggest the importance of the promotion of self-control capacity as a strategy to control aggression in the domain of sport.
G*Power (Erdfelder, Faul, & Buchner, 1996) was designed as a general stand-alone power analysis program for statistical tests commonly used in social and behavioral research. G*Power 3 is a major extension of, and improvement over, the previous versions. It runs on widely used computer platforms (i.e., Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Mac OS X 10.4) and covers many different statistical tests of the t, F, and chi2 test families. In addition, it includes power analyses for z tests and some exact tests. G*Power 3 provides improved effect size calculators and graphic options, supports both distribution-based and design-based input modes, and offers all types of power analyses in which users might be interested. Like its predecessors, G*Power 3 is free.
This article explores the carnal dimensions of existence through ethnographic research in a mixed martial arts club. Mixed martial arts (MMA) is an emergent sport where competitors in a ring or cage utilize strikes (punches, kicks, elbows and knees) as well as submission techniques to defeat opponents. Through data gathered from in-depth interviews with MMA practitioners and participant observation in an MMA club, I elucidate the social processes that are integral to the production of an MMA fighter habitus. I examine how body techniques are learned and become attached to the identity of mixed martial arts fighters. Using Crossley’s concept of reflexive body techniques, I examine how MMA fighters engage in body callusing through use of reflexive body techniques thereby allowing them to withstand the rigors of the sport.
Abstract This study examines the extent to which participation in high school interscholastic sports contributes to male interpersonal violence. Deriving competing hypotheses from social control, socia lization and masculinity theories, I usedata from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to test if 1) type of sport, 2) peer athleticparticipation, and3) the presence of
This study evaluated the Gentle Warrior Program, a traditional martial arts–based intervention to reduce aggression in children, as it was implemented in three elementary schools. The sample consisted of 254 children in grades 3, 4, and 5 who participated in the Gentle Warrior Program as part of a larger school violence intervention. Results indicated that boys who participated in more Gentle Warrior sessions reported a lower frequency of aggression and greater frequency of helpful bystanding (i.e., helpful behavior toward victims of bullying) over time, relative to boys with less frequent participation. The effect of participation on aggression was partially mediated by empathy. The effect of participation on helpful bystanding was fully mediated by changes in student empathy. No significant results were found for girls. Results of the study provide preliminary support for the use of martial arts–based interventions to address bullying in schools for boys, by teaching empathy, self-control, and peaceful strategies to resolve conflicts. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
This study tested the ability of the general theory of crime and social control theory to account for self-reported deviance among a sample of 298 Puerto Rican high school students. The following hypotheses were examined: (1) Low attachment levels (to parents, religion, school, and friends) will positively and significantly predict deviance, (2) Individual with low levels of self-control will be more likely to report involvement in deviance, and (3) Low self-control will mediate the relationship between attachments (parents, religion, school, and friends) and deviance. Results indicated support for social control theory and did not support the general theory of crime. Self-control was not significantly predictive of deviance whereas many of the institutional attachment variables were important predictors of deviance among Hispanic high school students (attachment to parents, school, and friends). Theoretical and policy implications of the findings supportive of social control theory are discussed.
The impact of school-based Tae Kwon Do training on self-regulatory abilities was examined. A self-regulation framework including three domains (cognitive, affective, and physical) was presented. Children (N = 207) from kindergarten through Grade 5 were randomly assigned by homeroom class to either the intervention (martial arts) group or a comparison (traditional physical education) group. Outcomes were assessed using multidimensional, multimodal assessments. After a 3-month intervention, results indicated that the martial arts group demonstrated greater improvements than the comparison group in areas of cognitive self-regulation, affective self-regulation, prosocial behavior, classroom conduct, and performance on a mental math test. A significant Group × Gender interaction was found for cognitive self-regulation and classroom conduct, with boys showing greater improvements than girls. Possible explanations of this interaction as well as implications for components of martial arts training for the development of self-regulation in school-age children are discussed.
This study replicated and extended the design and outcome measures of several small studies. In these studies, juveniles at high risk for violence and delinquency showed decreased violence and positive changes in psychological risk factors after being required to take a school-linked course in traditional martial arts. In the present study, 60 boys in a large urban middle school were required to take a traditional martial arts course in their school. They were paired on problematic behavior profiles and assigned to a treatment group or to a wait-list control group. Thirty classes, three per week (45 minutes each), were taught by a master of Koga Ha Kosho Shorei Ryu Kempo and his assistant (neither was a public school teacher). Results are reported here for 14 variables from the following measures: four teacher rating scales from the Sutter-Eyberg Student Behavior Inventory, five self-report scales of the Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale, four computerized measures of attentional self-control from the Intermediate Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test, and a count of permanent expulsions from school. The treatment students improved over baseline on 12 variables, while the controls improved on 5 by small amounts and deteriorated from baseline on 8, including teacher-rated violence. There were significant differences between the groups on self-reported happiness and schoolwork and on one measure of attention. After controls took the course, their scores resembled the postcourse scores of the treatment group. Importantly, the control group's increase in teacher-rated violence was reversed. Both groups were then pooled to compare baseline and postcourse teacher ratings. Their scores improved significantly in the areas of resistance to rules, impulsiveness, and inappropriate social behavior. There was also improvement in regard to violence, but the change in scores was not statistically significant. Follow-up on teachers' ratings showed that improvement remained, and in some cases increased, four months after completion of the course. Interestingly, all 6 permanent expulsions were among the control group students who had not yet taken, or had only begun taking, the martial arts course.
A limited number of mostly cross-sectional studies have examined the possible effects of power sports on aggressive and antisocial involvement in children and youth. The majority of these studies have serious methodological limitations, and results are partly contradictory. Longitudinal studies with representative, reasonably large samples and adequate dependent variables are lacking.
The relationship between participation in power or fight and strength sports (boxing, wrestling, weightlifting, and oriental martial arts) and violent and antisocial behaviour was examined in a sample of 477 boys, aged 11 to 13 years at Time 1, over a two-year period. Making use of information about different participation patterns over time, the longitudinal design provided an opportunity to examine specified hypotheses about possible causal effects of power sports.
The total pattern of results strongly suggests that participation in power sports actually leads to an increase or enhancement of antisocial involvement in the form of elevated levels of violent as well as non-violent antisocial behaviour outside sports. In addition, there were no indications of selection effects; the presence of such effects would imply that boys who started with power sports were characterised by already elevated levels of antisocial involvement.
The results provide strong support for the 'enhancement hypothesis'. The negative effects in boys seemed to stem from both the practice of power sports itself and from repeated contact with 'macho' attitudes, norms, and ideals. The negative effects of participation in power sports represent a societal problem of considerable dimensions which has been largely neglected up to now.
Modern unexplored martial arts -what can mixed martial arts and Brazilian JiuJiutsu do for youth development?
- T Blomqvist Mickelsson
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The effect of judo on social behavior with special consideration of periods of reflection
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PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling
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Narratives of despair and loss: Pain, injury and masculinity in the sport of mixed martial arts
- D C Spencer
Spencer, D. C. (2012). Narratives of despair and loss: Pain, injury and masculinity in the sport of mixed martial
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