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Citation: Bell V, Ferrão J, Chaquisse E, Manuel B and Fernandes T. Role of Mushrooms in Autism. Austin J Nutri
Food Sci. 2019; 7(6): 1128.
Austin J Nutri Food Sci - Volume 7 Issue 6 - 2019
ISSN : 2381-8980 | www.austinpublishinggroup.com
Fernandes et al. © All rights are reserved
Austin Journal of Nutrition and Food
Sciences
Open Access
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a disorder still very poorly understood
rst recognized in early childhood in the form of a multi organ system disability
caused by impaired neurogenesis and apoptosis, impaired synaptogenesis
and synaptic pruning or imbalanced excitatory-inhibition system. Inammation
has been recognised as the pathogenesis of autism but a holistic approach is
required. The aetiology is largely unknown and there is no clinical treatment.
The gut microbiota may affect symptom manifestation which may benet from
a balanced diet, re-establishment of intestinal permeability, improvement of gut
microbiota, raised immunity, supply of antioxidants and detoxication speed.
Specic mushrooms may have specic effects on health, well-being, behaviour
and tness and address the potential impact of a dietary mushroom supplement
on gastrointestinal inammation in ASD patients.
Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder; Mushrooms; Nutrition; Gut microbiota
Review Article
Role of Mushrooms in Autism
Bell V1, Ferrão J2, Chaquisse E3, Manuel B4 and
Fernandes T5*
1Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Portugal
2Pedagogical University, Mozambique
3National Health Institute, Ministry of Health,
Mozambique
4Faculty of Medicine, Eduardo Mondlane University,
Mozambique
5Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lisbon University,
Portugal
*Corresponding author: Fernandes T, Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine, Lisbon University, 1300-477 Lisboa,
Portugal
Received: August 16, 2019; Accepted: September 24,
2019; Published: October 01, 2019
Introduction
Plenty of research has explored the mechanisms behind anxiety,
stress, cognition, memory and depression [1]. Many neural system
diseases are oen neglected and some are hard to understand.
Furthermore, there are very few established explanations or choices
for intervention or managing some of them; especially the most
misconceived ones [2]. Autism spectrum disorder, known since 1938
[3], is a comorbidity (not necessarily implying the presence of multiple
diseases) still very poorly understood, typically rst recognized
in early childhood before the age of 3, and can create challenges
throughout a person’s life. It is still very unclear its aetiology and it is
probably even more uncertain how it could be supported or remedied
in any way. Autism is an example of natural variation also known as
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), aecting some 70 million people
globally (current estimates are that 1 in 100 people are on the autistic
spectrum), dealing with neurological developments in people that
interfere with their ability to communicate and socialize with others
[4]. Genetic, neuro-immune and environmental factors are connoted
[5] despite the fact that each individual case of autism is unique from
others [6]. Autism is not anymore considered a comorbidity neither
one of ve lifelong disorders that were under the umbrella previously
designated Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD), a category
of neuro developmental disabilities. But actually, autism spectrum
disorder-ASD means the same thing covering the ve conditions.
Research has shown that autism tends to run in families being a
brain based disorder but not caused by inadequate parenting. With
the exception of neuro-inammatory changes [7], most reported
neurobiological abnormalities in ASD are inconsistent [8]. A usual
misinterpretation around autism is that it is inevitably linked to
intellectual disability [9]. ere are no recognised treatments or
known medication that can directly cure or lessen the symptoms of
autism, some with undesirable side eects or dependency risks. On
the other hand, there have been some a few mainstream approaches
that have been developed and accepted into conventional medicine
that may help with issues associated with or connected to autism [10].
Autism aects all races, ethnic groups, and socioeconomic levels, boys
being more prone than girls. e severity of autism conditions may
be slowed by behavioural therapy for children, helping people deal
with further complications as they grow older [11]. e mainstream
treatment of autism has many side eects. Some studies show that
uncomplicated diet changes, avoiding potential risk factors and
environmental toxins (e.g. heavy metals), incorporating dietary
supplements (e.g. vitamins, probiotics), and some medicinal herbs
and mushrooms may have some signicant benecial eects [12].
However, the heavy metals from some mushrooms indicate that
when consumed high quantity may cause liver or kidney damage and
even death may result [13]. e autism spectrum can benet from a
balanced diet including certain foods and supplements, in particular
those that curtail inammation, re-establish intestinal permeability,
improve the harmony of gut microbiota, raise immunity, supply
antioxidants and speed detoxication [14,15]. Oxidative stress is
common to a myriad of neurological diseases [16]. e production
of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) is a common outcome of normal
aerobic cellular metabolism, and determines the cellular redox balance
with antioxidants [17]. ese protect critical biological targets against
[18] therefore, they have been considered as attractive potential
benecial agents to neutralise ROS-mediated neural damage. e
key players in oxidative stress outline evidences of their involvement
in Multiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Huntington’s
diseases [19,20]. Complementary and alternative medical treatments
are commonly used for children with autism spectrum disorders
[21]. However, most treatments have not been adequately studied
and do not have evidence to support their use. is review discusses
the existing evidence supporting the administration of mushroom
products in ASD patients.
Role of Microbiota
Human life spins around a microbial world and human and
animals only exist because they have evolved dealing with
microorganism in environment and food. Human metabolism
represents a conjugation of microbial and human vital roles namely
in health consequences. e microbiome, is a diverse consortium of
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, archaea and viruses that inhabit the gut of
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all mammals, referring to the collection of microbes and their genetic
material, confers a variety of physiologic benets to the host in many
key aspects of life as well as being responsible for some diseases. e
eld is at a stage where more questions than answers are being
generated [22,23]. e gut microbiota has been implicated as a
potential pathway aecting symptom manifestation in cognitive and
neuro developmental disorders, such as anxiety, depression and ASD
[24,25] Incredible advances in our understanding of host-microbe
interactions, with identication of numerous disease-associated
organisms and elucidation of pathogenic mechanisms occurred on
the last two decades [26]. e gut microbiota interact with the human
body via ve communication routes between gut microbiota and
brain [27], including immune, endocrine and neural mechanism
deeply inuencing general growth and development, including
development of the nervous system [28]. Our digestive microbiota is
a partner of homeostasis directly linked to our brains [29] which is
explained by a network of neurons lining our guts that is so extensive
some scientists have nicknamed it our “second brain” [30-32]. At
present there is a lack of consistent ndings relating to the
neurobiology of autism and the inuence of environment including
nutrition [33]. Hormones, some heavy metals and endocrine
disrupting compounds (mostly man-made, found in various materials
such as pesticides, additives or contaminants in food, and personal
care products), have undesired harmful eects on the embryonic and
foetal neuro development and in the evolution of ASD [34,35]. e
sources of the microorganisms that make up the gut ecosystem, how
and why it varies from one person to another, and how the
composition of this microbial community inuences human
digestion, physiology, metabolism, development, and diseases are still
poorly understood [36,37]. ere is a strong link between ASD and
dysbiosis, including high degree of mental distress between these
ostensibly contrasting diagnoses [38,39]. Although microbiota is
known to alter host immune function including inammatory
cytokine production, the relationship between abnormal microbiota
and cytokine production in ASD has been scarce [40,41]. Development
of ASD, including autism, is based on a combination of genetic
predisposition and environmental factors ASD being among the most
heritable of all neuropsychiatric disorders [42,43]. Recent data partly
explains the diverse neuro immunological abnormalities in ASD and
propose a diverse and complex multifactorial aetiology including a
pathogenetic role of intestinal microbiota in autism [44-46].
Abundant research suggests a connection between gut microbiome
and autism-like behaviours. Long-term benet eects of faecal
transplant or Microbiota Transfer erapy (MTT) on autism
symptoms and gut health, which persisted long aer treatment, was
demonstrated on children diagnosed with ASD [47]. e human gut
microbiota, through interactions between the microbiome and ASD,
may impact on the connection between feeding, nutrition and
metabolism with ASD [48,49]. e microbiome being an interface
between environmental and genetic risk factors associated with ASD
reect that changes in the microbiome may contribute to symptoms
of neuro developmental disease [50,51]. Gastrointestinal
comorbidities, including acute and chronic constipation and
diarrhoea, occur in children with ASD associated with the harshness
of the neuro behavioural disorder [48]. Gut microbial imbalance may
correspond with behavioural abnormality in ASD patients. Since the
impact of diet on the microbiota composition in children with ASD is
still broadly unexplained [52]. Understanding of the relationship
among diet, gut ora and host on mitochondrial dysfunction and
oxidative stress in the cells, could open up new lines of research on
ASD, including potential novel treatment strategies [53-56].
Impairment of physiological regulatory mechanisms governing
metabolism, immune response, organ function or unbalance of the
gut microbiota are quite complex and critical in gastrointestinal
functions and disturbances. e integrity of the gastrointestinal
mucosal barrier and the symbiotic relationship with commensal
bacteria play a vital role in the gut pathogenesis and is involved in
regulating normal functions including motility, permeability, and
mucosal immune function [57-59] (Figure 1). Derangements in the
gut microbiota in children with ASD have been reported [60] and
liaisons between specic microbial genera and some symptoms of
ASD have been described [61,62]. e gut microbiota of children with
ASD is less diverse, varies between individuals, and exhibits lower
levels of Bidobacterium and Firmicutes and higher levels of
Lactobacillus, Clostridium, Bacteroidetes, and Desulfovibrio [63]. It is
noticeable that the human body lacks endogenous enzymes to
degrade many plant polysaccharides, such as cellulose, hemicellulose
(e.g. xylan), complex pectins, and arabinose. In contrast, the human
colonic microbiota yields more than 80 dierent glycosyl hydrolase
families [64,65]. In this way, the gut microbiota may have evolved as
an adaptation to allow extraction of maximal energy (e.g. short chain
fatty acids, acetate, propionate, butyrate and other elements (e.g.
serotonin, bile acids, bioactive lipids) from food sources [66] and
actually it is widely known that the human body is composed of 10
times more microbial cells than body cells [67]. e plausibility of
manipulative procedures to change microbiome evolution establishes
the forecast of a spectrum of novel therapeutic paths such as
microbiome-mediated therapies, probiotic, antibiotic or dietary
administrations that may represent hope to patients and families
living with ASD [68]. Gut bacteria are not only critical for regulating
gut metabolism, but also important for host immune system [69,70].
e short-chain volatile fatty acids, are produced in the distal colon
by microbial fermentation of carbohydrates and endogenous
substrates, such as mucus, epithelial cells, and digestive enzymes [71].
is is of great advantage to the host humans since most of the
enzymes needed to degrade the polymeric carbohydrate molecules
(e.g. cellulose and chitin) present in cell wall of plants are not
produced endogenously [72,73]. Still unclear, but most likely, there
are eective links between dietary, metabolic, infective-related events,
gastrointestinal factors and the behavioural aggravations and
Figure 1: The concept of the overlap syndrome of GI disorders and ASD [57].
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exemptions of ASD [7,74]. ere is accumulated evidence of an
association between specic individual harmful bacteria and
symptoms of ASD which is oen associated with medical
comorbidities and gastrointestinal dysfunction [75]. For example,
some nutrient deciencies, microbiota luxuriance, decreased
Bacteroidetes-to-Firmicutes ratio and abundance of Desulfovibrio
were related to ASD symptoms [76-78]. However, few studies have
assessed dietary intake, namely recommended daily intake of bre,
and microbiota in ASD children [79]. Gut-derived factors, such as
dietary or enteric bacterially produced VFA, may therefore be
plausible environmental agents that can trigger ASDs. As a critical
modulator of enteric and central nervous systems development and
function, amygdala dysregulation [80] and serotonin may be the
nexus for the microbiota-gut-brain axis in ASD since one of the most
prominently established ndings in autism is the elevation of
serotonin in the brain [81,82]. e idea that systemic bacterial
infections play a role in the genesis of symptoms of autism is gaining
ground associated with inammation of the intestinal mucosa leading
to the introduction of bacterial components, including neurotoxins,
into the bloodstream, creating oxidative stress causing immune
dysfunction. e tridirectional interactions between the central
nervous system, microbiota and the gastrointestinal tract (microbiota-
brain-gut axis) may mediate therapies and be a safe and eective
treatment for ASD [83-85].
Role of Mushrooms
Mushrooms are rich in bioactive metabolites, including
polysaccharides, enzymes (e.g. superoxide dismutase, ribonucleases,
laccases), proteins (ribosome inactivating proteins), dietary bres
(β-Glucans), and many other biomolecules (secondary metabolites,
lectins, antifungal proteins, ubiquitin-like proteins, protease
inhibitors), which have been shown to be successful in the prevention
and treatment of several human health hazards [86-88] Macro-
fungi are both food and a signicant nutritional supplement for
humans. However, several fungus species accumulate both important
nutritional elements and heavy metals in their fruit bodies [89].
Although living organisms need certain elements such as iron,
cobalt, copper, manganese, chrome and zinc in trace amounts,
excessive amounts of these elements may create toxic eects on
these living organisms [90]. Many people on the spectrum take
multiple medications, which can lead to serious side eects and may
not even be eective. Families of children with autism and related
disorders, due to anxiety, may turn to therapies that are not based
in the realm of conventional medical or psychological practice, but
this matter is quite complex and ndings should not be generalized
[91]. e most eective treatment is a combination of specialized
and supportive educational programming, communication training,
social skills support and behavioural intervention [92]. Treatments
do not address the core symptoms of the disorder and there are no
medications that cure ASD, but it can help provide some control
over aggression, mood problems, rigid behaviour, and attention
decits. Associated problems such as seizures, disrupted sleep
patterns, gastrointestinal problems or dietary imbalances should
have medical care and oen use complementary and alternative
medicine [93,94]. e use of more than one antipsychotic medication
in the treatment of child and adolescent psychiatric conditions has
increased over the last decade which is concerning, considering
the risks of adverse eects associated with these medications [95].
Complementary and Alternative Medical (CAM) treatments are
commonly used for children with ASD including mind and body
practices, energy medicine, biomedical treatments and natural
products [96]. ASD being multifactorial demands collaborative
intervention of health professionals. Gluten- and casein-free diet in
children showed little evidence of benecial eects for the symptoms
of ASD [97]. Mushroom nutrition may come into play in the
association between dietary factors and microbiota composition as
mushrooms we have shown to increase Lipoxin A4 and having a
high content in superoxide dismutase that can cross the blood brain
barrier [98]. e most commonly used mushrooms as potent health-
boosters include Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), Reishi (Ganoderma
lucidum), Turkey Tail (Trametes versicolor, Coriolus versicolor),
Shiitake (Lentinula edodes), Lion’s Mane (Hericium erinaceus), and
Cordyceps (Cordyceps sinensis). e connection between mushroom
nutrition and immune system is well recognised [99], however the
true integration of research between mushroom nutrition, animal
energy status and immune function is still far from clear. ere
are multiple recognised clinical and immune modulating uses of
mushrooms due to their content in β-glucans [30,100]. Mushrooms
contain immunostimulants (β-glucans, lipopolysaccharide, and
polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid) that can strengthen and increase
immune system activity. Some contain immunomodulators that
can adjust the level of function in the individual’s immune system
[101] and their eects on various cancers have been well documented
[102] while the folate in mushrooms plays an important role in DNA
synthesis and repair [103]. If a person is fungiphobic, mushrooms
are not a path of nutritional recovery for ASD. For people with ASD
specic mushrooms (Reishi, Maitake, Shiitake, and Cordyceps) may
have specic eects on health, well-being, behaviour and tness.
Cordyceps, a combination from a caterpillar and a fungus, is not a
mushroom but a parasitic fungus infecting insects at dierent phases
of their evolution and it is being cultivated for its outstanding health
benets. Cordycepin, rich in some 20 nucleosides and their related
compounds, aects the synergistic actions of immune cells and
increases the cytokine network contributing to the increase of cell
receptors and control of cellular and humoral acquired immunity
[104,105]. For children with ASD who enjoy eating common
mushrooms (white button, shiitake, and oyster), there is a matter
of chance for repairing functional activities. People on the autism
spectrum can over-respond too many challenges such as toxins and
allergens, and under-react to a seemingly harmless foreign substance
such as viruses, yeast, and intracellular bacteria. ese responses
require a specic type of immune system response, which can be
Figure 2: Fruiting body and mycelium of Pleurotus giganteous (left) and
Hericium erinaceus (right).
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eective using mushrooms to successfully induct the 2 cells which
secrete cytokines [106,107].
Autism, Neuroimmunity and Environmental
Factors
Autism is a severe neurological condition and one of the most
mysterious and challenging lifelong developmental disability of
present medicine. Contrary to popular opinion, autism is not just
the congenital condition once assumed to be and results from the
combination of genetic and environmental factors being preventable,
and even treatable, once understood the underlying causes [108,109].
Parental age, perinatal risks, medication, smoking and alcohol abuse,
nutrition deciencies, some vaccinations, teratogenic compounds,
toxic exposures, and even extreme psychosocial factors may
constitute risk factors for adverse outcomes. Several other factors may
reduce the risk of a child to develop ASD such an adequate vitamin
D during pregnancy and lactation, avoidance of environmental
toxins (e.g. heavy metals, pesticides, alcohol) [110]. Several herbal
medicine products were found positive on ADHD (attention decit-
hyperactivity disorder) cases and the most promised were mushrooms
and a plant named Bacopa monnieri which may be a helpful natural
remedy for autism [111,112]. e culinary medicinal fungus lion’s
mane Hericium erinaceus (Figure 2) showed some scientic reason
to believe that could be of some marginal help on these. Other
studies have documented that this mushroom and oyster mushroom
(Pleurotus giganteous) could be of benet to symptoms relating to
anxiety and depression, which may relate to both autism and ADHD.
Daily consumption of these mushrooms may keep people away
from several life-threatening disorders. However still needs further
scientic validation to consider these mushrooms as useful in the
prevention or treatment of dementia and cognitive dysfunction
[113,114]. Cordyceps (Cordyceps militaris) (Figure 3) is considered
to be neuroprotective to the highest degree. No direct research has
been undertaken to manifest a solid link between cordyceps and
ADHD or autism, though the makings of a link are already clear
[115,116]. Globally, more than 300 million people of all ages suer
from depression, resulting from a complex interaction of social,
psychological and biological factors. erefore, there is an interest in
nding a safer compound with robust and rapid antidepressant eect
namely on mild cases and for children and adolescents. Cordyceps
promotes strong anti-depressant potential [117], which could be an
ally to those with autism and which may benet ADHD [118,119].
Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) mushroom could also be supportive
to both ADHD and autism. Some studies suggest it could have anti-
depressant-like eects and neuroprotective activity [120] but extracts
of G. lucidum should be used with caution as there appears to be
potential for toxicity [121]. erefore, researchers suggest that reishi
should be administered in combination with traditional treatment
rather than replacing it [122]. Psilocybin, the psychoactive compound
in magic mushrooms, is proving a prodigious treatment for anxiety,
depression, addiction, and one study even found it might lead to
neurogenesis, or the regrowth of brain cells, acting as serotonin
agonists [123]. But there are only few small studies indicating
that psilocybin could produce great results and pharmaceutical
companies are not interested in researching an inexpensive substance
[124]. Safety is clearly one issue that is important to discuss when
contemplating the use of psychedelic drugs as medical or therapeutic
treatments [125,126].
Children and Ecosystems
e interaction between three sources of information, genetic,
past experience and present environment, from conception onwards,
governs the physical and emotional state of humans, the homeostasis
of the natural human systems [127]. Decient nutrition and an
imbalanced inner ecosystem is most plausible connected to autism.
For example, zinc plays a role on neuronal depolarization at synapses
and its deciency or disrupted zinc dynamics might be linked to
individuals with ASDs [128]. Enabling an ecient child’s immune
system and ability to metabolise nutrients and remain free of toxins,
is a condition from birth. Subsequently, aer a typical programme
of vaccination, the child’s levels of mercury and aluminium from
vaccine adjuvants crosses increase and may cause the child’s brain
and nervous systems not to function as they should [129]. Two
subtypes of ASD, with or without gastrointestinal disorders, have been
identied, possibly reecting dierent grades of inammation and
mucus production, which has impact on the implementation of diet
or dietary supplements dierent for the subtypes [130]. To balance
the inner ecosystem may improve autism showing that diet is indeed
key to treat autism and its milder forms in the subtype with bowel
dysfunctions, and this balance may be achieved by adding probiotics-
rich diets (fermented foods and beverages) or prebiotics (mushroom
bres). ese fermented foods and mushrooms build strong, healthy
immune and digestive systems. Soon aer incorporating some
of these into their diets, autistic children show improvements on
digesting high-quality lipids rich in raw, unsaturated fatty acids
essential to healing [131]. Epidemiological evidence shows also a clear
association between gut problems and skin disorders [132] although
autism’s co-morbidity with hypomelanosis is justied by genetic
and epigenetic variants that protect against vitamin-D deciency.
Children with reduction or absence of the pigment melanin have
increased autism risk because parents tend to reduce sun exposure
being aware of photosensitivity and skin-cancer [133]. Most research
comprises epidemiological studies detailing age of parents, use of
antidepressants, mothers with diabetes and other situations which
do not demonstrate cause and eect and originate conicting
conclusions. Some studies suggest that taking vitamin D and vitamin
B9 (folate), supplements during pregnancy can decrease the baby’s
autism risk. But the evidence is not denitive [134]. Folate and folic
acid are dierent since folic acid is a synthetic form of vitamin B9 and
the majority of folic acid is not converted to the active form of vitamin.
e un-metabolized folic acid may build up and be associated with
Figure 3: Image of Cordyceps sinensis (a genus of Ascomycete fungi).
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several health problems. It is dicult to link autism to environmental
ecosystem and besides pollutants and chemicals anything altering the
likelihood of having a condition and not encoded in an individual’s
DNA is a risk factor. Folate has a crucial role in cell growth and the
formation of DNA. Periconceptional folic acid intake may reduce
ASD risk in those with high prenatal air pollution exposure [135].
Vitamin-D enhancement may aid treatment and prevention of
autism in children however; intervention must start long before on
nutritional status of mothers before and during pregnancy, thereby
allowing changes to be performed. e mechanisms of how these
processes occur are not fully understood [136,137].
Concluding Remarks
Nature functions in an innitely more complex manner than
we can understand using our simplied models of reality. e
impact of dietary intake on the gut microbiota composition was not
systematically investigated although alterations in its prole have
been conrmed in children with ASD [138-140]. Each person with
ASD is unique, and intervention plans must be individualized based
on the needs of the individual and family. Recommended services
should be based on proven interventions with a strong evidence
base emphasizing a holistic approach to health maintenance. Dietary
therapy is insucient to eectively treat autism, but it can be used as
a complement to medical and psychological interventions. e use of
some mushrooms may reduce the severity of issues springing from
autism or ADHD, however, being a delicate collection or network
of causes, lifestyle is very important and mushrooms may have only
peripheral benet. Some treatments have been unsuccessful, some
have undesirable side eects, and others require more research.
Conict of Interest
e authors declare that the work was conducted in the absence
of any commercial or nancial relationships that could be construed
as a potential conict of interest. No research involving humans or
animals, therefore informed consent not necessary and all ethical
issues were taken into consideration.
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