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Air Quality Assessment of Volatile Organic
Compounds Near a Concrete Block Plant
and Traffic in Bladensburg, Maryland
Rosemary Ifeoma Ezeugoh, Robin Puett, Devon Payne-Sturges,
Raul Cruz-Cano, and Sacoby M. Wilson
ABSTRACT
A concrete block plant located in Bladensburg, Maryland, wants to expand to include a concrete batching
plant on the same property. This expansion could further degrade air quality and impact the health of
vulnerable residents. The purpose of this study is to provide information on volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) levels near residential areas close to commuter traffic and industrial activity associated with the
concrete plant. Air quality monitoring was conducted in the community at five sites: (1) Kingdom
Missionary Baptist Church, (2) Bladensburg Waterfront Park, (3) Confluence area, (4) Bladensburg
Elementary School, and (5) Hillcrest Apartment Complex by using the Atmotube, a wearable, real-time
sensor that can measure total VOCs. Sampling was conducted in 30-minute periods to capture morning on-
peak, afternoon off-peak, and evening on-peak periods. Traffic counts were also conducted at the sites
mentioned earlier to evaluate vehicular activity. Average 30-minute values for cars ranged from 8.33 to
1295.33 cars, whereas mean truck values ranged from 0.00 to 137.67 trucks across all sites. The highest
average car count of 1295.33 cars was observed at the confluence area. Mean VOCs concentrations ranged
from 0.11 to 0.54 ppm across the monitoring locations. The maximum average VOCs level of 0.54 ppm
was observed at Kingdom Missionary Baptist Church on Saturday. Also, the mean VOCs levels observed
at the church (0.54 and 0.31 ppm) were higher compared with other locations on Saturday. Our results
revealed spatial variations of VOCs levels across all locations. There were higher total VOCs levels at the
church, which is the closest location to the concrete block plant.
Keywords: air quality monitoring, environmental justice, volatile organic compounds, low-cost sensors,
community-based participatory research, citizen science, community engagement
INTRODUCTION
Residents of urban neighborhoods are exposed to
industrial and traffic-related emissions of air pol-
lutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
VOCs such as benzene, formaldehyde, and toluene are an
important set of air pollutants emitted from mobile and
stationary sources in large amounts due to combustion,
solvent and fuel evaporation, and tank leakage.
1
Sources
of VOCs include car emissions, painting buildings,
Rosemary Ifeoma Ezeugoh is a doctoral student at Maryland
Institute of Applied Environmental Health, School of Public
Health, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Robin
Puett is an Associate Professor at Maryland Institute of Applied
Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of
Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Devon Payne-Sturges is an
Assistant Professor at Maryland Institute of Applied Environ-
mental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland,
College Park, Maryland. Raul Cruz-Cano is an Associate Re-
search Professor at Department of Epidemiology and Biostatis-
tics, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland. Sacoby M. Wilson is an Associate Professor at
Maryland Institute of Applied Environmental Health, School of
Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
1
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ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
Volume 00, Number 00, 2019
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/env.2019.0017
1
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cooking, coal and gas-fired power plants, landfills, steel
mills, and concrete plants.
2
In fact, power generation ac-
counts for *37% of all anthropogenic VOC emissions.
3
Vehicles also are a major source of VOC emissions and
account for 35% due to relatively heavy traffic and ad-
verse dispersion conditions in urban areas, which could
lead to an accumulation of high levels that can adversely
affect air quality and human health in street canyons, es-
pecially in urban areas.
4
In Southern California, VOCs
constitute 45% of on-road mobile source emissions
and play a key role in urban and rural atmospheres, be-
cause they constitute 70% of hazardous air pollutants.
5
The study of VOCs is important due to their role in
atmospheric ozone depletion, ground level ozone for-
mation, toxic and carcinogenic human health ef-
fects, and enhancement of the global greenhouse effect.
6
Outdoor VOC concentrations are influenced by season,
proximity to emission sources (industry, traffic, gas
stations), and meteorological conditions such as
temperature.
7
Chronic health effects associated with VOC expo-
sure can be noncarcinogenic or carcinogenic. Non-
carcinogenic effects include irritation, sensory effects,
headache, eye irritation, skin irritation, and airway ir-
ritation; damage to the liver, kidneys, and central
nervous system; asthma; and respiratory effects.
8
In
contrast, the primary carcinogenic health effects as-
sociated with VOCs exposure are lung, blood, liver,
kidney, and biliary tract cancers.
9
For example, one
study linked exposure to VOCs with cancers of the
brain, nervous system, skin, melanoma, endocrine
system, and thyroid in Indiana.
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impacts on reproductive systems or birth defects.
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vated VOC concentrations have been observed at
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intensity streets.
12
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West Virginia revealed that exposure to VOCs was associ-
ated with increased rates of chronic respiratory symptoms.
13
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 40 CFR 59
(e.g., the National Volatile Organic Compound Emission
Standards for Consumer and Commercial Products).
14
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coatings, architectural coatings, automobile refinishing
coatings, and consumer products.
15
VOCs regulations at
the state level are required to be stringent and meet the
Reasonably Acceptable Control Technology (RACT),
which is the lowest level of emissions that can be attained
while taking economic and technical considerations into
account.
16
However, VOCs are not regulated by the US
EPA as criteria pollutants in the clean air act.
17
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portionately exposed to environmental hazards. For exam-
ple, economically disadvantaged individuals are more likely
to live in air pollution hot spots and could suffer increased
health risks associated with ambient air pollution than the
general populace.
18
They also have increased residential
exposure to traffic and traffic-related air pollution (TRAP),
and the percentage of individuals living in nonattainment air
quality areas is significantly higher for Latinos and African
Americans compared with Whites.
19
TRAP refers to air
pollution from primary emissions related with motor vehicles
(such as particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
benzene, etc.) and not to the widely dispersed secondary
pollutants such as ozone.
20
Children of color in California are
three or four times more likely to reside in highly trafficked
areas than White children, and children in low-income
communities have an increased risktopotentialexposures
from vehicle emissions.
21
A study on TRAP in a primarily
low-income African and Latin American community in
Hunts Point, New York, revealed that there were increased
concentrations of elemental carbon found at intersections due
to large truck traffic.
22
As an industrial corridor with a school bus depot, a trash
company, a concrete block plant, other industrial facilities,
and a high volume of industrial traffic, residents in Bla-
densburg, Maryland, are faced with environmental health
disparities. Current levels of VOCs in areas with industrial
traffic, including near the concrete block plant, are un-
known. Recently, plant operators requested a special ex-
ception permit to construct a concrete batching plant on
the property. The increase in diesel trucks in and out of the
12
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Hwa Jung, Pamela Ohman-Strickland, Clifford P. Weisel, and
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Hwa Jung, Pamela Ohman-Strickland, Clifford P. Weisel, and Paul
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AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 3
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expanded facility could lead to changes in TRAP in the
area, including VOC levels.
The aim of this study was to provide data on spatio-
temporal variation in human exposure to VOCs due to
commuter traffic, industrial traffic, and industrial activities
near the concrete block plant. This information will pro-
vide community residents with baseline scientific infor-
mation on human exposure to VOCs in close proximity to
commuter and industrial traffic, and industrial activities
associated with the concrete block plant. We investigated
diurnal patterns based on time of day and rush hour traffic
by conducting air quality assessments and traffic counts
during morning on-peak (rush hour), afternoon off-peak,
and evening on-peak (rush hour) periods.
METHODS
Community background and site selection
Bladensburg, Maryland, encompasses an area of 1.01
square miles, sharing borders with Edmonston in the
north, Hyattsville in the northwest, Cottage City and
Colmar Manor in the southwest, and Cheverly in the
southeast. The concrete block plant operates 6 days a
week, excluding Sunday. We selected five monitoring
locations due to their proximity to the plant (<1609 m
from the facility). These include Kingdom Missionary
Baptist Church (site 1, 12.19 m), Bladensburg Waterfront
Park (site 2, 804.67 m), Bladensburg Elementary school
(site 3, 643.74 m), Hillcrest Village Apartments (site 4,
804.67 m), and Confluence area (near King Pawn Auto
Shop—site 5, 160.93 m), as shown in Figure 1.
Monitoring locations were selected based on commu-
nity concerns about air pollution from the expansion of
the current concrete plant, industrial traffic, and com-
muter traffic, and proximity to other emission sources
such as a school bus depot, a trash company. These lo-
cations are important human receptor sites among chil-
dren, adults, and the elderly (offices, residential, school,
and recreational complexes).
23
Near roadway air quality
monitoring was performed, because it would provide
exposure information for individuals who live and work
both near the concrete block plant and heavily trafficked
roads.
24
Near roadway air quality monitoring is carried
FIG. 1. Map showing the five monitoring locations near the concrete block plant in Bladensburg, Maryland.
23
Houston Douglas, Margaret Krudysz, and Arthur Winer.
‘‘Diesel Truck Traffic in Low-Income and Minority Commu-
nities Adjacent to Ports: Environmental Justice Implications of
Near-Roadway Land Use Conflicts,’’Transportation Research
Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2008.
<http://trrjournalonline.trb.org.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/
doi/abs/10.3141/2067-05>(Last accessed January 27, 2019).
24
Zhao L, Wang X, He Q, Wang H, Sheng G, Chan LY, Fu J, and
Blake DR. ‘‘Exposure to Hazardous Volatile Organic Compounds,
PM10 and CO While Walking along Streets in Urban Guangzhou,
China.’’ Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004): 6177–6184.
4EZEUGOH ET AL.
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out to determine the impacts of transportation systems on
local air quality, human health, and the environment.
25
Environmental assessment
Traffic counts and air quality monitoring were con-
ducted by research staff who were trained in the operation,
placement, and use of real-time sensors. Oversight and
logistical support for the project was provided by senior
members of the research team. This study was approved by
the UMD Institutional Review Board (IRB) in March 2018.
Traffic counts
Traffic counts were performed to monitor commuter and
industrial traffic at each monitoring site. Monitoring in-
volved recording the number of motor vehicles that passed a
designated checkpoint during a sampling period. Vehicles
counted included cars, heavy duty trucks, buses, and vans.
Heavydutytrucksweredefinedastruckslargerthanpick-up
trucks, including buses, whereas vans and sport utility ve-
hicles were counted as cars. Traffic counts were performed
manually in 5-minute intervals during each 30-minute
sampling window.
26
Data were summed to produce an av-
erage count by day, monitoring site, and sample period.
VOC sensors
We used low-cost, easy-to-use, portable air pollution
sensors to provide high-resolution data in near real-time.
27
The Atmotube is a small, wearable, portable device that
measures the total VOCs, air temperature, and humidity in
the real-time via Air Quality Score Android app. Readings
are sent via Bluetooth low-energy protocol to a mobile
phone. The device has an LED color that represents the Air
Quality Score and alerts you whenever the air is unsafe.
Measurements are uploaded to a secure cloud and are ag-
gregated on the air quality map. One Atmotube sensor was
worn around the neck of study staff in the breathing zone at
the six monitoring locations during sampling periods.
Air quality monitoring was conducted in June 2018,
Monday through Saturday when the facility was operating.
Monitoring occurred during traffic peak periods (8:30 am
to 9:15 am [morning] and 4:00 pm to 5:15 pm [evening])
and off-peak periods (11:00 am to 12:15 pm) in a 30-
minute time frame. To capture periods with less commuter
traffic, monitoring was also conducted on Saturday at the
same monitoring times, compared with Monday to Friday
when there was more commuter traffic.
Statistical analysis
Box plots wereused to display the descriptive statistics at
the five locations at different times of the day to assess the
spatiotemporal variation in VOCs. The data collected were
analyzed by using SAS Enterprise Version for Windows
9.3. Data obtained from traffic counts were categorized into
weekdays (Wednesday and Thursday) and weekends (Sat-
urdays). Traffic counts recorded were expressed as the mean
counts of cars and trucks observed on the monitoring days.
RESULTS
Demographic analysis
Table 1 provides population statistics for Bladensburg.
There are 9,148 residents, with 53.1% female and 46.9%
male.
28
According to the 2010 census, 65.6% of the resi-
dents were African American whereas Hispanics were
26.9% of the population.
29
In Maryland, 29.4% are African
American whereas 8.2% of the population are Hispanics.
Also, 73.2% of the population were 18 years and older, with
nearly 29% of the population aged 18–24 years with less
Table 1. Sociodemographic Composition
of Bladensburg
Variables %
Population by sex
Male 46.9
Female 53.1
Population by age
Under 18 26.8
18 and older 73.2
Population by ethnicity
Hispanic or Latino 26.9
Non-Hispanic or Latino 73.1
Population by race
White 12.6
African American 65.6
Asian 2.0
American Indian and Alaska Native 0.55
Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander 0.02
Other 16.6
Identified by two or more 2.69
Educational attainment
Less than high school graduate
(18–24 years)
28.5
Less than high school graduate
(25 years and older)
31.8
Poverty levels in 2010
All families 11.7
All people 12.1
25
Baldauf R, Watkins N, Heist D, Bailey C, Rowley P, and
Shores R. ‘‘Near-Road Air Quality Monitoring: Factors Af-
fecting Network Design and Interpretation of Data.’’ Air Qual-
ity, Atmosphere & Health 2 (2009): 1–9.
26
Kinney P L, M Aggarwal, M E Northridge, N A Janssen,
and P Shepard. ‘‘Airborne Concentrations of PM(2.5) and Diesel
Exhaust Particles on Harlem Sidewalks: A Community-Based
Pilot Study.’’ Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (2000):
213–218.
27
’’Atmotube: The Portable Air Pollution Monitor’’ n.d. [Inter-
net]. Indiegogo.<https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/1405790>
(Last accessed February 2, 2019).
28
’’Bladensburg, MD Population—Census 2010 and 2000
Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts—Cen-
susViewer’’ n.d.
29
’’Bladensburg, MD Population—Census 2010 and 2000
Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts—Cen-
susViewer’’ n.d.
AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 5
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FIG. 2. Boxplots of VOCs at the five locations obtained during the morning shift on the 6 days on which monitoring occurred. [A—Wednesday (June 6, 2018), B—
Thursday (June 7, 2018), C—Saturday (June 9, 2018), D—Wednesday (June 13, 2018), E—Thursday (June 14, 2018), F—Saturday (June 16, 2018), Site 1—Kingdom
Missionary Baptist Church, Site 2—Waterfront Park, Site 3—Bladensburg Elementary School, Site 4—Hillcrest Village Apartments, Site 5—Confluence Area]. VOC,
volatile organic compound.
6
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FIG. 3. Box plots of VOCs at the five locations obtained during the afternoon shift on the 6 days on which monitoring occurred. [A—Wednesday ( June 6, 2018), B—
Thursday ( June 7, 2018), C—Saturday ( June 9, 2018), D—Wednesday ( June 13, 2018), E—Thursday ( June 14, 2018), F—Saturday ( June 16, 2018), Site 1—Kingdom
Missionary Baptist Church, Site 2—Waterfront Park, Site 3—Bladensburg Elementary School, Site 4—Hillcrest Village Apartments, Site 5—Confluence Area].
7
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FIG. 4. Box plots of VOCs at the five locations obtained during the evening shift on the 6 days on which monitoring occurred. [A—Wednesday (June 6, 2018), B—Thursday
( June 7, 2018), C—Saturday ( June 9, 2018), D—Wednesday ( June 13, 2018), E—Thursday ( June 14, 2018), F—Saturday (June 16, 2018), Site 1—Kingdom Missionary
Baptist Church, Site 2—Waterfront Park, Site 3—Bladensburg Elementary School, Site 4—Hillcrest Village Apartments, Site 5—Confluence Area].
8
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than high school education. In Bladensburg, the median
household income was $34,966 and 14.6% of community
residents lived in poverty compared with 9.7% in Maryland.
Box plots for total VOCs
Descriptive statistics were calculated for total VOC
levels at the five locations on six monitoring days. The
box plots that display the distribution of observed data
are shown in Figures 2–4.
Figure 2 provides the box plots of VOCs measurements
recorded in the morning during the 6 days that monitoring
occurred at the five locations. Site 1 (Kingdom Missionary
Baptist Church) had the highest maximum VOCs levels
except on Wednesday (June 13, 2018) compared with
other locations. We observed that on Thursday (June 7,
2018), sites 1, 3, and 4 had similar interquartile ranges. On
Saturday (June 9, 2018), the interquartile ranges recorded
at sites 1 and 2 were similar. Also, the interquartile ranges
observed on Wednesday (June 13, 2018) at all sites were
similar. The box plots indicate that residents may be ex-
posed to high levels of VOCs during the morning period at
Kingdom Missionary Baptist Church, likely due to the
activities of the concrete block plant.
VOCs concentrations that were recorded in the after-
noon on the six monitoring days at the five locations are
shown in the box plots in Figure 3. The highest median,
interquartile range, and maximum values were recorded
at site 1 compared with other locations. The highest
maximum VOCs level in the afternoon of 0.7 ppm was
observed at site 1 on Thursday ( June 7, 2018). Also, site
1 and site 3 on Wednesday ( June 6, 2018) recorded
maximum values of 0.6 ppm.
The box plots in Figure 4 are the measurements re-
corded in the evening at the five sites on the six moni-
toring days. The maximum values recorded at site 1 were
higher than the other four locations on all monitoring days.
The interquartile range and median values on Thursday
(June 7, 2018) at site 4 were higher than those recorded at
other locations. Also, on Wednesday (June 13, 2018), the
maximum, median, and interquartile range values were
higher at site 5 compared with other locations. We ob-
served high median and interquartile values at site 3 on
Saturday (June 16, 2018) compared with other locations.
On Saturday (June 9, 2018), the median and interquartile
range values were similar across all locations.
Overall, the plots reveal that the Kingdom Missionary
Baptist Church had the highest maximum values of
0.9 ppm of all monitoring locations. This may indicate
that residents who live, work, pray, or play close to the
concrete plant are exposed to higher levels of VOCs
compared with individuals who live farther away.
Analysis of traffic counts
Table 2 provides the summary of 30-minute traffic
counts for cars and trucks at the five locations across
different time shifts. The mean car and truck counts
Table 2. Mean of 30-Minute Traffic Counts and Total Volatile Organic
Compounds in Bladensburg
Church Park School Hillcrest Confluence
Wednesday June 6, 2018
Cars 66.67 1016.33 514.33 19.67 1295.33
Trucks 19.00 86.67 120.33 4.33 96.00
VOCs (ppm) 0.38 0.16 0.31 0.25 0.15
Thursday June 7, 2018
Cars 72.67 17.33 521.67 8.33 1121.67
Trucks 18.67 2.67 137.67 0.67 76.33
VOCs (ppm) 0.23 0.13 0.23 0.28 0.12
Wednesday June 13, 2018
Cars 74.00 13.33 454.00 15.33 1182.33
Trucks 7.33 0.00 122.67 2.33 62.33
VOCs (ppm) 0.27 0.19 0.23 0.17 0.28
Thursday June 14, 2018
Cars 88.67 16.67 474.67 21.33 748.67
Trucks 13.33 2.33 105.33 4.33 71.33
VOCs (ppm) 0.21 0.13 0.11 0.11 0.11
Saturday June 9, 2018
Cars 71.67 387.67 469.67 8.33 1121.67
Trucks 5.33 33.67 88.00 0.67 76.33
VOCs (ppm) 0.54 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.23
Saturday June 16, 2018
Cars 95.67 33.33 496.00 19.33 1206.67
Trucks 6.00 0.00 48.00 5.67 26.00
VOCs (ppm) 0.31 0.12 0.27 0.18 0.12
VOC, volatile organic compound.
AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 9
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varied across the different sites on different days of the
week. We observed that site 5 (Confluence area) had the
highest value of mean car count on all monitoring days
(1295.33, 1121.67, 1182.33, 748.67, 1121.67, and
1206.67). Site 3 (Bladensburg Elementary School) had
the largest value of average truck count on the days that
monitoring was conducted (120.33, 137.67, 122.67,
105.33, 88, and 48). The average total truck count during
the weekdays had a low of 0 trucks observed at site 2
(Waterfront Park) on Wednesday ( June 13, 2018). The
lowest value of mean car count of 8.33 cars was recorded
at site 4 (Hillcrest Apartments).
Overall, the average total VOCs levels observed at the
Church (Site 1) had the highest value of 0.54 ppm
(2213.11 mg/m
3
) on Saturday ( June 9, 2018), whereas a
low of 0.11 ppm (450.82 mg/m
3
) was observed at sites 3,
4, and 5 (Bladensburg Elementary School, Hillcrest
Apartments and Confluence area) on Thursday ( June 14,
2018). However, the highest mean total VOCS levels
observed at Kingdom Missionary Baptist Church were
0.38 ppm (1557.38 mg/m
3
), 0.21 ppm (860.66mg/m
3
),
0.54 ppm (2213.11 mg/m
3
), and 0.31 ppm (1270.49mg/
m
3
) on Wednesday ( June 6, 2018), Thursday ( June 14,
2018), Saturday (June 9, 2018), and Saturday (June 16,
2018), respectively. These results show that site 1 had the
highest mean total VOCs concentrations on both Satur-
days. Our findings show that on Saturdays, there are high
levels of total VOCs concentrations near the concrete
block plant. Based on the results, we observed that the
Confluence Area, Bladensburg Elementary School, and
Waterfront Park were near heavily trafficked roads on
both weekdays and weekends, with the range of mean
total VOCs levels 0.32–0.11 ppm (1311.48–450.82 mg/
m
3
). We also observed that there was a weak positive
association between total VOCs and proximity to diesel
truck traffic. This implies that the highest average total
VOCs concentration were not always observed at loca-
tions with the highest average 30-minute truck traffic.
DISCUSSION
The average total VOCs concentrations observed during
the weekdays and weekends in Bladensburg highlight their
spatial variation across the monitoring sites. The highest
mean total VOCs level observed at the Kingdom Missionary
Baptist Church was 0.54 ppm (2213.11 mg/m
3
) on Saturday.
The results indicate that total VOCs levels were generally
higher at the church compared with other monitoring sites on
Saturdays (0.54 and 0.31 ppm) (2213.11 and 1270.49 mg/m
3
).
This may be due to its proximity to the concrete block plant
(<than 15 m), use of diesel vehicles (trucks) as a major
sourceof traffic around the plant, and diesel truck trips/day in
and out of the facility. Also, the mean total VOCs levels at the
church (0.21–0.54 ppm) (860.66–2213.11 mg/m
3
), Water-
front Park (0.12–0.38 ppm) (491.80–1557.38 mg/m
3
), and
Bladensburg Elementary School (0.11–0.32 ppm) (450.82–
1322.48 mg/m
3
) were higher, compared with Hillcrest
Apartments (0.11–0.28 ppm) (450.82–1147.54 mg/m
3
)and
Confluence Area (0.11–0.28 ppm) (450.82–1147.54 mg/m
3
)
on all days, particularly on Saturdays.
Our findings show that the Confluence area had the
highest average car counts (748.67 to 1295.33) on all
monitoring days compared with other locations. We ob-
served that the highest average truck counts were recorded
at Bladensburg Elementary School (48 to 137.67) com-
pared with other locations on the days that monitoring
occurred. The results indicate that the Confluence area
(site 5) and Bladensburg Elementary School (site 3) were
heavily trafficked areas due to the high average car and
truck counts of 748.67 to 1295.33 cars (site 5), 454 to
521.67 cars (site 3), 26 to 96 trucks (site 5), and 48 to
137.67 trucks (site 3), respectively. The highest maximum
VOC value of 0.9 ppm (3688.52 mg/m
3
) was recorded at
Kingdom Missionary Baptist Church, which had low av-
erage car and truck counts (66.67–95.67 cars and 5.33–19
trucks) compared with 0.6 ppm (2459.02 mg/m
3
)atsite3
and 0.69 ppm (2827.87 mg/m
3
) recorded at site 5.
Our findings reveal that the recorded mean total VOCs
concentrations were somewhat higher than those reported
in other studies. In a study of VOCs at five municipal
solid waste sites in Mexico, toluene levels at three sites
ranged from 2 to 100 ppm.
30
The average benzene values
observed at three municipal landfills in southern Italy
were 0.5 –0.1, 0.6 –0.2, and 0.8 –0.3 mg/m
3
.
31
In an ur-
ban industrial setting located in Northern Spain, ambient
average VOCs (BTEX) levels ranged from 2.15 to
13.26 mg/m
3
.
32
In Catalonia, Spain, average benzene
concentrations (1.5 mg/m
3
) were observed at an industrial
area with petrochemical plants and oil refineries.
33
A
study conducted near a landfill in Kocaeli, Turkey, re-
corded average concentrations of BTEX of 140.3,
1271.7, 239.9, and 341.3, respectively.
34
Total VOCs
levels measured in Michigan, the United States, had
mean values of 12.85 mg/m
3
across all seasons, 6.99 mg/
m
3
during the summer and 11.91 mg/m
3
during the win-
ter, respectively.
35
30
de la Rosa DA, Velasco A, Rosas A, and Volke-Sepu
´lveda T.
‘‘Total Gaseous Mercury and Volatile Organic Compounds
Measurements at Five Municipal Solid Waste Disposal Sites
Surrounding the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.’’ Atmospheric
Environment 40 (2006): 2079–2088.
31
Conte M, Cagnazzo V, Donateo A, Cesari D, Grasso FM,
Contini D. A Case Study of Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
Impact on Air Pollution in South Areas of Italy. Open Atmo-
spheric Sci J [Internet]. 2018. https://benthamopen.com/
FULLTEXT/TOASCJ-12-1 (Last accessed March 21, 2019.)
32
Parra MA, Elustondo D, Bermejo R, and Santamarı
´a JM.
‘‘Ambient Air Levels of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) in a Medium Size City in Northern
Spain.’’ Science of The Total Environment 407(2009): 999–
1009.
33
Ramı
´rez N, Cuadras A, Rovira E, Borrull F, and Marce
´RM.
‘‘Chronic Risk Assessment of Exposure to Volatile Organic
Compounds in the Atmosphere near the Largest Mediterranean
Industrial Site.’’ Environment International 39 (2012): 200–209.
34
Durmusoglu E, Taspinar F, and Karademir A. ‘‘Health Risk
Assessment of BTEX Emissions in the Landfill Environment.’’
Journal of Hazardous Materials 176 (2010): 870–877.
35
Jia C, Batterman S, Godwin C. VOCs in industrial, urban
and suburban neighborhoods, Part 1: Indoor and outdoor con-
centrations, variation, and risk drivers. Atmospheric Environ-
ment 42 (2008): 2083–2100.
10 EZEUGOH ET AL.
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In Amsterdam, researchers found outdoor concentra-
tions of 5.7 mg/m
3
in high traffic areas and 3 mg/m
3
in low
traffic areas.
36
A study in Izmir, Turkey, recorded ben-
zene and toluene levels from traffic of 11.6 ppb in air and
26.7 ppb in air, respectively.
37
A study that looked at
variations in VOCs levels due to vehicular emissions at
Changchun, China, recorded mean total VOC levels that
ranged from 180 to 723 mg/m
3
across the five locations.
38
Another study in Hong Kong recorded mean roadside
levels of benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene as 26.7,
77.2, and 3.1 mg/m
3
.
39
Our study had some limitations. We did not utilize
geographic information systems and spatial analysis to
address the role of topography and weather conditions in
the gradient of pollution levels in our study area. The
short duration of VOCs measurements restricts our
ability to make inferences about the long-term relation-
ship between VOCs levels, traffic, and industrial activi-
ties associated with the concrete block plant. VOC levels
were only recorded during the summer. We need to
perform longer-term monitoring to calculate annual av-
erages or evaluate seasonal differences in VOCs in Bla-
densburg. Also, land use regression models could be used
to estimate individual exposure levels and account for
spatial exposure gradients.
We experienced some challenges with the real-time
sensors. The Atmotubes are efficient at the re-
commended temperature of -5Cto50C.
40
The per-
formance of the sensors may be compromised when
used beyond the recommended temperatures, which
may have affected our data. The sensor measured total
VOCs, and we were unable to determine the speciation
of the VOCs found at the monitoring locations. Sorting
and cleaning the downloaded data from the device was
challenging, because the device was not designed to
save the monitoring sessions. Rather, the device re-
corded VOCs levels continuously even when it was not
in use and lumped all measurements together. Also,
there was a lack of established quality assurance and
quality control measures by the manufacturers. For in-
stance, calibration of the device or firmware occurs
when the device is connected to the app on a mobile
device. Also, the Atmotube sensors have not undergone
federal reference or federal equivalent methods (FEM)
field testing.
CONCLUSION
Our study revealed spatiotemporal variations in VOCs
levels in Bladensburg and may provide baseline infor-
mation on residential exposure to VOCs due to commuter
traffic, industrial traffic, and industrial activities associ-
ated with the concrete block plant and other local sour-
ces. The findings of our work may improve the
knowledge and understanding of residential VOCs ex-
posures within differentially burdened communities of
color. Also, in future, we will conduct air quality moni-
toring by using stationary low-cost, and real-time sensors
all year round to capture seasonal variations. We will co-
locate the low-cost stationary sensors with FEM sensors
to identify locations that are air pollution hot spots within
the community.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance
and the participation of the residents of Bladensburg, Port
Towns Environmental Action (PTEA), B5 Initiative, and
other local and statewide community stakeholders for
their contribution. They wish to especially thank the
student interns who assisted with the project.
AUTHOR DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
No competing financial interests exist.
FUNDING INFORMATION
No funding was received.
Address correspondence to:
Rosemary Ifeoma Ezeugoh
Maryland Institute of Applied Environmental Health
School of Public Health
4200 Valley Drive
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742
E-mail: rezeugoh@umd.edu
36
Fischer PH, Hoek G, van Reeuwijk H, Briggs DJ, Lebret E,
van Wijnen JH, Kingham S, and Elliott PE. ‘‘Traffic-Related
Differences in Outdoor and Indoor Concentrations of Particles
and Volatile Organic Compounds in Amsterdam.’’ Atmospheric
Environment 34 (2000): 3713–3722.
37
Muezzinoglu A, Odabasi M, and Onat L. ‘‘Volatile Organic
Compounds in the Air of Izmir, Turkey.’’ Atmospheric En-
vironment 35 (2001): 753–760.
38
Liu C, Xu Z, Du Y, and Guo H. ‘‘Analyses of Volatile
Organic Compounds Concentrations and Variation Trends in the
Air of Changchun, the Northeast of China.’’ Atmospheric En-
vironment 34 (2000): 4459–4466.
39
Chan CY, Chan LY, Wang XM, Liu YM, Lee SC, Zou SC,
Sheng GY, and Fu JM. ‘‘Volatile Organic Compounds in
Roadside Microenvironments of Metropolitan Hong Kong.’’
Atmospheric Environment 36 (2002): 2039–2047.
40
‘‘Atmotube: The Portable Air Pollution Monitor’’. <https://
www.indiegogo.com/projects/1405790>(Last accessed Febru-
ary 2, 2019).
AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 11
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