ARE NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS BETTER CHOICES FOR WILDLIFE IN HOME LANDSCAPES?

Full text

AR
E
NAT
IVE
TR
EES
AND
S
HRUB
S
B
E
TT
E
R
CH
OI
C
ES
F
O
R
W
I
LDL
I
F
E I
N
H
O
M
E
LAND
S
CA
PES
?
D
r
.
L
i
nd
a
Ch
alker
-
Sc
ott
,
A
ss
o
ci
ate P
r
ofe
ss
o
r
and E
x
ten
si
on
Spe
ci
a
lis
t,
D
epa
r
t
m
ent of
H
o
r
t
ic
u
l
tu
r
e,
W
a
s
h
i
ngton State
U
n
iv
e
rsi
t
y
F
S300E

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Overview
M
any gardener
s
prefer
t
o u
s
e na
ti
ve p
l
an
ts
i
n
t
he
i
r
l
and
s
cape
s
.
P
ar
t
of
t
h
is
preference
is
t
he w
i
de
s
pread
be
li
ef
t
ha
t
na
ti
ve
s
pec
i
e
s
are be
tt
er eco
l
og
i
ca
l
cho
i
ce
s
, e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y
i
n prov
i
d
i
ng hab
it
a
t
for na
ti
ve w
il
d
li
fe.
M
o
st
pub
lis
hed re
s
earch de
m
on
st
ra
t
e
s
t
ha
t
t
he na
ti
ve
st
a
t
u
s
of
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
ha
s
littl
e
i
nf
l
uence on
b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y. Th
is
pub
li
ca
ti
on prov
i
de
s
a
m
ore prac
ti
ca
l
,
s
c
i
ence-ba
s
ed approach
t
ha
t
w
ill
enhance bo
t
h
w
il
d
li
fe b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y and
t
he ae
st
he
ti
c appea
l
of ho
m
e
l
and
s
cape
s
.
Introduction
Gardener
s
i
ncrea
si
ng
l
y
s
eek ou
t
na
ti
ve p
l
an
t
s
pec
i
e
s
for
t
he
i
r garden
s
and
l
and
s
cape
s
.
M
any
be
li
eve
t
ha
t
na
ti
ve p
l
an
ts
are be
tt
er cho
i
ce
s
becau
s
e
t
hey are adap
t
ed
t
o
l
oca
l
cond
iti
on
s
.
The U.
S
. Env
i
ron
m
en
t
a
l
P
ro
t
ec
ti
on Agency
(E
P
A), a
m
ong o
t
her federa
l
,
st
a
t
e, and
l
oca
l
agenc
i
e
s
, perpe
t
ua
t
e
s
t
h
is
be
li
ef by
m
ak
i
ng
m
any un
s
c
i
en
ti
f
i
c
st
a
t
e
m
en
ts
abou
t
na
ti
ve p
l
an
t
benef
its
. A
m
ong
t
he
s
e c
l
a
ims
are
t
ha
t
na
ti
ve
p
l
an
ts
are
s
uper
i
or
t
o
i
n
t
roduced
s
pec
i
e
s
i
n
t
he
i
r
ab
ilit
y
t
o w
it
h
st
and
l
oca
l
c
lim
a
t
e cond
iti
on
s
,
t
o
re
sist
pe
sts
and d
is
ea
s
e, and
t
o requ
i
re
l
e
ss
wa
t
er, fer
tili
zer, and o
t
her for
ms
of
m
a
i
n
t
enance
(E
P
A 2017). None of
t
he
s
e c
l
a
ims
have been
s
uppor
t
ed
i
n pub
lis
hed re
s
earch re
l
evan
t
t
o
ho
m
e garden
s
and
l
and
s
cape
s
.
In add
iti
on
t
o
t
he
i
r preference for na
ti
ve p
l
an
ts
,
gardener
s
a
ls
o we
l
co
m
e benef
i
c
i
a
l
, na
ti
ve
w
il
d
li
fe
s
pec
i
e
s
who
s
erve a
s
po
lli
na
t
or
s
and
na
t
ura
l
pe
st
con
t
ro
ls
i
n
t
he
l
and
s
cape. They
be
li
eve
t
ha
t
na
ti
ve p
l
an
ts
prov
i
de
t
he grea
t
e
st
benef
its
t
o na
ti
ve w
il
d
li
fe, a
s
t
he popu
l
a
ti
on
s
coevo
l
ved w
it
h one ano
t
her. Wh
il
e
t
here
is
cer
t
a
i
n
l
y
s
o
m
e ev
i
dence
t
o
s
uppor
t
t
h
is
be
li
ef,
e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y w
it
h
s
pec
i
a
list
i
n
s
ec
ts
who requ
i
re a
par
ti
cu
l
ar food
s
ource,
t
he popu
l
ar be
li
ef
ex
t
end
s
far beyond
t
he docu
m
en
t
ed ev
i
dence.
I
t
st
and
s
t
o rea
s
on
t
ha
t
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
w
it
h
t
he
grea
t
e
st
chance
t
o
s
urv
i
ve and
t
hr
i
ve w
ill
prov
i
de
t
he grea
t
e
st
benef
its
t
o a
ss
oc
i
a
t
ed na
ti
ve
w
il
d
li
fe. Therefore, we need
t
o con
si
der
t
he
rea
liti
e
s
of
t
yp
i
ca
l
ho
m
e
l
and
s
cape
s
and
t
he
i
r
im
pac
ts
on p
l
an
t
s
urv
i
va
l
. How c
l
o
s
e
l
y do urban
and
s
uburban area
s
mi
rror
t
he env
i
ron
m
en
t
a
l
cond
iti
on
s
t
ha
t
na
ti
ve p
l
an
ts
requ
i
re?
F
or
i
n
st
ance, con
si
der
t
he
s
e fac
ts
abou
t
ho
m
e
l
and
s
cape
s:
Fi gure 1. Urban soils ar e frequent ly unprot ect ed, compacted, and
eroded, making sur vival dif ficult for many native woody species.
Fi gure 2. Drought str ess i s commonly seen i n urban t rees and shrubs
that don’t receive suppl emental i rrigation in t he summer.

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•
S
o
ils
of
t
en con
sist
of abrup
t
l
ayer
s
of “
t
op
s
o
il
” and o
t
her
m
a
t
er
i
a
ls
, crea
ti
ng poor dra
i
nage and
l
ow oxygen
l
eve
ls
.
•
There
is
si
gn
i
f
i
can
t
s
o
il
co
m
pac
ti
on a
s
a re
s
u
lt
of foo
t
and veh
i
cu
l
ar
t
raff
i
c and
t
he
l
ack of
pro
t
ec
ti
ve
m
u
l
che
s
(
Fi
gure 1).
•
Leach
i
ng of
lim
e fro
m
concre
t
e can
i
ncrea
s
e
s
o
il
pH, wh
i
ch
m
ay exceed
t
he pH
t
o
l
erance
s
of
na
ti
ve p
l
an
ts
.
•
I
m
proper fer
tili
zer app
li
ca
ti
on can re
s
u
lt
i
n nu
t
r
i
en
t
im
ba
l
ance
s
.
•
Lack of adequa
t
e wa
t
er
i
n
s
u
mm
er
m
on
t
h
s
can har
m
s
pec
i
e
s
adap
t
ed
t
o a fore
st
env
i
ron
m
en
t
(
Fi
gure 2).
•
Hard
s
cape
s
urface
s
ref
l
ec
t
bo
t
h hea
t
and
li
gh
t
t
ha
t
can affec
t
s
urv
i
va
l
of
t
ree
s
. and
s
hrub
s
adap
t
ed
t
o coo
l
er,
s
had
i
er env
i
ron
m
en
ts
.
I
t
is
c
l
ear
t
ha
t
urban and
s
uburban env
i
ron
m
en
t
a
l
cond
iti
on
s
are un
li
ke
l
y
t
o re
s
e
m
b
l
e wha
t
ever ex
ist
ed
pr
i
or
t
o deve
l
op
m
en
t
. Th
is
m
ean
s
t
ha
t
m
any na
ti
ve woody
s
pec
i
e
s
w
ill
no
t
t
hr
i
ve
i
n an urban or
s
uburban
l
and
s
cape (
Fi
gure 3). W
it
h
t
he
s
e env
i
ron
m
en
t
a
l
rea
liti
e
s
i
n
mi
nd,
l
e
t
’
s
con
si
der a re
s
earch
que
sti
on
:
doe
s
t
he u
s
e of nonna
ti
ve woody
s
pec
i
e
s
reduce
t
he food and
s
he
lt
er ava
il
ab
l
e
t
o benef
i
c
i
a
l
w
il
d
li
fe?
Figure 3. Arbut usmenziesii, t he Pacific madrone, t hrives in rocky
environments and is ill suited for urban soils.
Scientific Analysis
In 2015, I pub
lis
hed an ana
l
y
sis
of
t
he
s
c
i
en
ti
f
i
c
lit
era
t
ure wh
i
ch prov
i
de
s
t
he con
t
en
t
for
t
h
is
pub
li
ca
ti
on (
C
ha
l
ker-
S
co
tt
2015). (
R
eader
s
can
acce
ss
t
h
is
or
i
g
i
na
l
ar
ti
c
l
e for
m
ore
i
nfor
m
a
ti
on.)
S
pec
i
f
i
ca
ll
y, I wan
t
ed
t
o d
is
cover
whe
t
her woody p
l
an
t
na
ti
vene
ss
wou
l
d
i
nf
l
uence an
im
a
l
b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y. I focu
s
ed on
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
p
l
an
t
ed
i
n urban or
s
uburban
l
and
s
cape
s
. I found over 120 ar
ti
c
l
e
s
fro
m
30
d
i
fferen
t
coun
t
r
i
e
s
t
ha
t
st
ud
i
ed
t
he b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y
of b
i
rd
s
,
i
n
s
ec
ts
,
m
a
mm
a
ls
, and rep
til
e
s
.
M
y
lit
era
t
ure ana
l
y
sis
revea
l
ed
t
ha
t
, w
it
h few
excep
ti
on
s
,
t
he na
ti
ve
st
a
t
u
s
of
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
had no
im
pac
t
on w
il
d
li
fe b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y.
R
e
s
earcher
s
i
den
ti
f
i
ed woody p
l
an
t
st
ruc
t
ure,
func
ti
on, and d
i
ver
sit
y a
s
t
he
m
o
st
im
por
t
an
t
charac
t
er
isti
c
s
for enhanc
i
ng w
il
d
li
fe
b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y. Na
ti
ve woody
s
pec
i
e
s
can be par
t
of
t
h
is
s
cenar
i
o bu
t
m
ay no
t
be a
m
a
j
or
co
m
ponen
t
. The ab
ilit
y of na
ti
ve
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
t
o
li
ve
i
n our ho
m
e
l
and
s
cape
s
is
de
t
er
mi
ned by
t
he env
i
ron
m
en
t
—no
t
by
t
he
i
r
gene
ti
c
s
.
Gardener
s
s
hou
l
d rea
li
ze
t
ha
t
w
il
d
li
fe w
ill
adap
t
t
o new food and hab
it
a
t
s
ource
s
a
s
t
hey beco
m
e
ava
il
ab
l
e.

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The fac
t
t
ha
t
m
any exo
ti
c,
i
nva
si
ve p
l
an
t
s
pec
i
e
s
are
s
pread by b
i
rd
s
, who
i
nge
st
and re
l
ea
s
e
t
he
s
eed
s
,
de
m
on
st
ra
t
e
s
t
ha
t
re
s
ource adap
t
a
ti
on occur
s
. The
s
a
m
e pheno
m
enon occur
s
w
it
h
m
o
st
w
il
d
li
fe, w
it
h
t
he
excep
ti
on of
t
ho
s
e w
it
h very
s
pec
i
f
i
c re
s
ource requ
i
re
m
en
ts
.
Si t e Conditions and Plant Choices
A
s
you
t
h
i
nk abou
t
your
l
and
s
cap
i
ng cho
i
ce
s
, con
si
der
t
he
s
e re
s
earch-ba
s
ed
s
ugge
sti
on
s
.
•
Sit
e con
si
dera
ti
on
s
s
hou
l
d a
l
way
s
d
i
c
t
a
t
e
p
l
an
t
s
e
l
ec
ti
on. De
t
er
mi
ne
t
he po
t
en
ti
a
l
env
i
ron
m
en
t
a
l
st
re
ss
e
s
your
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
m
ay exper
i
ence.
•
Na
ti
ve,
t
e
m
pera
t
e fore
st
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
genera
ll
y do we
ll
i
n
l
arger
l
and
s
cape
s
w
it
h neu
t
ra
l
-
t
o-ac
i
d
i
c, we
ll
-dra
i
ned
s
o
ils
.
•
In
st
ead of u
si
ng
s
pace-
l
ov
i
ng
l
arger
t
ree
s
i
n
sm
a
ll
er
sit
e
s
, u
s
e
sm
a
ll
er
t
ree
s
or
s
hrub
s
t
ha
t
can be arbor
i
zed (
Fi
gure 4).
•
If your
l
and
s
cape
s
o
ils
are a
l
ka
li
ne,
poor
l
y dra
i
ned or o
t
herw
is
e d
issimil
ar
t
o
na
ti
ve
s
o
ils
, choo
s
e woody
s
pec
i
e
s
adap
t
ed
t
o
t
ho
s
e cond
iti
on
s
regard
l
e
ss
of
t
he
i
r na
ti
v
it
y.
•
F
or
sit
e
s
w
it
h h
i
gher
l
eve
ls
of ref
l
ec
t
ed
s
un
li
gh
t
or hea
t
, choo
s
e woody
s
pec
i
e
s
adap
t
ed
t
o ho
t
, dry c
lim
a
t
e
s
.
•
De
t
er
mi
ne
t
he food and ne
sti
ng hab
it
a
t
needed for your w
il
d
li
fe
s
pec
i
e
s
of
i
n
t
ere
st
.
Fi gur e 4. This ar borized rhododendron pr ovi des a tree-li ke funct ion in a
limited space landscape.
Action Items for Gardeners
Gardener
s
can enhance w
il
d
li
fe d
i
ver
sit
y
i
n
t
he
i
r ho
m
e
l
and
s
cape
s
i
n a nu
m
ber of
s
c
i
ence-
s
uppor
t
ed
way
s:
•
R
educe open
l
awn and rep
l
ace
it
w
it
h ver
ti
ca
ll
y d
i
ver
s
e vege
t
a
ti
on (
Fi
gure 5). Keep
l
awn
s
where
t
hey
s
erve a purpo
s
e,
s
uch a
s
p
l
ay
s
pace for ch
il
dren or pe
ts
.
•
R
e
m
ove known
i
nva
si
ve woody
s
pec
i
e
s
and rep
l
ace w
it
h co
m
parab
l
e na
ti
ve or non
i
nva
si
ve
s
pec
i
e
s
.
B
e
s
ure
t
o do
t
h
is
dur
i
ng
t
he appropr
i
a
t
e
s
ea
s
on, when
i
nva
si
ve
s
are no
t
be
i
ng u
s
ed for
ne
sti
ng and forag
i
ng.
•
Increa
s
e
s
hrub and
t
ree cover, e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y
i
f your
l
and
s
cape
is
d
ist
an
t
fro
m
fore
st
ed area
s
.
W
il
d
li
fe w
ill
s
eek ou
t
pro
t
ec
t
ed ver
ti
ca
l
s
pace
s
for food and
s
he
lt
er.
•
C
heck
st
a
t
e and na
ti
ona
l
i
nva
si
ve
s
pec
i
e
s
list
before purcha
si
ng p
l
an
ts
. Wh
il
e p
l
an
ts
m
ay no
t
ye
t
appear on your
st
a
t
e’
s
list
,
t
he na
ti
ona
l
list
w
ill
s
how you where
t
hey are curren
tl
y a prob
l
e
m
.
•
S
e
l
ec
t
sit
e-
t
o
l
eran
t
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
t
o
i
ncrea
s
e p
l
an
t
d
i
ver
sit
y and ae
st
he
ti
c
s
.
•
Pl
an
t
fru
it
-bear
i
ng
t
ree
s
and
s
hrub
s
, for con
s
u
m
p
ti
on by you and your w
il
d
li
fe (
Fi
gure 6).
B
e
cau
ti
ou
s
w
it
h
s
uch p
l
an
ti
ng
s
i
n area
s
of co
mm
erc
i
a
l
orchard crop produc
ti
on, due
t
o
t
he po
t
en
ti
a
l
for
pe
st
and d
is
ea
s
e
m
anage
m
en
t
iss
ue
s
.
•
Enhance
l
and
s
cape edge
s
by
l
eav
i
ng
t
he
m
a
l
one! Don’
t
m
ow or app
l
y any pe
sti
c
i
de
s
t
o
t
he
s
e
b
i
o
l
og
i
ca
ll
y r
i
ch env
i
ron
m
en
ts
.

W SU EXTEN SI O N | A RE N AT I VE TREES A N D SH RUB S BET TER CH OI CES FO R W I LD LI FE I N H OM E LANDSCAPES?
FS3 0 0E | PA GE 5 | PU BS.W SU. EDU
•
R
e
t
a
i
n dead
t
ree
s
(“
s
nag
s
”),
st
u
m
p
s
,
l
og
s
, and p
il
e
s
of branche
s
whenever po
ssi
b
l
e. They prov
i
de
cr
iti
ca
l
hab
it
a
t
for cer
t
a
i
n benef
i
c
i
a
l
b
i
rd
s
and
i
n
s
ec
ts
(
Fi
gure 7). If
s
nag
s
or o
t
her woody debr
is
po
s
e a
hazard
t
o peop
l
e or proper
t
y,
t
hey
s
hou
l
d be re
m
oved.
•
P
ro
t
ec
t
s
o
ils
w
it
h coar
s
e, woody
m
u
l
ch, e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y where co
m
pac
ti
on occur
s
. The co
m
b
i
na
ti
on of
woody
m
u
l
che
s
and pro
t
ec
t
ed
s
o
ils
im
prove
s
hab
it
a
t
for
i
n
s
ec
ts
, rep
til
e
s
and
sm
a
ll
m
a
mm
a
ls
(
Fi
gure
8).
•
E
limi
na
t
e
t
he unnece
ss
ary u
s
e of pe
sti
c
i
de
s
. U
tili
ze good In
t
egra
t
ed
P
e
st
M
anage
m
en
t
(I
PM
) prac
ti
ce
s
where pe
sti
c
i
de
s
are a
l
a
st
re
s
or
t
.
•
Add a per
m
anen
t
wa
t
er fea
t
ure, when fea
si
b
l
e,
t
ak
i
ng
i
n
t
o accoun
t
po
t
en
ti
a
l
m
anage
m
en
t
iss
ue
s
(
s
uch a
s
m
o
s
qu
it
o breed
i
ng). Don’
t
force your garden w
il
d
li
fe
t
o hun
t
e
ls
ewhere for
t
h
is
cr
iti
ca
l
nece
ssit
y (
Fi
gure 9).
Fi gur e 5. Verti cal st ructur e in a smal l urban landscape. Not e al so t he
diverse groundcovers that have replaced the or iginal lawn.
Fi gure 7. A wooded “hell str ip” wi th woody debris incorporated int o the
desi gn.
Figure 6. Rubushayata- koidzumii—a low -growing woody groundcover
with edible fruit.
Fi gur e 8. A diversi ty of nat ive and nonnat ive woody plants, prot ected
wit h coar se woody mulch.

W SU EXTEN SI O N | A RE N AT I VE TREES A N D SH RUB S BET TER CH OI CES FO R W I LD LI FE I N H OM E LANDSCAPES?
FS3 0 0E | PA GE 6 | PU BS.W SU. EDU
Figure 9. A permanent wat er feature can at tr act ben eficial wil dlife and
be aest hetically appealing.
Fi
na
ll
y, b
i
od
i
ver
s
e
l
and
s
cape
s
are
im
por
t
an
t
for you,
t
he gardener! They have been
li
nked
t
o
s
e
lf-reported
well-being
of gardener
s
and
t
he
i
r ne
i
ghbor
s
(Luck e
t
a
l
. 2011).
Additional Resources
C
ha
l
ker-
S
co
tt
, L. 2015. U
si
ng arbor
ist
wood ch
i
p
s
a
s
a
l
and
s
cape
m
u
l
ch. W
S
U Ex
t
en
si
on
F
ac
t
S
hee
t
FS
160E.
J
a
m
e
s
, D.G. 2014.
B
enef
i
c
i
a
l
i
n
s
ec
ts
,
s
p
i
der
s
and
mit
e
s
i
n your garden
:
who
t
hey are and how
t
o ge
t
t
he
m
t
o
st
ay. W
S
U Ex
t
en
si
on
M
anua
l
E
M
067E.
R
e
i
chard,
S
.H., and
C
.W. Ha
milt
on. 1997.
P
red
i
c
ti
ng
i
nva
si
on
s
of woody p
l
an
ts
i
n
t
roduced
i
n
t
o Nor
t
h
A
m
er
i
ca.
C
on
s
erva
ti
on
Bi
o
l
ogy 11
:
193–203.
U
S
DA
P
LANT
S
da
t
aba
s
e. 2017. In
t
roduced,
i
nva
si
ve, and nox
i
ou
s
p
l
an
ts
. Acce
ss
ed 10
/
11
/
2017.
Wa
s
h
i
ng
t
on
St
a
t
e Nox
i
ou
s
Weed
C
on
t
ro
l
B
oard. 2017. Acce
ss
ed 10
/
11
/
2017.
Re f e r en ce s
C
ha
l
ker-
S
co
tt
, L. 2015. Nonna
ti
ve, non
i
nva
si
ve woody
s
pec
i
e
s
can enhance urban
l
and
s
cape
b
i
od
i
ver
sit
y. Arbor
i
cu
lt
ure and Urban
F
ore
st
ry 41(4)
:
173-186.
Env
i
ron
m
en
t
a
l
P
ro
t
ec
ti
on Agency (E
P
A). 2017. Land
s
cap
i
ng
ti
p
s
. Acce
ss
ed 10
/
11
/
2017.
Luck, G.W.,
P
. Dav
i
d
s
on, D.
B
oxa
ll
, and L.
Sm
a
ll
bone. 2011.
R
e
l
a
ti
on
s
be
t
ween urban b
i
rd and p
l
an
t
co
mm
un
iti
e
s
and hu
m
an we
ll
-be
i
ng and connec
ti
on
t
o na
t
ure.
C
on
s
erva
ti
on
Bi
o
l
ogy 25
:
816–826.

C
opyr
i
gh
t
© Wa
s
h
i
ng
t
on
St
a
t
e Un
i
ver
sit
y
W
S
U Ex
t
en
si
on pub
li
ca
ti
on
s
con
t
a
i
n
m
a
t
er
i
a
l
wr
itt
en and produced for pub
li
c d
ist
r
i
bu
ti
on. A
lt
erna
t
e
for
m
a
ts
of our educa
ti
ona
l
m
a
t
er
i
a
ls
are ava
il
ab
l
e upon reque
st
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s
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it
h d
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iliti
e
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ea
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h
i
ng
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on
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sit
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ore
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ss
ued by Wa
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h
i
ng
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on
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a
t
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ver
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t
en
si
on and
t
he U
S
Depar
tm
en
t
of Agr
i
cu
lt
ure
i
n fur
t
herance
of
t
he Ac
ts
of
M
ay 8 and
J
une 30, 1914. Ex
t
en
si
on progra
ms
and po
li
c
i
e
s
are con
sist
en
t
w
it
h federa
l
and
st
a
t
e
l
aw
s
and regu
l
a
ti
on
s
on nond
is
cr
imi
na
ti
on regard
i
ng race,
s
ex, re
li
g
i
on, age, co
l
or, creed, and
na
ti
ona
l
or e
t
hn
i
c or
i
g
i
n
;
phy
si
ca
l
,
m
en
t
a
l
, or
s
en
s
ory d
is
ab
ilit
y
;
m
ar
it
a
l
st
a
t
u
s
or
s
exua
l
or
i
en
t
a
ti
on
;
and
st
a
t
u
s
a
s
a V
i
e
t
na
m
-era or d
is
ab
l
ed ve
t
eran. Ev
i
dence of nonco
m
p
li
ance
m
ay be repor
t
ed
t
hrough your
l
oca
l
W
S
U Ex
t
en
si
on off
i
ce. Trade na
m
e
s
have been u
s
ed
t
o
sim
p
li
fy
i
nfor
m
a
ti
on
;
no endor
s
e
m
en
t
is
i
n
t
ended.
P
ub
lis
hed Apr
il
2018.