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S. Puri et al. (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(3): 298-303
DOI: 10.3126/ijasbt.v7i3.24651
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org & http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT 298
Mycotoxins: A Threat to Food Security and Health
Sushant Puri1*, Shuvam Shingh2, Priya Tiwari1
1Naini Agriculture Institute, SHUATS, Prayagraj- 211007, UP, India.
2Warner College of Dairy Technology, SHUATS, Prayagraj- 211007, UP, India.
Article Information
Abstract
Received: 29 June 2019
Revised version received: 02 August 2019
Accepted: 05 August 2019
Published: 24 September 2019
Cite this article as:
S. Puri et al. (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(3):
298-303. DOI: 10.3126/ijasbt.v7i3.24651
*Corresponding author
Sushant Puri,
Naini Agriculture Institute, SHUATS, Prayagraj, -
211007, UP, India
Email: sushant.puri0506@gmail.com
Peer reviewed under authority of IJASBT
© 2019 International Journal of Applied Sciences and
Biotechnology
This is an open access article & it is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
Multicellular filamentous fungi grown on the surface and inside of moist food
secretes toxins in the form of their secondary metabolites which are commonly
called mycotoxins. The presence of mycotoxins in food has been a burning
issue and a threat to food security and safety. The global population has
skyrocketed and continues to be, which has created a challenge of providing
quality food to the consumers. Aflatoxins, prevalent in most of the food crops
in Nepal as well have posed a risk to national food security. Moreover, the
consumption of food products containing mycotoxins is a cause of several
health hazards like cancer, gastrointestinal problems, and neuropsychiatric
effects. Mycotoxins not only has affected humans but also animals. Prevention,
decontamination, and inhibition of absorption of toxins have been done to
manage and mitigate the effects of mycotoxins. Recent research on mycotoxins
is focused on the development of new methods to detect and analyse masked
mycotoxins obtained from various sources. This review shows the contribution
of mycotoxin in the global food security issue as well as its deleterious effects
on human and animal health.
Keywords: Aflatoxins; Decontamination; Food Security; Mycotoxins; Neuropsychiatric effects
Introduction
Mold is a type of multicellular filamentous fungus grown
on the surface and inside of moist food. All grain product
and food products which have a water activity less than 0.8
are susceptible to the fungal infection when a specific
weather pattern occurs during the growing season. The
specified group of fungi is capable of producing toxic
substances known as mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are
secondary metabolites produced by microfungi (molds) that
are capable of causing disease and death in humans and
other animals. (Ismaiel and Papenbrock, 2015). The term
mycotoxin was first used in 1960 to describe the toxin
associated with contaminated peanut in animal feed and loss
of turkey in England (Turnkey-X-disease). The functions of
mycotoxins are still not fully understood, perhaps they
function as an insecticide, they might play a role in fighting
against the plant defence to the fungus in some way to
complete their ecological niche in nature (Richard, 2007).
Unlike the bacterial toxins, the mycotoxins are non-
pretentious and hence are not detectable by the immune
systems of humans and animals. The mycotoxins are
Mini Review
S. Puri et al. (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(3): 298-303
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org & http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT 299
usually heat-stable and are not destroyed by canning and
similar processes.
The contamination of food with mycotoxins are
unavoidable and unpredictable, which makes it a unique
challenge for food safety (Lopez-Garcia et al. 1999). Food
safety refers to limiting the presence of those hazards,
whether chronic or acute, that may make food detrimental
to the health of the consumer. As per the United Nations
committee on world food security, food security means that
all people, at all-time, have physical, social and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets food
preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life.
The presence of mycotoxins in food makes the food
products unsafe for consumption, which eventually leads to
the post-harvest loss and becomes a threat to food security.
The growth of various fungi in agricultural products leads
to yield reduction and quality deterioration with significant
economic losses (Adeyeye, 2016).
Classification of Mycotoxins
The primary category of fungi which are responsible for the
production of mycotoxins is Aspergillus, Penicillium and
Fusarium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium (Richard, 2007).
Many species of toxigenic molds have been known till date,
but only a few of them, which affects the food crops like
cereals and groundnuts are considered to be significant for
humans (Adeyeye, 2016). The toxigenic fungi are broadly
categorised into two categories, i.e. field fungi (e.g.,
Clostridium, Fusarium, Alternaria species) which gets
access into seed during the development of plant and
storage fungi (Aspergillus, Penicillium etc.). Which grows
during storage. Mycotoxins are not only hard to define, but
they are also challenging to classify (Hendrich, 2017).
Some major types of mycotoxins are:
Aflatoxins (produced by Aspergillus spp) - Aflatoxin B1,
B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2
Ochratoxin - Ochratoxin A, B, and C
Trichothecene (produced by Stachybotrys) - Satratoxin-H,
Vomitoxin, and T-2 mycotoxins
Fumonisins - Fumonisin B1 and B2
(https://moldpedia.com/mycotoxins)
Global Food Security and Mycotoxins
The current challenge to feed 7.6 billion people globally
with limited and gradually decreasing cultivable land and
food produce has ultimately pose a risk to food security. The
global population is to be expected to rise to 9 billion by
2040, and with this growth rate, it will hit 11 billion by 2100
(World Population Clock, 2015). Most of this global
population feeds on three major crops and their products,
i.e. Rice, Wheat and Maize. 60% of global energy intake is
contributed by these three crops, which are acknowledged
as the staple food. Unfortunately, Maize and Wheat are
vulnerable to the risk of mycotoxins. Fungi being
cosmopolitan and flourish under the same environmental
conditions where maize and wheat can grow effectively has
affected the quality of products and causing massive
production loss. Annual food loss of 16% is attributed to
microbial diseases out of which fungi alone has contributed
about 80% (David et al. 2013). Aspergillus, Penicillium and
Fusarium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium are some of the
significant fungi groups producing mycotoxins like
Aflatoxins, Fumonisins, Ochratoxins, etc. (Richard, 2007).
FAO estimates that mycotoxins, produced by different
groups of fungi, has affected one-third of global food crops
(Krska et al., 2012). The United States, the largest producer
of corn, reported that 98% of samples were affected by at
least one mycotoxin and 74% of corn contained more than
two mycotoxins (Mycotoxin Survey in US corn, 2019).
These alarming figures imply the amount of food lost due
to contamination by mycotoxins, ultimately leading to a
threat to global food security.
Table 1: Various fungi, their substrate and mycotoxins.
Source: (Bennett and Klich, 2003)
Fungi
Substrate
Mycotoxins
Aspergillus flavus
Maize,groundnut,oilseed,cottonseed
Aflatoxin (carcinogenic to humans)
Aspergillus parasiticus
Maize,groundnut,oilseed,cottonseed
Aspergillus nomius
Maize,groundnut,oilseed,cottonseed
Aspergillus ochraceus
Bakey Wheat
Ochratoxin (Potentially carcinogenic)
Aspergillus carbonerius
Grapes, Wine, Coffee
Fusarium oxysporum
Wheat, Barley, Maize
Fumonisins (Hepatotoxic and Nephrotoxic)
Fusarium sp.
Wheat, Barley, Maize
T-2 Toxin
Penicillium verrucosum
Wheat, Barley, Maize
Ochratoxin (Potentially carcinogenic)
Claviceps purpurea
Rye
Ergot Alkaloid
Stachybotrys
Hay
Satratoxin
S. Puri et al. (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(3): 298-303
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org & http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT 300
Nepalese Prospect
Mycotoxin monitoring in Nepal was first started in 1978
when FAO/ UNEP Regional Monitoring of Food
Contaminants Project involved Nepal in which 150/850
food samples collected comprising of mainly Cereals,
Pulses, Oilseeds, and Spices. were found contaminated with
aflatoxin. Among them, Maize and Peanuts were most
susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, during the period
from 1980-1987 (Karki and Sinha, 1992). Maize
production in Nepal is mostly in the hilly region, i.e.
72.85%. (Timsina et al. 2016). Most of the population of
hilly region and Himalayan region have maize as their
staple food; also researches show that aflatoxin
contamination in Maize and Peanuts, as well as their
products, are higher in Nepalese context. Aflatoxins,
produced by Aspergillus flabus, was found to me major
mycotoxin contributor in Nepalese maize and maize
products. More than 19% of maize and 28% of maize
products were contaminated with aflatoxin; most of them
belonged to the regions having high temperature and
humidity (Holcomb and Thompson, 1991). Whereas, in the
hills and mountains, the dominance of Fusarium spp.
(Fusarium oxysporum and F. gibbosum) that produces
toxins like Fumonisins, was found (Karki and Sinha, 1992).
Hence, major maize producing areas of Nepal are at higher
risk of mycotoxin contamination.
To sum up, the higher risk of mycotoxin contamination in
staple food of most population in Nepal would eventually
lead to the food security issue by making the produce
unconsumable, considering its toxic effects on human as
well as animal health.
Recent Studies On Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins have been the centre of interest for many
researchers and scientists since 1961. Since mycotoxins are
one of the major hazards for food security and health,
several studies have been carried out to overcome the
effects of mycotoxins. Many structurally related
compounds that are either generated by plant metabolism or
food processing can coexist together with the native toxins
in the mycotoxin contaminated commodities (Galaverna et
al. 2009). The mycotoxins either extractable conjugated or
non-extractable bound mycotoxins remain present in the
plant tissues and can easily escape the routine analysis and
hence called as the “Masked mycotoxins” (Berthiller et al.
2013). These masked mycotoxins have the potential to
transform from harmless when outside the body to harmful
when inside. The most commonly occurring masked
mycotoxins in food commodities are deoxynivalenol-3-
glucoside (D3G), zearalenone-14-glucoside (Z14G), and
zearalenone-14-sulfate (Z14S). These compounds are either
totally or partially hydrolysed to release the parent aglycone
after ingestion (Dall’ Erta et al. 2013).
The extraction of mycotoxins from marine fungus also has
one of the recent issues in the study of mycotoxins. Nine
mycotoxins have been isolated from the fermentation broth
of marine gorgonian-derived fungus Aspergillus sp.
SCSGAF0093. Out of these nine mycotoxins (1-9), six of
them were from aspergillic acid group toxin and the
remaining three were from ochratoxins (Xu et al., 2013).
Conventionally the mycotoxins were detected by the
expensive high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), Flame ionisation (FID)
or MS detectors and enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay
(ELISA) techniques. The present day’s interest is in the
development of the user-friendly biosensors for the
mycotoxin’s detection. The biosensors used for the
screening are the biomolecules (antibiotics, DNA and
enzymes) and synthetic chemicals (aptamers, MIP,
mimotopes, etc.). The biosensors are divided into two
categories, i.e. labelled and label-free sensors, which are
further categorised into competitive and non-competitive
based on the detection strategy (Chauhan et al. 2016).
Mycotoxins and Health
Mycotoxins can cause several serious health issues. The
effect can range from acute poisoning to long-lasting and
uncurable problems like cancer, in humans (WHO, 2018),
and in animals (Surai et al. 2008). Some of the serious
health hazards caused by mycotoxins are discussed below:
Mycotoxins and Animal Health
Mycotoxins successfully reach into animal’s body through
ingestion, skin contact or inhalation of fungal metabolites.
These metabolites come from different sources like
contaminated feeds, fodders, forages, and silages (Gallo et
al. 2015). Ochratoxin, produced by various species of
Aspergillus and Penicillium, are nephrogenic and
nephrocarcinogenic compounds and found to be occurring
in kidney, liver, and blood of animals and transfer from
animal feeds. Zearalenone (ZEA), produced by Fusarium
sp., is found to be affecting the reproductive health of
animals. (Zain, 2011). Aflatoxin B1 produced by various
strains of Aspergillus flabus, A. parasiticus, etc. are the
most potent carcinogenic aflatoxin for animals (Peterson et
al. 2007). Fumonisins (B1 and B2) are cancer-promoting
metabolites produced by Fusarium
proliferatum and Fusarium verticillioides. Trichothecene,
produced by Fusarium sp., Myrothecium sp., Phomopsis
sp., Trichoderma sp. etc. inhibit eukaryotic protein
synthesis, interfering in the initiation, the elongation and
termination steps of protein synthesis in the animal body.
Deoxynivalenol (DON), one of the essential trichothecenes
and most commonly found in grains, if ingested by animals
in higher doses cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea
(Edite et al., 2014). Above shown are just some of the
detrimental effects of mycotoxin in animals. Many other
toxins are present in feedstuffs, which has contributed to
ruining animal health. In the nation like Nepal, where
S. Puri et al. (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(3): 298-303
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org & http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT 301
mycotoxin monitoring in feed is rarely adopted, along with
the degrading health of animals, human health is also posed
at risks due to the consumption of contaminated animal
products. Meat and milk products produced by the animals
who are affected by mycotoxin, transfer these toxins to
human beings through their products.
Mycotoxins and Human Health
Mycotoxins pose a severe risk to human health. From acute
symptoms and illness right after the consumption of
contaminated food, to the initiation of long-lasting and
sometimes non-curable diseases like cancer and immune
deficiency have been reported till date. Also, mycotoxins
are globally distributed and have contaminated a substantial
share of the world’s staple food and food products. Among
hundreds of mycotoxins discovered till date, only a few of
them caught the concern of scientists as they were found to
be more harmful to humans. Aflatoxin, one of them, is
considered to be the most poisonous toxin produced by
molds Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.
Having a wide variety of host range, i.e. maize, wheat, rice-
the three leading staple food of globe, pulses, spices, milk
and milk products, etc., aflatoxin has affected a
considerable sum of population all-round the globe.
Ingestion of aflatoxin in large amount would result in liver
damage and also genotoxicity, i.e. damaging of DNA
following cancer. Ochratoxin A, produced by various
species of Aspergillus and Penicillium, are identified to
have a considerable effect in kidney damage. Patulin, also
produced by some of the spices of Aspergillus, Penicillium
and Byssochlamys, often detected in apple-related products,
have been reported for nausea, gastrointestinal disturbances
and vomiting in human beings. Fusarium species that are
responsible for the production of different mycotoxins like
deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), T-2 and HT-2
toxins, zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins, etc. has led to
severe health issues: rapid irritation of skin and irritation,
intestinal mucosa and lead to diarrhoea. Fumonisins have
been associated with oesophagal cancer in humans (WHO,
2018). Moreover, long-term exposure to mycotoxins found
to be related to Neuropsychiatric symptoms like including
an inability to stand on one's toes, inability to walk in a
straight line with eyes closed, short-term memory loss,
altered blink-reflex latency, verbal recall impairments, etc.
(Ratnaseelan et al. 2018).
To minimise the risk of mycotoxin in the foods we
consume, it is necessary to inspect what we eat. Grains (corn
wheat, sorghum, rice), nuts (peanuts, almonds, hazelnuts,
walnuts) etc. should be appropriately inspected before
consuming and sorting out the infected ones. Any mouldy
grains and foodstuffs must be avoided to prevent the
contamination from the toxins. As prevention is always
better than cure, proper post-harvest handling of food
grains: drying of grains before to maintain the optimum
moisture level, avoiding any damage and injuries during
processing, storage, as injured ones are susceptible to mold
attack. Storage units must be maintained properly according
to the requirement of the grains to be stored. Too dry or too
humid units are prone to mold contamination. Above all, we
should include a diverse range of foodstuffs in our diet,
which not only helps to reduce mycotoxin exposure but also
improve our nutrition intake, enabling us to build immunity.
Management of Mycotoxins in Food
Mycotoxins in agricultural products are the primary cause
of health hazard to people, food security hazard and
economic problems. The consumption of food commodities
which are contaminated with mycotoxins can cause chronic
mycotoxicosis and may lead to death (Adegoke. and Letum,
2013). So, the prevention of fungal growth on agricultural
commodities to prevent mycotoxin contamination is of
utmost importance (Leibetseder, 2006). Several approaches
have been considered for the management and
decontamination of mycotoxins in food and agricultural
commodities. For avoiding the harmful effects of
mycotoxins in food three possibilities can be regarded as i.e.
Prevention of contamination
Decontamination of mycotoxin- containing food
and feed
Inhibition or absorption of mycotoxin content of
absorbed food into the digestive tract (Juodeikiene
et al. 2012). By using the techniques such as field
management, harvest management, using resistant
varieties, use of biological and chemical agents
(preharvest methods), improved drying methods,
good storage condition, and irradiation (post-
harvest methods) the contamination of mycotoxins
in food can be prevented Adegoke and Letum,
2013). The mycotoxin contamination in food
products can also be prevented by using some
selected microorganisms or enzymes which are
capable of detoxifying mycotoxins (Jard et al.
2011).
The decontamination of mycotoxins can be achieved either
by physical, chemical or biological methods. The dry
cleaning of the grains and milling operation can result in a
reduced level of mycotoxins in the flour (Juodeikiene et al.
2012). Since the mycotoxins are heat stable, the heat applied
during the processing of the food does not significantly
affect the mycotoxin level. The physical absorbents of
selective binding nature are also used commercially for the
mycotoxin decontamination. The use of chemical agents
such as alkali and oxidising agents have also been seen in
some countries for this purpose, but this process has got a
demerit of reducing the nutritional value of the food
products. The biological method, i.e. the use of
microorganisms such as yeast (S. cerevisiae and Candida
krusei) and Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has been best suited
for the mycotoxin decontamination as this process tends to
improve the palatability and there is no significant loss in
the nutritive values of food (ibid). The management of
S. Puri et al. (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(3): 298-303
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org & http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT 302
mycotoxins in food can also be done by using the principles
of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)
and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) (Awad et al.
2010).
Conclusion
Mycotoxin exposure has been a significant problem among
the global population in the context of health. About one-
fourth of the food is contaminated with mycotoxins, and if
this issue is not addressed on time, it could be a significant
threat to global food security. Several types of researches
and studies have shown that long term exposure to
mycotoxins would result in serious health problems like
liver damage, cancer, and even neuropsychiatric symptoms
in humans. Not only in humans, but the animal population
has also been affected by mycotoxins, which have resulted
in degraded animal health and production of contaminated
animal products. With proper handling of food products, i.e.
pre-harvest and post-harvest handling, we can mitigate the
occurrence of mycotoxins in food. Sushant Puri, Shuvam
Shingh, Priya Tiwari1
Author’s Contribution
All authors designed the research plan, performed
experimental works & collected the required data. Sushant
Puri and Shuvam Shingh prepared the manuscript & critical
revised the manuscript. All authors finalized the
manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with
present publication.
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