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Plastic Teabags Release Billions of Microparticles and Nanoparticles into Tea
Abstract
The increasing presence of micro- and nano-sized plastics in the environment and food chain is of growing concern. Although mindful consumers are promoting the reduction of single-use plastics, some manufacturers are creating new plastic packaging to replace traditional paper uses, such as plastic teabags. The objective of this study was to determine whether plastic teabags could release microplastics and/or nanoplastics during a typical steeping process. We show that steeping a single plastic teabag at brewing temperature (95 °C) releases approximately 11.6 billion microplastics and 3.1 billion nanoplastics into a single cup of the beverage. The composition of the released particles is matched to the original teabags (nylon and polyethylene terephthalate) using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The levels of nylon and polyethylene terephthalate particles released from the teabag packaging are several orders of magnitude higher than plastic loads previously reported in other foods. An initial acute invertebrate toxicity assessment shows that exposure to only the particles released from the teabags caused dose-dependent behavioral and developmental effects.
... Many studies have analyzed the release of micro-and nanoplastic particles from tea bags during tea preparation using different analytical methods such as scanning transmission Xray microscopy (STXM) in combination with near-edge X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS) [22], IR photothermal heterodyne imaging (IR-PHI) [23], Raman spectroscopy [24], and attenuated total reflectance -FTIR (ATR-FTIR) [25,26]. These, however, often require sample preconcentration steps or sample preparation procedures which differ from a standard tea brewing procedure. ...
... The comparison with online spectral databases, such as Open Specy [54] and Spectragryph [55], and literature, identified the released material as nylon-based PA. In contrast to previous studies [25,26], which required steeping at least 60 tea bags in 200 mL of water, our approach relies on a single tea bag for the same volume of water, demonstrating higher sensitivity. Here, the untreated leachate was directly deposited onto NEMS chips without any pre-concentration, and PA particles were detected and identified using NEMS-FTIR. ...
... The tea bags used in the experiment were purchased online (Temu.com, China), and the procedure for releasing plastic particles from the tea bags was adapted from the study by Hernandez et al. [26]. To minimize potential contamination, the tea bags, made of nylon according to the manufacturer, were purchased empty, eliminating the need for additional cutting or removing the tea leaves. ...
This paper presents a photothermal infrared (IR) spectroscopy technique based on a nanoelectromechanical system, which is coupled to a commercial Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (NEMS--FTIR) as a promising solution for the chemical characterization and quantification of nanoplastics. Polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) nanoparticles with nominal diameters of 100, 54, and 262~nm, respectively, were analyzed by NEMS--FTIR with limits of detection (LoD) of 353~pg for PS, 102~pg for PP, and 355~pg for PVC. The PS mass deposited on the NEMS chips was estimated from the measured absorptance values and the attenuation coefficient of PS. The wide spectral range of the FTIR allowed the identification of individual polymer nanoparticles from a mixture. The potential of NEMS--FTIR for the analysis of real--world samples was evaluated by confirming the presence of polyamide (PA) particles released from commercial tea bags during brewing. Accelerated aging of the tea bags under elevated temperature and UV radiation showed continuous release of PA particles over time.
... MPs have been widely detected in air, soil, marine and freshwater ecosystems, drinking water, food items and consumer goods, threatening human health and contributing to environmental pollution. [3][4][5] Fast, accurate, low-cost detection and quantication of MPs is therefore essential to fully comprehend the ecological and health impacts and take necessary preventive measures to mitigate contamination risks. Recent articles have discussed several approaches that focused on the sample preparation, extraction, isolation and quantitative detection and characterization of MPs in food and marine systems as well as in waste water and fresh water. ...
... We used smaller quantities to expedite extraction, identication, and detection. 5,22,23 We incorporated a vortex mixer with effective reagents for density separation and chemical digestion to aid the rapid extraction process. Preprocessed samples were transferred into 25 mm × 150 mm glass test tubes. ...
... Then, we cross-referenced the ATR-FTIR signatures of each sample with relevant literature on plastic identication. 5,22,[39][40][41][42][43][44] Our ndings conrm the presence of plastics in the samples. ATR-FTIR spectra of salt samples (Fig. 3d) have peaks that correspond to C-O stretching, CH 2 rocking and bending, NH bending, C-N stretching, C]O stretching etc., which signies the presence of components such as PP, nylon, EVA, and PET. ...
Microplastic (MP) contamination has become a major concern in recent times, posing a significant threat to the environment and human health. Existing techniques for MP detection require access to expensive and specialized microscopy setups and often demand long turnaround time and extensive labor. Herein, we propose a simple platform for MP detection, where MPs are extracted from salt, sugar, teabag, toothpaste and toothpowder samples, and imaged using a low-cost mobile phone-based microscopy setup. The extraction process involves the isolation of MPs from their matrices using the well-established density separation technique with ZnCl 2 solution (1.7 g cm −3) and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2) to oxidize organic matter. A commercially available miniaturized microscopy attachment (TinyScope, $10) is fixed on top of an ordinary cell phone camera and is used to capture about 2490 images of MPs obtained from five different product categories. The YOLOv5 deep learning model was used to detect microplastics in images. It was trained on a dataset of 1990 images, validated with 250 images, and tested on a separate set of 250 images. The presence of plastic content in the detected samples was confirmed by performing attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and the morphologies of the MPs were determined using the field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Results show that the deep-learning enabled image processing approach can identify MPs with an accuracy of 98%. Overall, the fast, accurate, and affordable detection of MPs in low-resource settings can lead to the monitoring of MP content in consumer products on a more frequent basis.
... MPs have been widely detected in air, soil, marine and freshwater ecosystems, drinking water, food items and consumer goods, threatening human health and contributing to environmental pollution. [3][4][5] Fast, accurate, low-cost detection and quantication of MPs is therefore essential to fully comprehend the ecological and health impacts and take necessary preventive measures to mitigate contamination risks. Recent articles have discussed several approaches that focused on the sample preparation, extraction, isolation and quantitative detection and characterization of MPs in food and marine systems as well as in waste water and fresh water. ...
... We used smaller quantities to expedite extraction, identication, and detection. 5,22,23 We incorporated a vortex mixer with effective reagents for density separation and chemical digestion to aid the rapid extraction process. Preprocessed samples were transferred into 25 mm × 150 mm glass test tubes. ...
... Then, we cross-referenced the ATR-FTIR signatures of each sample with relevant literature on plastic identication. 5,22,[39][40][41][42][43][44] Our ndings conrm the presence of plastics in the samples. ATR-FTIR spectra of salt samples (Fig. 3d) have peaks that correspond to C-O stretching, CH 2 rocking and bending, NH bending, C-N stretching, C]O stretching etc., which signies the presence of components such as PP, nylon, EVA, and PET. ...
Microplastic (MP) contamination has become a major concern in recent times, posing a significant threat to the environment and human health. Existing techniques for MP detection require access to expensive and specialized microscopy setups and often demand long turnaround time and extensive labor. Herein, we propose a simple platform for MP detection, where MPs are extracted from salt, sugar, teabag, toothpaste and toothpowder samples, and imaged using a low-cost mobile phone-based microscopy setup. The extraction process involves the isolation of MPs from their matrices using the well-established density separation technique with ZnCl2 solution (1.7 g cm⁻³) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to oxidize organic matter. A commercially available miniaturized microscopy attachment (TinyScope, $10) is fixed on top of an ordinary cell phone camera and is used to capture about 2490 images of MPs obtained from five different product categories. The YOLOv5 deep learning model was used to detect microplastics in images. It was trained on a dataset of 1990 images, validated with 250 images, and tested on a separate set of 250 images. The presence of plastic content in the detected samples was confirmed by performing attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and the morphologies of the MPs were determined using the field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Results show that the deep-learning enabled image processing approach can identify MPs with an accuracy of 98%. Overall, the fast, accurate, and affordable detection of MPs in low-resource settings can lead to the monitoring of MP content in consumer products on a more frequent basis.
... MPs can potentially enter into the human body via the consumption of MP-contaminated food and drink products, inhalation of airborne MPs, and through dermal contact (Cox et al., 2019) . Hernandez et al. (2019) reported that 11.6 billion MPs can be released from plastic tea bags into one cup of tea. Various reports demonstrated the presence of MPs in salt (8-1633 particles kg −1 ), sugar (217-560 particles kg −1 ), honey (22-660 particles L −1 ), apple (52,600-307,750 particles g −1 ), pear (98,250 particles g −1 ), carrot (72,175-130,500 particles g −1 ), broccoli (65,025-201,750 particles g −1 ), lettuce (26,425 particles g −1 ), and bottled water (2.1 to 5.42 × 10 7 particles L −1 ) ( Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013;Nithin et al., 2021;Kadac-Czapska et al., 2024;Gündoğdu, 2018;Vitali et al., 2023). ...
... The exposure of PE, PS, and nylon-based polymers to temperatures above 95 °C could disturb the molecular structure of such polymers, subsequently generating nano-and micro-sized particles (Hernandez et al., 2019). Moreover, the degradation of plastic could also occur at higher temperatures in the presence of water due to a hydrolysis reaction (Venkatachalam et al., 2012). ...
... Recently, Kashfi et al. (2023) reported that tea bags consumption was posing the highest MPs exposure risks. Tea bags could potentially release billions of MPs into tea, consequently exposing substantial amounts of MPs to humans (Hernandez et al., 2019). Followed by the tea bags, the consumption of bottled water demonstrated significantly higher EDI (4.77 particles kg −1 day −1 ) and EAI (1741.32 particles kg −1 year −1 ) of MPs into humans. ...
Extensive production and utilization of plastics have resulted in the subsequent accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the environment, which has become a serious threat to human health globally. Therefore, in this study, 112 drinks and food products were purchased from local markets in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and the abundance of MPs was investigated. The dominant size of MPs was 101–250 μm for tuna fish, noodles, bottled water, and disposable containers, 251–500 μm for honey, tea bags, and sugar, and 501–1000 μm for salt, juice, and soft drink samples. FTIR analysis indicated polypropylene, polyethylene, polycarbonate, and polyvinylchloride as the major polymer contents. The average total number of MPs was highest in tea bags (615.71 particles teabag⁻¹), followed by sugar (281.01 particles kg⁻¹), honey (197.67 particles kg⁻¹), and salt (147.30 particles kg⁻¹). Consumption of tea bags exhibited the highest risks of daily and annual MPs intake (15.06 particles kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 5496.45 particles kg⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively), followed by bottled water (4.77 particles kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 1741.32 particles kg⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively). Overall, this study provides vital baseline data about MPs contamination in Saudi Arabia. These findings could be used to develop strategies to minimize MPs contamination in food and beverages. Therefore, monitoring MPs in commonly consumed dietary products to avoid adverse impacts of MPs on human health is critically important.
... Additionally, a significant route is the secondary absorption of microplastics into natural resource contamination. This includes water in aquatic reservoirs, which remains contaminated, leading to the subsequent contamination of bottled water and other beverages (Jabeen et al., 2017;Cressey et al., 2016;Kedzierski et al., 2020;Hernandez et al., 2019). ...
... Consequently, their widespread use unfortunately leads to the infiltration of various amounts of microplastics into packaged food products (Jadhav et al., 2021;Aslam et al., 2023;Kadac-Czapska et al., 2023). The release of plastic particles can occur during contact with food both during its production and during packaging and transportation (Jadhav et al., 2021;Aslam et al., 2023;Kedzierski et al., 2020;Hernandez et al., 2019). ...
In recent years, the pervasive presence of microplastics in various environments has raised global concern. These tiny plastic fragments, less than 5mm in size, have infiltrated terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric ecosystems, posing threats to biodiversity, human health, and ecological balance. Understanding microplastic pollution has become crucial for scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders. This paper offers a comprehensive overview of microplastics, covering their sources, distribution, fate, and ecological implications. By synthesizing existing knowledge and identifying research gaps, this paper aims to deepen our understanding of microplastic's global impact and support sustainable environmental management. The objective of this study is to explore the prevalence, distribution, environmental implications, and potential mitigation approaches related to microplastics across diverse ecosystems, with a specific emphasis on their impact on human health and well-being. To obtain up-to-date information concerning trends in the topic of microplastics, a review of the PubMed and Google Scholar databases, along with the latest legislative reports in both Europe and Poland, was performed. Microplastics pose a significant environmental and health threat, disrupting soil properties, biochemical cycles, and ecosystems globally. Despite extensive research, gaps remain in understanding their behavior. Effective management requires comprehensive waste strategies and regulatory measures to mitigate their impact. Addressing this challenge demands interdisciplinary collaboration and heightened public awareness for a sustainable future.
... When Mytilus edulis fed polyethylene microspheres (less than 80 μm) and Carcinus maenas fed polystyrene microspheres (10 μm) via gill respiration, intestinal damage was observed in the two species (Baker, 2013). Daphnia magna exposed to leachates from teabags containing microplastics showed anatomical anomalies (Hernandez et al., 2019). ...
Recent studies suggest that paper cups may also contribute to environmental pollution, particularly through the release of microplastics (MPs). The Nile River, one of the world’s most vital water sources, faces alarming contamination levels, raising concerns about its ecological health. This study investigated whether paper cups release MPs, ions, and heavy metals into water and assessed the potential impact of MPs on fish. In order to completely comprehend the nature and scope of the issue, 1 L of water was collected from the Nile River in Assiut, Egypt and the paper cups were ripped into tiny pieces. Paper cups were similarly soaked in similar volumes of distilled and tap water. Four months later, the leachate from each trail (three replicates for each) was analyzed to determine and compare the distribution of specific ions, heavy metals and microplastics. In order to clarify the availability of MPs in freshwater fish, the intestines of two common fish species (Oreochromis niloticus and Bagrus bajad) were collected from the River Nile in Assiut and examined. Polyethylene, polystyrene and polypropylene were the three main forms of microplastics identified in water samples from the Nile. Also, paper cups soaked in tap water leached the same three groups of MPs, but in lower amounts. Some microplastics may take longer to biodegrade in water, as evidenced by the absence of other forms of microplastics like rayon and polyvinyl chloride in any of the water samples under investigation. The present findings also indicate a noteworthy accumulation of MPs in the intestines of O. niloticus and B. bajad. In conclusion, these results indicated release of some ions, heavy metals, and microplastics from paper cups into water and the River Nile water is polluted with paper cups which have a negative effect on aquatic organisms. This study brings us one step closer to investigating and fully understanding the nature and extent of the problem posed by paper cups and their effects on the River Nile and freshwater fish, which will ultimately be reflected in human health risks.
... Furthermore, if the plasticisers added during the plastic production process are adsorbed by MPs, they pose a threat to both humans and ecosystems (Jung et al., 2022). Humans can ingest MPs through the food chain or get exposed through the use of products like toothpaste, teabags, bottled water (Hernandez et al., 2019), and tap water used primarily for domestic purposes. MP intake from products like seafood (Ding et al., 2020), honey (Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2015), salt (Fadare et al., 2021;Shokunbi et al., 2023), fruit and vegetables (Conti et al., 2020), and beer (Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2014) has been documented. ...
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging contaminants known to have contaminated not only surface and groundwater but also drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and tap water. Little is known about the occurrence of MPs in DWTPs in Africa, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. To address this knowledge gap, this study investigated the prevalence and estimated daily intake of MPs in raw water, DWTPs, and tap water in a semi-urban area in Ogun State, Nigeria. Using Rose Bengal staining and optical microscopy, MPs in water samples were identified and characterised using standard methods. The abundances of MPs were 16.13 ± 3.83 particles/L in raw water, 10.74 ± 3.76 particles/L in treated water, and 12.43 ± 3.92 particles/L in tap water. Most of the MPs found in the water samples were classified as fibres, followed by fragments, with a size of < 1 mm. This study showed that the drinking water treatment plant reduced microplastics from raw water by 40%, however, there was an increase in the abundance of MPs in tap water. Residents estimated daily consumption of MPs from tap water varied between 0.31 and 0.44 particles for adults and between 1.2 and 1.69 particles for children. This study addresses a critical gap in understanding microplastic pollution in the water distribution systems and DWTPs. The results also indicated that MPs were not effectively removed, requiring a more sophisticated treatment method to lower human exposure to MPs through drinking water from DWTPs.
Graphical Abstract
... Current research has confirmed the appearance of MPs in different foods, including seafood, salt, tea bags, branded milk, and drinking water (Adikari et al., 2023;Ali et al., 2023;Basaran et al., 2023;Jin et al., 2021). For instance, only one plastic teabag at brewing temperature has the potential to release 3.1 billion nanoplastics (NPs) and a single cup of liquid has 11.6 billion MPs (Hernandez et al., 2019). Each year, humans consume many thousands to millions of microplastic (MP) particles, or several milligrams Environ Monit Assess (2025) 197:264 264 Page 10 of 28 ...
The primary source of the growing concern regarding marine, aquatic, and land pollution is plastic products, the majority of which are made of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds. These combinations include materials like coal and natural gas that are obtained through petrochemical processes. As these two types of plastic-derived products are produced and disposed of, they have a major impact on the ecosystems. According to recent figures, around 400 million tons of plastic and related products derived from plastic are produced annually, and it became double in the last two decades. Plastic pollutants are introduced into ecosystems by a variety of stakeholders at different points in their daily lives, whether intentionally or accidentally. They have become a major source of adverse effects, toxicity development in natural entities, and problems. The aquatic, marine, and land ecosystems are vital to human existence, which emphasizes how difficult it is to stop pollution from it. This review highlights the adverse impacts of plastics, plastic-based products, and micro-nanoplastics on aquatic, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems while addressing advances in biodegradable plastics, recycling innovations, plastic-degrading enzymes, and sustainable solutions to reduce environmental risks.
... Moreover, most human activities today depend on or are influenced by plastic and plastic manufactured (Geyer et al., 2017). Generally, the sizes of microplastic particles can range from 100 nanometres to 5 millimetres, and nano-plastics are defined as particles smaller than 100 nanometres (Laura et al., 2019). The use of plastic reached 367 million tons in 2020 after it did not exceed one and a half million tons in 1950 (Plastic Europe, 2019), with agriculture and horticulture industries being major consumers of plastic materials in the form of thin sheets, pipes, and other materials. ...
... Recent studies have con rmed the existence of microplastics in human lungs, blood, breastmilk, and placenta (Jenner et al. 2022;Leslie et al. 2022;Ragusa et al. 2022;Ragusa et al. 2021). The results of these investigations are not unexpected in the least; microplastics are present in dietary items that we consume on a daily basis, including bottled water, seafood, salt, tea bags, milk, and so forth (Praveena and Laohaprapanon 2021;Danopoulos et al. 2020;Li et al. 2018;Karami et al. 2017;Kutralam-Muniasamy et al. 2020;Hernandez et al. 2019). Moreover, a recent study also discovered substantial amounts of these plastic particles in several fruits and vegetables (Oliveri Conti et al. 2020). ...
Microplastic (MPs) pollution has emerged as a worldwide environmental issue due to its constant presence in various ecosystems and potential threats to human health and biodiversity. In response to this concern, novel approaches are sought for effective microplastic removal. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), characterized by their high surface area, tunable porosity, and structural diversity, have gathered significant attention in recent years for their potential application in environmental remediation. This chapter delves into the fascinating field of MOFs and their unique properties that make them suitable for the removal of MPs from diverse environmental matrices. In subsequent sections, a detailed analysis of recent advancements in MOF synthesis methods and design strategies tailored for MP removal is presented. Furthermore, the drawbacks and challenges related to MOF stability, regeneration, and recyclability have also been highlighted and the avenues for further research in the field have been outlined. This chapter promises to deliver a comprehensive review of MOFs and their transformative potential in addressing the challenge of microplastic pollution while also providing insights into future research endeavors aimed at developing sustainable solutions to combat MP pollution.
... Since then, microplastics have drawn ever-increasing attention from academia, industry, and government agencies [2]. Microplastics are roughly defined as tiny plastic particles with a nominal size of less than 5 mm that are ubiquitous in oceans, freshwaters, wastewaters, biota, and soils [1][2][3][4]. Microplastics originate from textiles, tires, city dust, cleaning, or personal care products and from the breakdown of larger single use plastic products. Due to their small size, microplastics can easily enter the food chain through various means, including uptake by aquatic organisms and plant roots. ...
Global microplastic contamination of almost all biological and environmental media is an emerging threat to human health that recently fostered intense research. Here, we review polyethylene terephthalate with focus on microplastics, characteristics, uses, concentration, degradation, toxicity, and remediation. Plastic remediation can be done by landfills, incineration, pyrolysis, and biodegradation. We present microplastic occurrence in food, beverages, dust, wildlife, and human tissues. We observed inconsistencies in measurement techniques, limitations in detection reliability, and gaps in risk assessment.
The large-scale application of plastic packaging has raised concerns about the microplastics (MPs) occurrence. MPs found in food have been increasingly reported, and plastic packaging is one of the main...
The extensive use of plastic without an effective management system is linked to significant environmental pollution issues. The fragmentation of various types of plastic waste leads to the formation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs). NPs, measuring less than 0.1 μm pose a latent danger to the human food chain caused by the ability to traverse biological membranes than MPs, potentially leading to various chronic diseases. The widespread distribution of NPs across diverse environmental matrices and their subsequent infiltration into food and feed chains precipitates various emerging health concerns. NPs contaminate food production systems and leach from plastic packaging, infiltrating organisms at various trophic levels. Seafood, processed foods, and drinking water serve as vectors for absorption and accumulation in human tissues. The pervasive contamination pathway poses substantial risks to human health through multiple exposure routes, primarily ingestion. It can lead to cytotoxicity, inflammation, genotoxicity, and apoptosis. This review summarizes the implications of NPs exposure that triggers various diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), kidney dysfunction, liver disease, heart problems, brain disorders, reproductive issues, and cancer. Currently, no established method exists to treat NPs that humans may have already ingested. Hence, it is urgent to mitigate the harmful effects of NPs through the development and implementation of innovative, efficient, and sustainable environmental decontamination strategies. This discussion highlights several advanced remediation techniques that can effectively reduce the toxicity of NPs in environmental systems, thus mitigating their associated risks.
Background:
Plastic cutting boards are commonly used in food preparation, increasing human exposure to microplastics (MPs). However, the health implications are still not well understood.
Objectives:
The objective of this study was to assess the impacts of long-term exposure to MPs released from cutting boards on intestinal inflammation and gut microbiota.
Methods:
MPs were incorporated into mouse diets by cutting the food on polypropylene, polyethylene, and willow wooden cutting boards; diets were fed to mice over periods of 4 and 12 weeks. Serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-10 (IL-10), lipopolysaccharide (LPS, an endotoxin), and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), along with ileum and colon levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), were measured using mouse ELISA kits. The mRNA expression of mucin 2 and intestinal tight junction proteins in mouse ileum and colon tissues was quantified using real-time quantitative RT-PCR. Fecal microbiota, fecal metabolomics, and liver metabolomics were characterized.
Results:
Polypropylene and polyethylene cutting boards released MPs, with concentrations reaching 1088 ± 95.0 and 1211 ± 322 µg g-1 in diets, respectively, and displaying mean particle sizes of 10.4 ± 0.96 vs 27.4 ± 1.45 µm. Mice fed diets prepared on polypropylene cutting boards for 12 weeks exhibited significantly higher serum levels of LPS, CRP, TNF-α, IL-10, and CEA, as well as higher levels of IL-β, TNF-α, MDA, SOD, and MLCK in the ileum and colon compared to mice fed diets prepared on willow wooden cutting boards. These mice also showed lower relative expression of Occludin and Zonula occludens-1 in the ileum and colon. In contrast, mice exposed to diets prepared on polyethylene cutting boards for 12 weeks did not show evident inflammation; however, there was a significant decrease in the relative abundance of Firmicutes and an increase in Desulfobacterota compared to those fed diets prepared on willow wooden cutting boards, while exposure to diets prepared on polyethylene cutting boards over 12 weeks also altered mouse fecal and liver metabolites compared to those fed diets prepared on willow wooden cutting boards.
Discussion:
The findings suggest that MPs from polypropylene cutting boards impaired intestinal barrier function and induced inflammation, whereas those from polyethylene cutting boards affected the gut microbiota, gut metabolism, and liver metabolism in the mouse model. These findings offer crucial insights into the safe use of plastic cutting boards. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP15472.
The increased levels of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) found in human brain tissue are alarming, particularly in patients with dementia. Although total avoidance of MNP exposure will likely remain an unattainable endpoint in light of their ubiquity in the environment, new studies indicate feasible pathways by which dietary intake may be decreased or clearances improved. This commentary reviews the evidence on human exposure to MNPs, their tissue penetration, and potential health effects, particularly on neurotoxicity. We will explore evidence-based strategies for reducing exposure through dietary and lifestyle changes while addressing key gaps in our current knowledge calling for additional research.
Plastic production soared to 400 million tons globally in 2022, resulting in an extensive and inadequately managed influx of plastic waste into the environment. A substantial portion of plastic waste transforms into microplastics (MPs), measuring less than 5 mm, through processes like photodegradation and mechanical wear. These MPs, originating from textiles, tires, cosmetics, and manufacturing, contribute significantly to terrestrial and aquatic pollution. While marine environments have been extensively studied, recent attention has shifted to terrestrial systems, revealing MP contamination 4–23 times higher in soils than in oceans. The soil ecosystem, crucial for sustaining human life, faces contamination risks impacting agriculture and food security. The chapter uniquely explores the comprehensive impact of MPson agriculture, crops, and the food production process, emphasizing the distinct challenges posed by MPsin agricultural soils. In agricultural environments, MPs influence crop production efficiency, plant and animal health, and subsequently, human consumers. The dimensions of MP particles facilitate their transfer across eco-environments, causing disturbances in soil characteristics, plant roots, nutrient absorption, seedling size, gene expression, and accumulation in tissues. Furthermore, MPs pose a serious risk in aquatic environments, affecting organisms through ingestion and entanglement, with implications for seafood safety and human health. The chapter stands out for its emphasis on MPs' journey from terrestrial and aquatic environments to the final consumer product, connecting the dots in the food production chain. In conclusion, addressing the global microplastic problem necessitates a multifaceted approach, including enhanced waste management, sustainable agricultural practices, and regulatory measures to safeguard both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and ensure food safety.
Food packaging systems, especially those reliant on fossil-based plastics, represent a significant source of pollution if not properly handled or disposed of. Recently, there has been increasing attention on the potential release of microplastics (MPs) from containers into food products and the consequent effects induced on human health through consumption.
Therefore, this book chapter aims to provide an overview of current research on MPs production from plastic-based food packaging systems, emphasizing the main factors influencing their release. It also highlights the gaps that need to be addressed in terms of potential hazards to human health when exposed to foods contaminated with MPs.
Finally, the possibility of reducing microplastic release from food packaging materials through a “green” approach is discussed, with the aim of positively impacting consumers’ health.
This review analyses Brazil’s current stage of plastic waste management, comparing it to what is being carried out worldwide. The Brazilian National Solid Waste Policy established principles and guidelines for solid waste management. However, a decade after its implementation, the results demonstrate timid results about those expected. Brazil’s official solid waste and plastics recycling rates are around 4% and 1%, respectively, considerably behind countries with comparable economic growth levels. This work dedicates considerable attention to microplastic pollution, a worldwide concern with potential effects on water bodies, the atmosphere, soils, human health, and vegetal and animal lives. A case study on the solid waste management system in Vitória City, the capital of Espírito Santo, was developed. Besides, a portrait of the pollution in Vitória and Espírito Santo Bays in the atmosphere and mangrove areas is presented. The more critical issues found were the low adherence of the population’s city in the selective waste collection (what is reflected in the low solid waste recycling rates), plastic debris, and tiny plastic in the waters, coexisting with heavy metals and hydrocarbons—originated from industrial and anthropogenic activities; microplastics are present in the atmosphere, adding their adverse effects to those of the pollutants already existing in the air and the illegal disposal of waste and the anthropogenic activities which degrade the mangrove ecosystems. A global treaty is being discussed at the United Nations. It's expected that their definitions, initially promised by the end of 2024, will be able to eradicate plastic pollution effectivelly.
Graphical Abstract
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Microplastics (MPs) are produced from various primary and secondary sources and pose multifaceted environmental problems. They are of non-biodegradable nature and may stay in aquatic environments for a long time period. The present review has covered novel aspects pertaining to MPs that were not covered in earlier studies. It has been observed that several methods are being employed for samples collection, extraction and identification of MPs and polymer types using various equipment, chemicals and instrumental techniques. Aquatic species mistakenly ingest MPs, considering them prey and through food-chain, and then suffer from various metabolic disorders. The consumption of seafood and fish may consequently cause health implications in humans. Certain plasticizers are added during manufacturing to provide colour, durability, flexibility, and strength to plastics, but they leach out during usage, storage, and transport, as well as after entering the bodies of aquatic species and human beings. The leached chemicals (bisphenol-A, triclosan, phthalates, etc.) act as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which effect on homeostasis; thereby causing neurotoxicity, cytotoxicity, reproductive problems, adverse behaviour and autism. Negative influence of MPs on carbon sequestration potential of water bodies is also observed, however more studies are required to understand it with a detail mechanism under natural conditions. The wastewater treatment plants are found to remove a large amount of MPs, but in turn, also act as significant sources of their release in sludge and effluents. Further, it is covered that how advanced oxidation processes, thermal- and photo-oxidation, fungi, algae and microbes degrade the plastics and increase their numbers in the surrounding environment. The management strategy comprising recovery of energy and other valuable by-products from plastic wastes, recycling and regulatory framework; are also described in detail. The future perspectives can be of paramount importance to control MPs generation and their abundance in the aquatic and other types of environments. The studies in future need to focus on advanced filtration techniques, advanced oxidation processes, energy recovery from plastic wastes and influences of MPs on carbon sequestration in aquatic environment and human health.
Background
The consumption of takeaways is becoming increasingly prevalent. Despite this, the relationship between takeaway food consumption and depressive symptoms in Chinese populations has not been clarified. Furthermore, the factors that mediate the association between takeaway frequency and depressive symptoms are unknown.
Methods
Questionnaires were employed to collect data from 6,417 new students at Chongqing Medical University in the autumn of 2023, including sociodemographic information, takeaway frequency, physical activity levels (measured by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form), and depressive symptoms (measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9). Multiple linear regression and mediation analysis were performed. Multiple imputations were used to fill in missing data through sensitivity analyses.
Results
Among 6417 participants, 2,606 (40.6%) students ordered takeaway at least once a week, with 235 (3.7%) of them ordering takeaway food every day. Takeaway frequency was significantly associated with depressive symptoms (β=0.034, P=0.006), and physical activity partially mediated this relationship (95% bootstrap confidence interval=0.0024, 0.0371).
Conclusions
The study highlights the negative relationship between takeaway frequency and emotional well-being, emphasizing the need to focus on the emotional health of frequent takeaway food consumers. Moreover, our study suggests that increased physical activity may alleviate takeaway-induced mood-related outcomes.
A broad range of artificial or naturally occurring chemicals known as emerging contaminants (ECs) are
increasingly found in landfill leachate and provide serious dangers to human health and the environment. This
critical analysis investigates the origin, dispersion, and effects of ECs in relation to landfill settings. Landfills
serve as EC reservoirs because of the diverse mix of e-waste, industrial compounds, pharmaceuticals, personal
care items, and endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Factors including landfill design, waste type, and environmental
conditions affect the mobility and permanence of these toxins as they seep into nearby soils, groundwater, and
surface water through leachate. ECs have been found in trace amounts in the landfill leachate, and are polar
substances having a brief half-life. Concerns over the consequences of newly discovered contaminants on the
environment and human health have grown because of their increased detection in the landfill leachate.
Additionally, they increase the hazards to human populations by having the ability to pollute agricultural soils
and sources of drinking water. The significant finding is that the ECs in landfill leachate can be generated from
various sites whether it is from municipal solid wastes, agricultural runoffs, or industrial wastes which become
persistent in nature increasing risk to human health and environment. The study identifies important knowledge
gaps regarding the development of harmful transformation products, the collective effects of EC combinations,
and the inadequacy of traditional treatment techniques in reducing EC pollution. By this it can be concluded that
advanced analytical methods, creative leachate treatment approaches, and strong regulatory frameworks are
needed to address these issues and successfully stop EC discharge and control its negative effects on the envi
ronment and human health. In order to reduce the hazards caused by newly discovered pollutants in landfill
leachate and to support environmentally friendly waste management techniques, this analysis emphasizes the
necessity of both international and regional initiatives.
Plastic pollution, particularly from microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), has become a critical environmental and health concern due to their widespread distribution, persistence, and potential toxicity. MPs and NPs originate from primary sources, such as cosmetic microspheres or synthetic fibers, and secondary fragmentation of larger plastics through environmental degradation. These particles, typically less than 5 mm, are found globally, from deep seabeds to human tissues, and are known to adsorb and release harmful pollutants, exacerbating ecological and health risks. Effective detection and quantification of MPs and NPs are essential for understanding and mitigating their impacts. Current analytical methods include physical and chemical techniques. Physical methods, such as optical and electron microscopy, provide morphological details but often lack specificity and are time-intensive. Chemical analyses, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, offer molecular specificity but face challenges with smaller particle sizes and complex matrices. Thermal analytical methods, including pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), provide compositional insights but are destructive and limited in morphological analysis. Emerging (bio)sensing technologies show promise in addressing these challenges. Electrochemical biosensors offer cost-effective, portable, and sensitive platforms, leveraging principles such as voltammetry and impedance to detect MPs and their adsorbed pollutants. Plasmonic techniques, including surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), provide high sensitivity and specificity through nanostructure-enhanced detection. Fluorescent biosensors utilizing microbial or enzymatic elements enable the real-time monitoring of plastic degradation products, such as terephthalic acid from polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Advancements in these innovative approaches pave the way for more accurate, scalable, and environmentally compatible detection solutions, contributing to improved monitoring and remediation strategies. This review highlights the potential of biosensors as advanced analytical methods, including a section on prospects that address the challenges that could lead to significant advancements in environmental monitoring, highlighting the necessity of testing the new sensing developments under real conditions (composition/matrix of the samples), which are often overlooked, as well as the study of peptides as a novel recognition element in microplastic sensing.
Unaged microplastics, as well as residual monomers or additives from the processing stage would affect the plants, animals, and human body. Aged microplastics (MPs) containing degradation products are widespread pollutants. There is a gap in the effects of aged microplastics on human body. Through static digestion simulation experiments, this study investigates the interaction between aged polystyrene microplastics (PS MPs) with different molecular weights and simulated digestive fluids. The findings reveal that degradation products existing on the surface of PS MPs are released into the simulated digestive fluids, leading to a "dual reduction" in both the physical size and molecular weight of MPs. This result implies that the potential risk of cells ingesting MPs increases due to the ageing of plastics. Moreover, these degradation products impact the micro-environment of digestive enzymes, consequently leading to conformational changes in the macromolecules of these enzymes. The longer the ageing time, the greater degradation products are released and the more solute is adsorbed, which may pose even graver hazards to the bio-safety. This study contributes to assessing the effects and potential risks of aged PS MPs on human health. It emphasizes the importance of investigating the risk of aged MPs that could enter cells, inducing some hazardous effects after digestion.
This review explores the increasing impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on the reproductive system of various organisms. As the use of plastics continues to increase, research has progressively focused on how these particles disrupt both male and female reproductive systems, leading to impaired reproductive cell function, reduced fertility, and increased offspring abnormalities.
This review emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying mechanisms of reproductive toxicity from microplastic and nanoplastic exposure, while addressing the current lack of effective treatments and the need for further investigation, particularly in humans.
This review highlights the significant progress in our understanding of the reproductive toxicity caused by microplastics and nanoplastics. Previous studies have demonstrated that exposure to these particles can lead to oxidative stress, inflammation, and endocrine disruption, affecting both male and female reproductive systems. Research on animal models has shown that microplastics and nanoplastics impair reproductive cell function, decrease sperm quality, disrupt ovarian function, and reduce fertility. Additionally, there is growing evidence of transgenerational effects, whereby the reproductive damage caused by plastic exposure can be passed down to subsequent generations.
Collectively, these findings underscore the urgent need for continued investigation into the mechanisms underlying reproductive toxicity and potential therapeutic interventions to mitigate these harmful effects.
Microplastics have recently been detected in drinking water as well as in drinking water sources. This presence has triggered discussions on possible implications for human health. However, there have been questions regarding the quality of these occurrence studies since there are no standard sampling, extraction and identification methods for microplastics. Accordingly, we assessed the quality of fifty studies researching microplastics in drinking water and in its major freshwater sources. This includes an assessment of microplastic occurrence data from river and lake water, groundwater, tap water and bottled drinking water. Studies of occurrence in wastewater were also reviewed. We review and propose best practices to sample, extract and detect microplastics and provide a quantitative quality assessment of studies reporting microplastic concentrations. Further, we summarize the findings related to microplastic concentrations, polymer types and particle shapes. Microplastics are frequently present in freshwaters and drinking water, and number concentrations spanned ten orders of magnitude (1 × 10 ⁻² to 10 ⁸ #/m ³ ) across individual samples and water types. However, only four out of 50 studies received positive scores for all proposed quality criteria, implying there is a significant need to improve quality assurance of microplastic sampling and analysis in water samples. The order in globally detected polymers in these studies is PE ≈ PP > PS > PVC > PET, which probably reflects the global plastic demand and a higher tendency for PVC and PET to settle as a result of their higher densities. Fragments, fibres, film, foam and pellets were the most frequently reported shapes. We conclude that more high quality data is needed on the occurrence of microplastics in drinking water, to better understand potential exposure and to inform human health risk assessments.
ASSESSMENT OF MICROPLASTIC CONCENTRATIONS IN HUMAN STOOL
FINAL RESULTS OF A PROSPECTIVE STUDY
Eleven globally sourced brands of bottled water, purchased in 19 locations in nine different countries, were tested for microplastic contamination using Nile Red tagging. Of the 259 total bottles processed, 93% showed some sign of microplastic contamination. After accounting for possible background (lab) contamination, an average of 10.4 microplastic particles >100 um in size per liter of bottled water processed were found. Fragments were the most common morphology (66%) followed by fibers. Half of these particles were confirmed to be polymeric in nature using FTIR spectroscopy with polypropylene being the most common polymer type (54%), which matches a common plastic used for the manufacture of bottle caps. A small fraction of particles (4%) showed the presence of industrial lubricants. While spectroscopic analysis of particles smaller than 100 um was not possible, the adsorption of the Nile Red dye indicates that these particles are most probably plastic. Including these smaller particles (6.5–100 um), an average of 325 microplastic particles per liter of bottled water was found. Microplastic contamination range of 0 to over 10,000 microplastic particles per liter with 95% of particles being between 6.5 and 100 um in size. Data suggests the contamination is at least partially coming from the packaging and/or the bottling process itself. Given the prevalence of the consumption of bottled water across the globe, the results of this study support the need for further studies on the impacts of micro- and nano- plastics on human health.
Understanding the global mass inventory is one of the main challenges in present research on plastic marine debris. Especially the fragmentation and vertical transport processes of oceanic plastic are poorly understood. However, whereas fragmentation rates are unknown, information on plastic emissions, concentrations of plastics in the ocean surface layer (OSL) and fragmentation mechanisms is available. Here, we apply a systems engineering analytical approach and propose a tentative 'whole ocean' mass balance model that combines emission data, surface area-normalized plastic fragmentation rates, estimated concentrations in the OSL, and removal from the OSL by sinking. We simulate known plastic abundances in the OSL and calculate an average whole ocean apparent surface area-normalized plastic fragmentation rate constant, given representative radii for macroplastic and microplastic. Simulations show that 99.8% of the plastic that had entered the ocean since 1950 had settled below the OSL by 2016, with an additional 9.4 million tons settling per year. In 2016, the model predicts that of the 0.309 million tons in the OSL, an estimated 83.7% was macroplastic, 13.8% microplastic, and 2.5% was < 0.335 mm 'nanoplastic'. A zero future emission simulation shows that almost all plastic in the OSL would be removed within three years, implying a fast response time of surface plastic abundance to changes in inputs. The model complements current spatially explicit models, points to future experiments that would inform critical model parameters, and allows for further validation when more experimental and field data become available.
The tremendous increases in production of plastic materials has led to an accumulation of plastic pollution worldwide. Many studies have addressed the physical effects of large-sized plastics on organisms, whereas few have focused on plastic nanoparticles, despite their distinct chemical, physical and mechanical properties. Hence our understanding of their effects on ecosystem function, behaviour and metabolism of organisms remains elusive. Here we demonstrate that plastic nanoparticles reduce survival of aquatic zooplankton and penetrate the blood-to-brain barrier in fish and cause behavioural disorders. Hence, for the first time, we uncover direct interactions between plastic nanoparticles and brain tissue, which is the likely mechanism behind the observed behavioural disorders in the top consumer. In a broader perspective, our findings demonstrate that plastic nanoparticles are transferred up through a food chain, enter the brain of the top consumer and affect its behaviour, thereby severely disrupting the function of natural ecosystems.
Microplastics (MPs) are a significant environmental health issue and increasingly greater source of concern. MPs have been detected in oceans, rivers, sediments, sewages, soil and even table salts. MPs exposure on marine organisms and humans has been documented, but information about the toxicity of MPs in mammal is limited. Here we used fluorescent and pristine polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) particles with two diameters (5 μm and 20 μm) to investigate the tissue distribution, accumulation, and tissue-specific health risk of MPs in mice. Results indicated that MPs accumulated in liver, kidney and gut, with a tissue-accumulation kinetics and distribution pattern that was strongly depended on the MPs particle size. In addition, analyses of multiple biochemical biomarkers and metabolomic profiles suggested that MPs exposure induced disturbance of energy and lipid metabolism as well as oxidative stress. Interestingly, blood biomarkers of neurotoxicity were also altered. Our results uncovered the distribution and accumulation of MPs across mice tissues and revealed significant alteration in several biomarkers that indicate potential toxicity from MPs exposure. Collectively, our data provided new evidence for the adverse consequences of MPs.
The use of quantum dots (QDs) for nanomedicine is hampered by their potential toxicologic effects and difficulties with delivery into the cell interior. We accomplished an in vivo study exploiting Daphnia magna and Xenopus laevis to evaluate both toxicity and uptake of QDs coated with the membranotropic peptide gH625 derived from the glycoprotein H of herpes simplex virus and widely used for drug delivery studies. We evaluated and compared the effects of QDs and gH625-QDs on the survival, uptake, induction of several responsive pathways and genotoxicity in D. magna, and we found that QDs coating plays a key role. Moreover, studies on X. laevis embryos allowed to better understand their cell/tissue localization and delivery efficacy. X. laevis embryos raised in Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus containing QDs or gH625-QDs showed that both nanoparticles localized in the gills, lung and intestine, but they showed different distributions, indicating that the uptake of gH625-QDs was enhanced; the functionalized QDs had a significantly lower toxic effect on embryos’ survival and phenotypes. We observed that D. magna and X. laevis are useful in vivo models for toxicity and drug delivery studies.
The release of plastics into the environment has been identified as an important issue for some time. Recent publications have suggested that the degradation of plastic materials will result in the release of nano-sized plastic particles to the environment. Nanoparticle tracking analysis was applied to characterise the formation of nanoplastics during the degradation of a polystyrene (PS) disposable coffee cup lid. The results clearly show an increase in the formation of nanoplastics over time. After 56 days' exposure the concentration of nanoplastics in the PS sample was 1.26 × 108 particles/ml (average particles size 224 nm) compared to 0.41 × 108 particles/ml in the control.
Increased tea consumption in combination with intensive pesticide use is generating heavy metal contaminations amongst Brazilian tea consumers, causing health concerns. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) was applied to quantify minerals and heavy metals such as aluminum, barium, cadmium, lead, cobalt, copper, chromium, tin, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, vanadium and zinc in Brazilian chamomile, lemongrass, fennel and yerba mate teas. Teas, purchased in local supermarkets, were prepared using infusion and acid digestion. Higher concentrations of Al were present in all samples. In the digested samples, the Al mean concentration was 2.41 μg g(-1) (sd = 0.72) for fennel and 33.42 μg g(-1) (sd = 17.18) for chamomile, whilst the sample C for chamomile tea presented the highest concentration with 51.62 μg g(-1) (sd = 9.17). The safety relation in decreasing order is fennel, lemongrass, chamomile and yerba mate. Chemometric analyses demonstrated a strong correlation between the elements Cd and Pb in the samples. Yerba mate had the highest amount of metal (100 mg kg(-1)), being the subject of a micronucleus test assay for cytotoxicity. The metals found in Yerba mate did not present cytotoxicity/mutagenicity using the micronucleus test. The inorganic contaminants in teas should have their impact carefully monitored.
Plastic pollution is ubiquitous throughout the marine environment, yet estimates of the global abundance and weight of floating plastics have lacked data, particularly from the Southern Hemisphere and remote regions. Here we report an estimate of the total number of plastic particles and their weight floating in the world’s oceans from 24 expeditions (2007–2013) across all five sub-tropical gyres, costal Australia, Bay of Bengal and the Mediterranean Sea conducting surface net tows (N5680) and visual survey transects of large plastic debris (N5891). Using an oceanographic model of floating debris dispersal calibrated by our data, and correcting for wind-driven vertical mixing, we estimate a minimum of 5.25 trillion particles weighing 268,940 tons. When comparing between four size classes, two microplastic ,4.75 mm and meso- and macroplastic .4.75 mm, a tremendous loss of microplastics is observed from the sea surface compared to expected rates of fragmentation, suggesting there are mechanisms at play that remove ,4.75 mm plastic particles from the ocean surface.
The amount of nano- and microplastic in the aquatic environment rises due to the industrial production of plastic and the degradation of plastic into smaller particles. Concerns have been raised about their incorporation into food webs. Little is known about the fate and effects of nanoplastic, especially for the freshwater environment. In this study, effects of nano polystyrene (Nano-PS) on the growth and photosynthesis of the green alga Scenedesmus obliquus and the growth, mortality, neonate production and malformations of the zooplankter Daphnia magna were assessed. Nano-PS reduced population growth and reduced chlorophyll concentrations in the algae. Exposed Daphnia showed a reduced body size and severe alterations in reproduction. Numbers and body size of neonates were lower, while the number of neonate malformations among neonates rose to 68% of the individuals. These effects of Nano-PS were observed between 0.22 and 103 mg Nano-PS/L. Malformations occurred from 30 mg Nano-PS/L onwards. Such plastic concentrations are much higher than presently reported for marine as well as freshwater, but may eventually occur in sediment pore waters. As far as we know, these results are the first to show that direct life history shifts in algae and Daphnia populations may occur as a result of exposure to nanoplastic.
Background: While the use of plastic materials has generated huge societal benefits, the ‘plastic age’ comes with downsides: One issue of emerging concern is the accumulation of plastics in the aquatic environment. Here, so-called microplastics (MP), fragments smaller than 5 mm, are of special concern because they can be ingested throughout the food web more readily than larger particles. Focusing on freshwater MP, we briefly review the state of the science to identify gaps of knowledge and deduce research needs.
State of the science: Environmental scientists started investigating marine (micro)plastics in the early 2000s. Today, a wealth of studies demonstrates that MP have ubiquitously permeated the marine ecosystem, including the polar regions and the deep sea. MP ingestion has been documented for an increasing number of marine species. However, to date, only few studies investigate their biological effects.
The majority of marine plastics are considered to originate from land-based sources, including surface waters. Although they may be important transport pathways of MP, data from freshwater ecosystems is scarce. So far, only few studies provide evidence for the presence of MP in rivers and lakes. Data on MP uptake by freshwater invertebrates and fish is very limited.
Knowledge gaps: While the research on marine MP is more advanced, there are immense gaps of knowledge regarding freshwater MP. Data on their abundance is fragmentary for large and absent for small surface waters.Likewise, relevant sources and the environmental fate remain to be investigated. Data on the biological effects of MP in freshwater species is completely lacking. The accumulation of other freshwater contaminants on MP is of special interest because ingestion might increase the chemical exposure. Again, data is unavailable on this important issue.
Conclusions: MP represent freshwater contaminants of emerging concern. However, to assess the environmental risk associated with MP, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed. Establishing such data critically depends on a collaborative effort by environmental scientists from diverse disciplines (chemistry, hydrology, ecotoxicology, etc.) and, unsurprisingly, on the allocation of sufficient public funding.
Marine ecosystem contamination by microplastics is extensively documented. However few data is available on the contamination of continental water bodies and associated fauna. The aim of this study was to address the occurrence of microplastics in digestive tract of gudgeons (Gobio gobio) from French rivers. These investigations confirm that continental fish ingested microplastics while 12% of collected fish are contaminated by these small particles. Further works are needed to evaluate the occurence of this contamination.
Individual swimming behavior of zooplankton can play an important role in determining how planktivorous fish select their prey. Although several studies have documented the effect of prey size, contrast or degree of pigmentation, escape ability, encounter rate and abundance in determining predation risk, the importance of individual behavior has received relatively little attention by aquatic ecologists. Recent advances in the technology of video recording and computer analysis of motion have allowed us to collect digitized three-dimensional video records of free-swimming zooplankton such as Daphnia. We found that Daphnia clones, including those within a single species, exhibit a wide range of swimming behaviors as measured by swimming speed. The individual behavior of a species cannot be adequately described by looking at one clone. We also show that different behavior observed in live Daphnia can play an important role in determining attractiveness to visual predators. Given a choice between two clones of equal size and visibility contrast, fish selected individuals from the faster swimming clone. Our results suggest that current models of prey selection would be improved by the incorporation of individual swimming behavior because it is an important factor determining overall prey visibility.
XPSmeasurements of nylon 6 recorded with a SSX-100 spectrometer in standardized experimental conditions are presented: survey scan, high resolution core level spectra as well as the energy loss regions of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen peaks are analyzed. This is part of a contract work aiming to record spectra in the very same conditions of some forty different polymers.
Microplastics are ubiquitous across ecosystems, yet the exposure risk to humans is unresolved. Focusing on the American diet, we evaluated the number of microplastic particles in commonly consumed foods in relation to their recommended daily intake. The potential for microplastic inhalation and how the source of drinking water may affect microplastic consumption were also explored. Our analysis used 402 data points from 26 studies, which represents over 3600 processed samples. Evaluating approximately 15% of Americans' caloric intake, we estimate that annual microplastics consumption ranges from 39000 to 52000 particles depending on age and sex. These estimates increase to 74000 and 121000 when inhalation is considered. Additionally, individuals who meet their recommended water intake through only bottled sources may be ingesting an additional 90000 microplastics annually, compared to 4000 microplastics for those who consume only tap water. These estimates are subject to large amounts of variation; however, given methodological and data limitations, these values are likely underestimates.
The vast amount of plastic waste emitted into the environment and the increasing concern of potential harm to wildlife has made microplastic and nanoplastic pollution a growing environmental concern. Plastic pollution has the potential to cause both physical and chemical harm to wildlife directly or via sorption, concentration, and transfer of other environmental contaminants to the wildlife that ingest plastic. Small particles of plastic pollution, termed microplastics (>100 nm and <5 mm) or nanoplastics (<100 nm), can form through fragmentation of larger pieces of plastic. These small particles are especially concerning because of their high specific surface area for sorption of contaminants as well as their potential to translocate in the bodies of organisms. These same small particles are challenging to separate and identify in environmental samples because their size makes handling and observation difficult. As a result, our understanding of the environmental prevalence of nanoplastics and microplastics is limited.
Generally, the smaller the size of the plastic particle, the more difficult it is to separate from environmental samples. Currently employed passive density and size separation techniques to isolate plastics from environmental samples are not well suited to separate microplastics and nanoplastics. Passive flotation is hindered by the low buoyancy of small particles as well as the difficulty of handling small particles on the surface of flotation media. Here we suggest exploring alternative techniques borrowed from other fields of research to improve separation of the smallest plastic particles. These techniques include adapting active density separation (centrifugation) from cell biology and taking advantage of surface-interaction-based separations from analytical chemistry.
Furthermore, plastic pollution is often challenging to quantify in complex matrices such as biological tissues and wastewater. Biological and wastewater samples are important matrices that represent key points in the fate and sources of plastic pollution, respectively. In both kinds of samples, protocols need to be optimized to increase throughput, reduce contamination potential, and avoid destruction of plastics during sample processing. To this end, we recommend adapting digestion protocols to match the expected composition of the nonplastic material as well as taking measures to reduce and account for contamination.
Once separated, plastics in an environmental sample should ideally be characterized both visually and chemically. With existing techniques, microplastics and nanoplastics are difficult to characterize or even detect. Their low mass and small size provide limited signal for visual, vibrational spectroscopic, and mass spectrometric analyses. Each of these techniques involves trade-offs in throughput, spatial resolution, and sensitivity. To accurately identify and completely quantify microplastics and nanoplastics in environmental samples, multiple analytical techniques applied in tandem are likely to be required.
In situ studies of plastic deterioration can help us understand the longevity of macroplastic as well as the generation of microplastics in the environment. Photo-oxidation contributing to the generation of microplastics in the marine environment was explored using four types of plastic (polyethene, polystyrene, poly(ethylene tetraphthalate) and Biothene® exposed in light and in shade, in both air and sea water. Metrics for deterioration were tensile extensibility and oxidation rate. Measurements were conducted at intervals between 7 and 600 days' exposure. Deterioration was faster in air than in sea water and was further accelerated in direct light compared to shade. Extensibility and oxidation were significantly inversely correlated in samples exposed in air. Samples in sea water lost extensibility at a slower rate. Polystyrene, which enters the waste stream rapidly due to its wide application in packaging, deteriorated fastest and is, therefore, likely to form microplastics more rapidly than other materials, especially when exposed to high levels of irradiation, for example when stranded on the shore.
The accumulation of plastic litter in natural environments is a global issue. Concerns over potential negative impacts on the economy, wildlife, and human health provide strong incentives for improving the sustainable use of plastics. Despite the many voices raised on the issue, we lack a consensus on how to define and categorize plastic debris. This is evident for microplastics, where inconsistent size classes are used, and where the materials to be included are under debate. While this is inherent in an emerging research field, an ambiguous terminology results in confusion and miscommunication that may compromise progress in research and mitigation measures. Therefore, we need to be explicit on what exactly we consider plastic debris. Thus, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a unified terminology, propose a definition and categorization framework and highlight areas of uncertainty. Going beyond size classes, our framework includes physico-chemical properties (polymer composition, solid state, solubility) as defining criteria and size, shape, color, and origin as classifiers for categorization. Acknowledging the rapid evolution of our knowledge on plastic pollution, our framework will promote consensus-building within the scientific and regulatory community based on a solid scientific foundation.
Micro- and nanoplastics derived from environmental degradation of larger plastic debris can be ingested and accumulated in aquatic organisms, raising increasing global ecological concerns. Toxicology studies on aquatic organisms predominantly use commercial formulations of micro- and nano-sized polystyrene particles as model plastics. However, many of these commercially available formulations contain different preservatives, antimicrobials, or surfactants such as sodium azide, Tween® 20, and sodium dodecyl sulfate, which may introduce artifacts in toxicity assessments. In this study, we carried out acute toxicity tests on Daphnia magna, using commercial 20 nm and 200 nm polystyrene nanoparticles (PS-NPs) containing 2 mM sodium azide as an antimicrobial preservative. The acute toxicity of non-dialyzed PS-NPs, dialyzed PS-NPs, and sodium azide alone was compared. The results reveal that the acute toxicity of the complete commercial formulation of PS-NPs was mainly associated with sodium azide and not the particles themselves. The dialyzed PS-NPs did not cause mortality but significantly disrupted the swimming behavior of D. magna. As commercial PS-NPs are commonly and increasingly used in plastic toxicity assessments, these results highlight the importance of considering the impacts of the suspension matrix.
The study investigates the content of microplastic particles in freshwater and drinking water. Specifically, three water treatment plants (WTPs) supplied by different kinds of water bodies were selected and their raw and treated water was analysed for microplastics (MPs). Microplastics were found in all water samples and their average abundance ranged from 1473 ± 34 to 3605 ± 497 particles L-1 in raw water and from 338 ± 76 to 628 ± 28 particles L-1 in treated water, depending on the WTP. This study is one of very few that determine microplastics down to the size of 1 μm, while MPs smaller than 10 μm were the most plentiful in both raw and treated water samples, accounting for up to 95%. Further, MPs were divided into three categories according to their shape. Fragments clearly prevailed at two of the WTPs and fibres together with fragments predominated at one case. Despite 12 different materials forming the microplastics being identified, the majority of the MPs (>70%) comprised of PET (polyethylene terephthalate), PP (polypropylene) and PE (polyethylene). This study contributes to fill the knowledge gap in the field of emerging microplastic pollution of drinking water and water sources, which is of concern due to the potential exposure of microplastics to humans.
Apomorphine (APO) is a non-selective agonist of dopamine receptor activating D2-like receptors. Although Daphnia has been used in neurotoxicology in toxicity testing, little is known on its behavioural and physiological responses to dopamine receptors ligands. Therefore, the aim of our study was to determine swimming behaviour (swimming track density, speed, turning activity) and physiological parameters such as heart rate, thoracic limb activity and post-abdominal claw movement frequency in daphnids exposed for 1, 2 and 4 h to concentrations of 0.3, 3 and 30 mg/L of APO. The results showed the most significant decrease of behavioural endpoints such as swimming track density, speed and degree of turning angles of daphnids exposed for 4 h to the highest concentrations of APO. The study also showed that a decrease of thoracic limb activity was found after 2 and 4 h but only at the highest concentration. Heart rate was not affected by APO which may be a result of a lack of signalling with dopamine receptors in the heart of Daphnia. Therefore, activity of this organ seems to be not a valuable physiological biomarker in the assessment of effects induced by dopamine receptor ligands. The study also showed that our new methodological approach, imaging of swimming track density may be a promising tool for studying the effects of neuroactive substances on locomotor system activity of Daphnia magna.
Plastic pollution is a critical environmental concern and comprises the majority of anthropogenic debris in the ocean, including macro, micro, and likely nanoscale (less than 100nm in at least one dimension) plastic particles. While the toxicity of macroplastics and microplastics is relatively well studied, the toxicity of nanoplastics is largely uncharacterized. Here, fluorescent polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) were used to investigate the potential toxicity of nanoplastics in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio), as well as to characterize the uptake and distribution of the particles within embryos and larvae. Zebrafish embryos at 6h post-fertilization (hpf) were exposed to PS NPs (0.1, 1, or 10ppm) until 120 hpf. Our results demonstrate that PS NPs accumulated in the yolk sac as early as 24 hpf and migrated to the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, liver, pancreas, heart, and brain throughout development (48-120 hpf). Accumulation of PS NPs decreased during the depuration phase (120-168 hpf) in all organs, but at a slower rate in the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. Notably, exposure to PS NPs did not induce significant mortality, deformities, or changes to mitochondrial bioenergetics, but did decrease the heart rate. Lastly, exposure to PS NPs altered larval behavior as evidenced by swimming hypoactivity in exposed larvae. Taken together, these data suggest that at least some nanoplastics can penetrate the chorion of developing zebrafish, accumulate in the tissues, and affect physiology and behavior, potentially affecting organismal fitness in contaminated aquatic ecosystems.
Plastic wastes are among the major inputs of detritus into aquatic ecosystems. Also, during recent years the increasing use of new materials such as nanomaterials (NMs) in industrial and household applications has contributed to the complexity of waste mixtures in aquatic systems. The current effects and the synergism and antagonisms of mixtures of microplastics (MPLs), NMs and organic compounds on the environment and in human health have, to date, not been well understood but instead they are a cause for general concern. The aim of this work is to contribute to a better understanding of the cytotoxicity of NMs and microplastics/nanoplastics (MPLs/NPLs), at cell level in terms of oxidative stress (evaluating Reactive Oxygen Species effect) and cell viability. Firstly, the individual cytotoxicity of metal nanoparticles (NPs) (AgNPs and AuNPs), of metal oxide NPs (ZrO2NPs, CeO2NPs, TiO2NPs, and Al2O3NPs), carbon nanomaterials (C60fullerene, graphene), and MPLs of polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) has been evaluated in vitro. Two different cellular lines T98G and HeLa, cerebral and epithelial human cells, respectively, were employed. The cells were exposed during 24-48h to different levels of contaminants, from 10ng/mL to 10µg/mL, under the same conditions. Secondly, the synergistic and antagonistic relationships between fullerenes and other organic contaminants, including an organophosphate insecticide (malathion), a surfactant (sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate) and a plasticiser (diethyl phthalate) were assessed. The obtained results confirm that oxidative stress is one of the mechanisms of cytotoxicity at cell level, as has been observed for both cell lines and contributes to the current knowledge of the effects of NMs and MPLs-NPLs.
Fragmentation of plastic debris and the commercial use of plastic microbeads have led to the widespread distribution of microplastics in natural environments. Several studies have reported on the occurrence and toxicity of microplastics in soils and waters; however, due to methodological challenges, the presence and impact of nanoplastics (<100 nm) in natural systems have been largely ignored. Microbeads used in consumer products such as scrubs and shampoos are processed by mechanical means that may lead to their fragmentation into potentially more hazardous nanoplastics. In this study, three commercial facial scrubs containing polyethylene microbeads (~0.2 mm diameter) were examined to verify whether they contained nanoplastics. Particulates in the scrubs were fractionated using sequential filtration to isolate particles smaller than 100 nm. Scanning electron microscopy was used to confirm the presence of nanoparticles ranging in size from 24 ± 6 nm to 52 ± 14 nm. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy were used to confirm that the identified nanoparticles consisted of polyethylene. This study confirms the (unexpected) presence of nanoplastics in personal care products containing polyethylene microbeads and highlights the need for further studies to characterize the release and distribution of nanoplastic litter in natural aquatic and soil environments.
Microplastics are a pollutant of environmental concern. Their presence in food destined for human consumption and in air samples has been reported. Thus, microplastic exposure via diet or inhalation could occur, the human health effects of which are unknown. The current review article draws upon cross-disciplinary scientific literature to discuss and evaluate the potential human health impacts of microplastics and outlines urgent areas for future research. Key literature up to September 2016 relating to bioaccumulation, particle toxicity, and chemical and microbial contaminants were critically examined. Whilst this is an emerging field, complimentary existing fields indicate potential particle, chemical and microbial hazards. If inhaled or ingested, microplastics may bioaccumulate and exert localised particle toxicity by inducing or enhancing an immune response. Chemical toxicity could occur due to the localised leaching of component monomers, endogenous additives, and adsorbed environmental pollutants. Chronic exposure is anticipated to be of greater concern due to the accumulative effect which could occur. This is expected to be dose-dependent, and a robust evidence-base of exposure levels is currently lacking. Whilst there is potential for microplastics to impact human health, assessing current exposure levels and burdens is key. This information will guide future research into the potential mechanisms of toxicity and hence therein possible health effects.
Survey's the issues typically raised in discussions of sustainability and plastics Discusses current issues not covered in detail previously such as ocean litter, migration of additives into food products and the recovery of plastics Covers post-consumer fate of plastics on land and in the oceans, highlighting the environmental impacts of disposal methods Details toxicity of plastics, particularly as it applies to human health Presents a clear analysis of the key plastic-related issues including numerous citations of the research base that supports and contradicts the popularly held notions.
The occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in saltwater bodies is relatively well studied, but nothing is known about their presence in most of the commercial salts that are widely consumed by humans across the globe. Here, we extracted MP-like particles larger than 149 μm from 17 salt brands originating from 8 different countries followed by the identification of their polymer composition using micro-Raman spectroscopy. Microplastics were absent in one brand while others contained between 1 to 10 MPs/Kg of salt. Out of the 72 extracted particles, 41.6% were plastic polymers, 23.6% were pigments, 5.50% were amorphous carbon, and 29.1% remained unidentified. The particle size (mean ± SD) was 515 ± 171 μm. The most common plastic polymers were polypropylene (40.0%) and polyethylene (33.3%). Fragments were the primary form of MPs (63.8%) followed by filaments (25.6%) and films (10.6%). According to our results, the low level of anthropogenic particles intake from the salts (maximum 37 particles per individual per annum) warrants negligible health impacts. However, to better understand the health risks associated with salt consumption, further development in extraction protocols are needed to isolate anthropogenic particles smaller than 149 μm.
This study investigated the direct and indirect toxic effects of microplastics and nanoplastics toward zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae locomotor activity. Results showed that microplastics alone exhibited no significant effects except for the upregulated zfrho visual gene expression; whereas nanoplastics inhibited the larval locomotion by 22% during the last darkness period, and significantly reduced larvae body length by 6%, inhibited the acetylcholinesterase activity by 40%, and upregulated gfap, α1-tubulin, zfrho and zfblue gene expression significantly. When co-exposed with 2 μg/L 17 α-ethynylestradiol (EE2), microplastics led to alleviation on EE2's inhibition effect on locomotion, which was probably due to the decreased freely dissolved EE2 concentration. However, though nanoplastics showed stronger adsorption ability for EE2, the hypoactivity phenomenon still existed in the nanoplastics co-exposure group. Moreover, when co-exposed with a higher concentration of EE2 (20 μg/L), both plastics showed an enhanced effect on the hypoactivity. Principal component analysis was performed to reduce data dimensions and four principal components were reconstituted in terms of oxidative stress, body length, nervous and visual system related genes explaining 84% of total variance. Furthermore, oxidative damage and body length reduction were evaluated to be main reasons for the hypoactivity. Therefore, nanoplastics alone suppressed zebrafish larvae locomotor activity and both plastic particles can change the larvae swimming behavior when co-exposed with EE2. This study provides new insights into plastic particles' effects on zebrafish larvae, improving the understanding of their environmental risks to the aquatic environment.
Polypropylene, low-density polyethylene, and high-density polyethylene pre-production plastic pellets were weathered for three years in three experimental treatments: dry/sunlight, seawater/sunlight, and seawater/darkness. Changes in chemical bond structures (hydroxyl, carbonyl groups and carbon-oxygen) with weathering were measured via Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. These indices from experimentally weathered particles were compared to microplastic particles collected from oceanic surface waters in the California Current, the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, and the transition region between the two, in order to estimate the exposure time of the oceanic plastics. Although chemical bonds exhibited some nonlinear changes with environmental exposure, they can potentially approximate the weathering time of some plastics, especially high-density polyethylene. The majority of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre polyethylene particles we measured have inferred exposure times > 18 months, with some > 30 months. Inferred particle weathering times are consistent with ocean circulation models suggesting a long residence time in the open ocean.
This chapter deals in mechanisms of polymer degradation and erosion. This chapter discusses the most important features of the degradation and erosion of degradable polymers in vitro. Parameters of chemical degradation, which is the scission of the polymer backbone are described, such as the type of polymer bond, pH and copolymer composition. Degradation finally leads to polymer erosion, the loss of material from the polymer bulk. The chapter also illustrates the resulting changes in morphology, pH, oligomer and monomer properties as well as crystallinity. Degradable materials are used for the local treatment of cancer, the development of vaccines, and the manufacture of nanoparticles with increased plasma half-life, self-regulated drug delivery systems, orthopaedic fixing devices, and the fight against organ failure. Finally, the chapter concludes with a brief survey on approaches to polymer degradation and erosion.
The permanent presence of microplastics in the marine environment is considered a global threat to
several marine animals. Heavy metals and microplastics are typically included in two different classes
of pollutants but the interaction between these two stressors is poorly understood. During 14 days of experimental manipulation, we examined the adsorption of two heavy metals, copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), leached from an antifouling paint to virgin polystyrene (PS) beads and aged polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fragments in seawater. We demonstrated that heavy metals were released from the antifouling paint to the water and both microplastic types adsorbed the two heavy metals. This adsorption kinetics was described using partition coefficients and mathematical models. Partition coefficients between pellets and water ranged between 650 and 850 for Cu on PS and PVC, respectively. The adsorption of Cu was significantly greater in PVC fragments than in PS, probably due to higher surface area and polarity of PVC. Concentrations of Cu and Zn increased significantly on PVC and PS over the course of the experiment with the exception of Zn on PS. As a result, we show a significant interaction between these types of microplastics and heavy metals, which can have implications for marine life and the environment. These results strongly support recent findings where plastics can play a key role as vectors for heavy metal ions in the marine system. Finally, our findings highlight the importance of monitoring marine litter and heavy metals, mainly associated with antifouling paints, particularly in the framework of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD).
The digestive tract contents of 263 individuals from 26 species of commercial fish were examined for microplastics. These were found in 17 species, corresponding to 19.8% of the fish of which 32.7% had ingested more than one microplastic. Of all the fish that ingested microplastics, 63.5% was benthic and 36.5% pelagic species. A total of 73 microplastics were recorded, 48 (65.8%) being fibres and 25 (34.2%) being fragments. Polymers were polypropylene, polyethylene, alkyd resin, rayon, polyester, nylon and acrylic. The mean of ingested microplastics was 0.27±0.63 per fish, (n=263). Pelagic fish ingested more particles and benthic fish ingested more fibres, but no significant differences were found. Fish with the highest number of microplastics were from the mouth of the Tagus river. Scomber japonicus registered the highest mean of ingested microplastics, suggesting its potential as indicator species to monitor and investigate trends in ingested litter, in the MSFD marine regions.
In the framework of the multicentre evaluation of in vitro cytotoxicity (MEIC) programme, the first ten chemicals of the prescribed list were tested for acute toxicity in four standardised cyst-based aquatic invertebrate tests, consisting of two rotifer species (the estuarine Brachionus plicatilis and the freshwater Brachionus calyciflorus) and two crustacean species (the halophilic anostracan Artemia salina and the freshwater anostracan Streptocephalus proboscideus). Mortality was the test criterion and toxic effects, expressed as 24-hour LC50 values, were correlated with rodent and human acute oral toxicity data. Generally, a good correlation was obtained between any of the invertebrate tests and the rodent data. Likewise, the predictive screening potential of the aquatic invertebrate tests for acute oral toxicity in man was slightly better than the rat test for eight (excluding diazepam and digoxin) and nine (including diazepam, excluding digoxin) of the ten substances. The aquatic test systems, however, appear to be more suitable for compounds soluble in water.
Microplastics have been found in seas all over the world. We hypothesize that sea salts might contain microplastics because they are directly supplied by seawater. To test our hypothesis, we collected 15 brands of sea salts, lake salts and rock/well salts from supermarkets throughout China. The microplastics content was 550-681 particles/kg in sea salts, 43-364 particles/kg in lake salts and 7-204 particles/kg in rock/well salts. In sea salts, fragments and fibers were the prevalent types of particles compared with pellets and sheets. Microplastics measuring less than 200 μm represented the majority of the particles, accounting for 55% of the total microplastics, and the most common microplastics were polyethylene terephthalate, followed by polyethylene and cellophane in sea salts. The abundance of microplastics in sea salts was significantly higher than that in lake salts and rock salts. This result indicates that sea products, such as sea salts, are contaminated by microplastics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on microplastic pollution in abiotic sea products.
The basic tenets for assessing health risks posed by nanoparticles (NP) requires documentation of hazards and the corresponding exposures that may occur. Accordingly, this review describes the range and types of potential human exposures that may result from interactions with titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles or NP – either in the occupational/workplace environment, or in consumer products, including food materials and cosmetics. Each of those applications has a predominant route of exposure. Very little is known about the human impact potential from environmental exposures to NP – thus this particular issue will not be discussed further. In the workplace or occupational setting inhalation exposure predominates. Experimental toxicity studies demonstrate low hazards in particle-exposed rats. Only at chronic overload exposures do rats develop forms of lung pathology. These findings are not supported by multiple epidemiology studies in heavily-exposed TiO2 workers which demonstrate a lack of correlation between chronic particle exposures and adverse health outcomes including lung cancer and noncancerous chronic respiratory effects. Cosmetics and sunscreens represent the major application of dermal exposures to TiO2 particles. Experimental dermal studies indicate a lack of penetration of particles beyond the epidermis with no consequent health risks. Oral exposures to ingested TiO2 particles in food occur via passage through the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), with studies indicating negligible uptake of particles into the bloodstream of humans or rats with subsequent excretion through the feces. In addition, standardized guideline-mandated subchronic oral toxicity studies in rats demonstrate very low toxicity effects with NOAELs of >1000 mg/kg bw/day. Additional issues which are summarized in detail in this review are: 1) Methodologies for implementing the Nano Risk Framework – a process for ensuring the responsible development of products containing nanoscale materials; and 2) Safe-handling of nanomaterials in the laboratory.
High concentrations of plastic debris have been observed in the oceans. Much of the recent concern has focussed on microplastics in the marine environment. Recent studies of the size distribution of the plastic debris suggested that continued fragmenting of microplastics into nano-sized particles may occur. In this review we assess the current literature on the occurrence of environmentally released micro- and nanoplastics in the human food production chain and their potential health impact. The currently used analytical techniques introduce a great bias in the knowledge, since they are only able to detect plastic particles well above the nano-range. We discuss the potential use of the very sensitive analytical techniques that have been developed for the detection and quantification of engineered nanoparticles. We recognize three possible toxic effects of plastic particles: firstly due to the plastic particles themselves, secondly to the release of persistent organic pollutant adsorbed to the plastics, and thirdly to the leaching of additives of the plastics. The limited data on microplastics in foods do not predict adverse effect of these pollutants or additives. Potential toxic effects of microplastic particles will be confined to the gut. The potential human toxicity of nanoplastics is poorly studied. Based on our experiences in nanotoxicology we prioritized future research questions.
Behavior is increasingly reported as a sensitive and early indicator of toxicant stress in aquatic organisms. However, the systematic understanding of behavioral effects and comparisons between effect profiles is hampered because the available studies are limited to few chemicals and differ in the exposure conditions and effect parameters examined. The aims of this study were (i) to explore behavioral responses of Daphnia magna exposed to different toxicants, (ii) to compare behavioral effect profiles with regard to chemical modes of action and (iii) to determine the sensitivity and response time of behavioral parameters in a new multi-cell exposure system named "Multi-DaphTrack" compared to currently utilized tests. Twelve compounds covering different modes of toxic action were selected to sample a wide range of potential effect profiles. Acute standard immobilization tests and 48 h of behavioral tracking were performed in the customized "Multi-DaphTrack" system and a single-cell commercialized biological early warning system (BEWS). Contrasting behavioral profiles were observed for average speed (i.e., intensity, time of effect onset, effect duration), but no distinct behavioral profiles could be drawn from the chemical mode of action. Most compounds tested in the "multi-DaphTrack" system induced an early and significant average speed increase at concentrations near or below the EC10 (48 h) of the acute immobilization test, demonstrating that the "Multi-DaphTrack" system is fast and sensitive. To conclude, behavior endpoints could be used as an alternative or complement to the current acute standard test or chemical analysis for the predictive evaluation of ecotoxic effects of effluents or water bodies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
The acute static bioassays with heavy metals at 13 ± 1.5 °C in hard water (total hardness = 240 ppm as CaCO 3 ) were conducted in the laboratory with Daphnia magna . The 48 hr LC values and their 95 per dent confidence limits in ppm of metal were: 0.0038 (0.0027… 0.0053) for Hg; 0.015 (0.009… 0.026) for Ag; 0.1 (0.063… 0.16) for Cu; 0.69 (0.48… 1.0) for Zn; 1.52 (1.01… 2.28) for Co; 1.8 (1.16… 2.70) for Cr; 1.5 (1.07… 2.1) for Cd; 2,63 (1.7… 4.08) for Pb; 7.3 (5.49… 9.71) for Ni and 19.5 (13.45… 28.3) for Sn. At the close of 24 h of exposure Zn and Cd solutions showed milky white precipitation. The order of toxicity of heavy metals in this model was: Hg>Ag>Cu>Zn>Cd>Co>Cr>Pb>Ni>Sn.
Comparison of D. magna and mouse LC 50 data showed that Daphnia were sensitive at 1/2710, 1/83, 1/123 and 1/5.5, the LC 50 values of Hg, Cu and Zn, respectively.
Toxicity test with D. magna is simple, requiring less space, time, facilities, acclimatization time and equipment. Furthermore, Daphnia is more functional, reliable and gives reproducible results. Based on this data we believe the Daphnia magna model can be used as a model to study heavy metal toxicity.
Poly(ethylene terephthalate) is used in numerous industrial applications. Successful medical applications are in the area of cardiovascular surgery. Its chemical functionality makes it propitious to grafting biochemical compounds;surface modification by plasma treatment may also be used to improve biocompatibility and modify wettingproperties. The analyzed specimen was a commercial film (Mylar A). The main C 1s region was decomposed into three main components which were clearly identified on the recorded spectrum: 284.8, 286.4, and 288.8 eV attributed, respectively, to carbon only bound to carbon and hydrogen [ C ¯ –(C,H)], carbon making a single bond with oxygen [ C ¯ –O] and carbon of ester [ C ¯ OO]. Satellite peaks were found at 291.3, 293.5, and 295.8 eV. The molar ratios C ¯ –(C,H): C ¯ – O: C ¯ OO were 3:0.92:0.91 excluding the satellite peaks, to be compared with the expected values of 3:1:1. The O 1s peak showed two partially resolved components at 531.6 [ O ¯ =C–O] and 533.3 eV [O=C– O ¯ ] with a satellite at 538.2 eV. The O:C ratio was 27.8:72.2, to be compared with the expected values of 28.6:71.4. The FWHM of the main C 1s components was in the range of 0.90 to 1.23 eV depending on the component and the mode of decomposition; the FWHM of O 1s components was about 1.40 eV.
Video microscopy and digital image processing were utilized to study physiological functions in transparent animals. The following applications will be discussed: (a) in the spider Pholcus phalangioides (1) image analysis showing interactions between heart and midgut activity and (2) imaging of the transition of blood from the closed arterial to the open venous system by injection experiments and of the structure of the open blood spaces in the legs by analysing blood cell movements; (b) image analysis of limb movements showing a lack of hypoxic ventilatory control as well as measurements of whole animal oxygen equilibrium curves in the water flea Daphnia magna; and (c) image analysis of ventilatory and circulatory convection showing a lack of adaptations to hypoxia in the larvae of the North Sea fish Agonus cataphractus.
Students commonly test the effects of chemical agents on the heart rate of the crustacean Daphnia magna, but the procedure has never been optimized. We determined the effects of three concentrations of ethanol, nicotine, and caffeine and of a control solution on heart rate in Daphnia. Ethanol at 5% and 10% (v/v) reduced mean heart rate to ∼50% and ∼20% of its initial value, respectively. Recovery was rapid after removing 5% ethanol, but recovery from 10% ethanol took 20–30 minutes. Nicotine at 100 µM reversibly increased mean heart rate by ∼20%. Higher concentrations produced varied and sometimes irreversible effects. Caffeine at 0.1%, 0.5%, and 2% (w/v) had no convincing effect on heart rate. Of the three agents tested, nicotine's peculiar effects make it the least useful in an educational setting. Caffeine could be used to emphasize the need for blind observers because it does not increase heart rate in Daphnia. If students find that it does, their bias is revealed. Ethanol produces unambiguous effects at 5% and 10%. Heart rates recover quickly after removing 5% ethanol, which allows students to explore reversibility as an alternative to having a separate control group.
Microplastics are present in marine habitats worldwide and laboratory studies show this material can be ingested, yet data on abundance in natural populations is limited. This study documents microplastics in 10 species of fish from the English Channel. 504 Fish were examined and plastics found in the gastroin-testinal tracts of 36.5%. All five pelagic species and all five demersal species had ingested plastic. Of the 184 fish that had ingested plastic the average number of pieces per fish was 1.90 ± 0.10. A total of 351 pieces of plastic were identified using FT-IR Spectroscopy; polyamide (35.6%) and the semi-synthetic cel-lulosic material, rayon (57.8%) were most common. There was no significant difference between the abundance of plastic ingested by pelagic and demersal fish. Hence, microplastic ingestion appears to be common, in relatively small quantities, across a range of fish species irrespective of feeding habitat. Further work is needed to establish the potential consequences.